ON AGRICULTURE.

THE numerous volumes which have al­ready been published on agriculture, by authors of the greatest abilities and expe­rience, render it in some measure, a kind of presumption to attempt making public any further observations and experiments.—But when I reflect that agriculture is not reduced to a regular system (especially in this coun­try) or arrived at that degree of perfection which other arts, manufactures, and sciences have attained;—and as it is universally ac­knowledged, that every person who contri­butes, or endeavours to contribute to the [Page 12] public good, deserves applause; I trust that such observations and improvements as tend to promote the public welfare, will be deem­ed worthy of some attention.

Activity and inclination, induced me to make practical agriculture and improvements in husbandry, my amusement and principal study: and having studied most authors in that science, and their experiments and maxims laid down, enables my proving which are most advantageous; and as I entertain the opi­nion that every member of society ought to communicate what he has discovered, induces me to publish the present treatise, which I have endeavoured to write in such plain language as may suit the meanest capacity. The multi­plicity of improvements that are now making in arts, sciences, mechanics and manufac­tures in this country, should animate the farmer to be no less attentive to agriculture; which is so necessary for the subsistence and welfare of mankind, in this and every other country.—The most illustrious heroes, philo­sophers and poets among the ancients, studi­ed to encourage, improve, and even practi­sed agriculture. The most noble Roman consuls and dictators, were taken from the plough. The senators of that once flourishing people, and the most learned men of all ages, [Page 13] made agriculture their chief study and em­ployment; esteeming it to be the original and genuine source of the strength, wealth and prosperity of every nation.

The noble and most learned and ingenious men of the present age, animated with the public welfare, have condescended not only to study and practise agriculture, but likewise to encourage and promote this noblest of arts with indefatigable zeal. It is to such men of understanding and liberal sentiments, the pub­lic are indebted for the very great improve­ments made in agriculture and all other arts.

Every man whose natural abilities have been cultivated by education, should certain­ly study the improvement of such arts and sciences, as tend to promote the public wel­fare.

Man was not born merely to eat, drink, sleep, or to spend his time in hunting, shoot­ing, gaming, idleness, dissipation, and sensual gratifications; but to be industrious and use­ful to society; and ought to leave some re­cord of his actions as a testimonical of his en­deavours, at least to be useful to the present and future generations.

[Page 14]Men pursue different objects as their incli­nations and fancies lead them; but of all the arts, agriculture, when properly conducted, is one of the most useful, profitable, pleasing, rational and healthful amusements in life.

The agriculturist, while riding or walking round his farm, fully enjoys the sweet refresh­ing breeze, so necessary to the preservation of his health; and while he attends to his bu­siness, may entertain himself with rural sports, every field and experiment present new ob­jects to his view; pleasing researches into the works of providence: such as the differ­ent forms and growth of plants and grain: analizing the great diversity of soils and ma­nures, that he may thereby ascertain their properties, and be best enabled to destroy the particles injurious to vegetation, and enrich the ground.

The practice of husbandry requires pre­cept, reflection and study. Agriculture can­not be benefitted by theory alone; but when theory is united with repeated experiments and facts, agriculture, as all other arts, may be reduced to a regular system.

The operation of manures on different soils, may be accounted from their known [Page 15] properties, ascertained by repeated experi­ments.

Hence, every agriculturist ought to study and know the qualities of different soils, as well as manures, that they may be properly applied to each other. This science I deem to be one of the most useful of all human arts: is similar to a physician's knowing the cause of diseases, the properties of medicines, and their most effectual applications.

The practice of agriculture is in general confined, either to persons who have not had a sufficient education to enable them to keep regular accounts, or who are inattentive and do not choose to take that trouble; without which, it is impossible to ascertain the profits and loss thereon—hence they cannot possi­bly attain the truth.

The farmer should be very particular in keeping regular accounts; if he cannot keep the produce of each field separate, he will find but very little trouble to cut two square per­ches of the best, and the same quantity of the worst part of his crop, which carried into the barn and threshed out, will employ but little time; if he will proportion the amount of the perches so cut, to 160, (which [Page 16] an acre contains) the produce per acre of such field may be easily ascertained, and should be immediately minuted in his book; he will be soon convinced of the utility of keeping regular accounts; he will thereby be best instructed whether two or three plow­ings or more, if manured with lime, ashes, dung, or composts, when applied, with the quantity per acre; the time of sowing, and the course of crops preceding, are the most advantageous.

Should the amount of so small a quantity as four perches of land be difficult to calcu­late by measure, it may be easily weighed, and proportioned according to the weight of a bushel of the same produce: these calculati­ons may be expeditiously made when the hurry of the day is over, or in wet weather, when other business does not interfere. By minuting and registering such accounts in a regular manner, they can be referred to at any future period: the agriculturalist will thereby be enabled to avoid the wrong, and to pursue the best and most advantageous method. Such a plan will soon become ha­bitual, amusing, instructive and profitable.

Enabled from my own experience, the re­gular accounts I have kept of each separate [Page 17] field, and observations made on the mode of other farmers cultivation; I may venture to assert, that many real losses are sustained by improper management: such for instance, not plowing so deep as the nature of the soil will admit, or not allowing a sufficient num­ber of plowings and harrowings to pulverize and clear the land of weeds; the application of raw dung, unmixed with earth immedi­ately for the crop, harbouring and nourishing insects and weeds, which greatly injure and often destroy the crops of grain, not introdu­cing a meliorating, but an improper succession of impoverishing crops.

Most authors on agriculture have been too complex and ambiguous; but the accounts of my experiments in this treatise, will suffici­ently elucidate the forms I have made use of, which I deem to be the most simple, easy, and best adapted to the meanest capacity.

Farmers may be possessed of great natural abilities, and knowledge in the common mode of their ancestors; but every farmer is not a scholar, mechanic, chemist, or philo­sopher. Their knowledge, and the methods they pursue in general, extend no further than that of their predecessors, or the custom of the country where they reside. Any dis­coveries [Page 18] made by them are reserved to them­selves, and themselves only benefited by it; but men of ingenious and liberal dispositions, no sooner make discoveries, than they are communicated to the public.

Experiments can be of little use when ex­tended no further than for our own private instruction; and reasoning without experi­ments avail but little in the practical arts; theory without practice, is similar to a sha­dow without substance; but when reasoning is founded on science combined with experi­ments minutely attended to, it is from thence only the ingenious artist or agriculturist is en­abled to draw such conclusions as are of real utility.

The great and general ambition of farm­ers is to occupy large farms; the more they possess, the greater consequence they think themselves of; but one acre of land, properly managed, will produce more than four, by improper cultivation.

Were farmers to occupy no more ground than they could cultivate in a masterly man­ner, there would not be that general com­plaint of scanty crops, or of the land being worn out; for there is no land of any sort [Page 19] whatever, (which has a sufficient depth of mould for plowing) but what may be ren­dered fertile by prudent cultivation, and the application of proper manures; and in proportion to their different degrees of na­tural richness, be managed in such manner as to produce luxuriant and profitable crops of some species of vegetables: and that by bad conduct good soils oftentimes produce but very scanty crops; when the blame is too fre­quently imputed to their natural poverty. Hence, for instance, in the brewing of beer, or the baking of bread, the materials may be of the very best quality, yet, from the want of care and proper management, both are spoiled, or greatly injured; so it is with land.

The wearing out of land is occasioned by a continual cropping, taking off the crops, and giving it no return or rest, which should be given by sowing in rotation suculent gras­ses or pulse—such as clover, timothy, lu­cern, saintfoin, trefoil, tears, vetches, peas and beans, to recover that etherial spirit of the world, which is lost by improper manage­ment.

For this globe of the earth that affords unto us the substance not only of ourselves, [Page 20] but of all creatures sublunary, is impregna­ted with a spirit most subtile and etherial, which the Original or Father of nature has placed in this world as the instrument of life, and motion of every thing. The spirit is that which incessantly administers to every animal its generation, life, growth and motion; to every vegetable its original and vegetation. It is a vehicle that carries with it the sulphu­rious and saline parts, whereof the matter, substance, or body of all vegetables and ani­mals are formed and composed.—It is the operator or workman that transmutes by its active heat, the sulphurious and saline parts of the earth or water into that variety of objects we daily behold or enjoy. It con­tinually perspires through the pores of the earth, carrying with it the sulphurious and saline parts, the only treasure the farmer seeks for.

Providence most wonderfully assists the industry of man, by celestial and atmos­pherical influences, which greatly tend to enrich the earth, and to promote vegetation.

As the qualities of all soils vary considera­bly, every agriculturist ought to make him­self well acquainted with the nature of his land, as also the property of manures; a ju­dicious [Page 21] application of which, with a proper course of crops and thorough tillage, are the chief and grand secrets of agriculture.

And, in order that the agriculturist may be enabled to obtain a greater knowledge of the properties of different soils and manures, as well as other parts of husbandry, I will first proceed to their analysis, so far as is necessa­ry and really useful.

The application of certain substances to analise soils and manures.

1st.—Distil a sufficient quantity of water, or use pure rain water, which has been re­ceived in the open air, at a distance from smoke or dust; in which infuse the earth for­ty-eight hours in a gentle heat, stirring it of­ten; when cold, and the earth has subsided, filter the water, which will retain the taste of any metallic or earthy salt.— Or,

2d.—Drop into the above filtrated infusi­on, the solution of fixed vegetable alkali; if there be any metallic or earthy salt, it will pre­cipitate.

[Page 22]3d—Evaporate the infusion; if it con­tains any neutral salt, it will crystallize.

4th.—To the filtrated infusion, apply an infusion of galls; if there be any earthy or me­tallic salt, the colour will be read, if alum or copper; a deep purple, if iron.

5th—To the filtrated infusion, apply the syrop of violets; if it turns red, the soil contains an acid; if green, an absorbent earth.

☞ All acid bodies effervesce violently when mixed with alkaline substances, and turn a blue tincture of violets red; whereas alkaline substances mixed with the same tincture, turn it green.

6th.—Clay or earth containing calcareous earth, put into vinegar will effervesce, and blunt or destroy the acidity, in proportion to the quantity of calcareous earth contained therein.

7th.—Red and blackish soils frequently contain iron or other metallic particles, which may be visibly discovered by a micriscope, and may be perceived to glitter, by being ex­posed to the sun's rays.

[Page 23]☞ All metallic and earthy salts are poi­sonous to vegetation, which with acids, are decomposed by quick lime, alkaline manures, and good tillage.

8th.—Clay and earths, dried and pow­dered, thrown on fused nitre, if a few sparks are produced, it contains a small quantity of oil, and according to the increase of deflagra­tion and detonation, so, in proportion is the richness of the land.

9th.—Dry and powder rotten dung; throw it on fused nitre, its detonation and deflagra­tion will be very great.

☞ Nitre will melt in the fire and grow red hot; is not inflammable of itself, but when oil or any substance containing oily particles, is added to it, it will detonate and deflagrate, in proportion to the quantity of oil contained therein.

10th.—Marle exposed in the open air, will fall into powder, or put into pure rain water will dissolve; it will blunt the acidity of vinegar.

☞ As clays cannot be discovered from marle by its appearance, the above experiments [Page 24] will discover it, as the effects will be entirely opposite.

11th.—Quick lime yields neither salt nor oil by distillation; but when mixed with the soil, it strongly attracts moisture, saline, and oily substances, which with metallic particles and acids, are decomposed and dissolved by lime.

12th—Chalk fresh dug, yields neither oil nor salt by distillation; but when mixed with the soil, attracts oils and salts; effervesces with, and absorbs acids.

13th—Pitcoal ashes by distillation or infu­sion, yields neither oil nor salt, but attracts moisture, absorbs acidities, greatly lightens and adds friablity to stiff cold soils under tillage.

14th—Wood, and all other vegetable ash­es, boiled, or infused in water, yield a fix­ed alkaline salt by evaporation.

15th—Urine yields oils and salts by di­stillation or sublimation.

16th—In order that I might be enabled to form some idea of the effects of the atmosphecal [Page 25] influences on soils, in the month of Octo­ber I pared the turf from a very poor loamy earth, and dug up about three quarts, which was divided into three flat pans. No. 1 was put into a close place secured from the air: No. 2 was placed in an open situation, so as to be exposed to the sun the whole day: No. 3 was placed near a wall with a north­east aspect, where it only received the bene­fit of the morning sun till ten o'clock. The mould in each pan was carefully turned with a trowel six times in twelve months, when I took a teaspoonful out of each pan; the earth was pulverized and dried, and thrown on fused nitre.—No. 1 produced but a few sparks; No. 2 produced twice as many with a feeble detonation; No. 3 detonated and de­flagrated twice as strong as No. 2. Hence I concluded from these experiments, that No. 1 being excluded from the atmosphere receiv­ed no benefit, that the atmospherical influen­ces imbibed by No. 2 were exaled by the rays of the sun, which operated on it the whole day—that No. 3 being shaded the greatest part of the day from the sun, it more effectually retained the atmospherical influences which it had imbibed, than No. 2, which was expo­sed to the sun.

[Page 26]Hence I presume, and am fully convinced, that all tilled lands are greatly benefitted by the effects of air, rain, dew and frost; and that the more the ground is shaded by the crops thereon, the less the exalation; of course the more the moisture and oily particles are retained therein, and the greater is the pu­trid fermentation, particularly arising from esculent plants.

The principles, of agriculture are deduced from mechanics, chemistry and natural phi­losophy.

Of MECHANICS.

Mechanics are a branch of practical ma­thematics, which consider the nature and laws of motion and moving powers, with their effects in machines, which are made subservient to the various purposes of man­kind; and it is by the knowledge of this sci­ence, that the greatest improvements are made of every power and force in nature; by which any work may be more expediti­ously executed, and at the least expence.

In all well-managed manufactories, the smallest savings of expence in materials, as [Page 27] well as labour, are never neglected. Those articles which may appear trifling and very inconsiderable at first sight, must, on a small scale, in a few years, or in an extensive line of business in one year, amount to a very considerable sum. Therefore, why should not agriculture admit of a similar compari­son with manufactures?—This art is cer­tainly of more real consequence to the com­munity.

The very great advantages derived from machines in manufactures, invented by in­genious men of the first abilities in that line, are sufficiently known.

The great and good effects of new inven­tions in mechanics, are, by the wisdom of the legislature well secured; individuals are protected against the oppressions, and unju­stifiable combinations of avaricious and ser­vile imitators; who may be compared to the drone supported by the labors of the industri­ous bee.—Such security to inventions, en­courages the ingenious artist to risque his la­bour and property in new and useful at­tempts.

Of CHEMISTRY.

Chemistry is an art by which mixed bo­dies are separated, or reduced into their com­ponent parts; thereby the several properties of soils and manures are discovered, that such manures may be applied, as will de­stroy any bad qualities that prove hurtful and poisonous to vegetation, and which fertilize the soil.

As all lands differ materially in their qua­lities, so different manures should be accord­ingly applied.

SOILS.

A sandy soil, as well as gravels, have no cohesion of their parts. They too readily admit the heat of the sun to the roots of the plants, by which they are scorched and de­stroyed; and has not sufficient tenacity to af­ford security against severe colds and hard frosts. Sand, without the mixture of earth, contains no oleaginous or other particles, that can contribute to vegetation; rain and moi­sture pass through it too easily to afford nou­rishment [Page 29] for plants; therefore the dung of horned cattle and hogs (which is rich and cooling) mixed with mud, clay or marle, is the most cohesive and enriching manure, will the longest retain moisture, and at the same time convey proper nourishment; hence it is best adapted to such soils;—and in proporti­on to the quantity mixed with the sand, its tenacity and vegetative properties are encrea­sed or decreased.

Green crops of turnips, buck-wheat, clover, or any other succulent grasses, tares, or vetch­es, plowed in, or fed with sheep hurdled there­on, greatly enrich such soils—Green crops when plowed in, should be immediately roll­ed with a heavy roller, which consolidates the loosened earth, causes a speedy fermentation, produces a mucilaginous matter, which gives tenacity to the soil, and is converted into nourishment for plants.

Of a CLAY SOIL.

Clayey soils differ as materially as sandy soils. The oleaginous and earthy particles of some kinds of clay, are so closely combi­ned as to retain water, which is permitted to escape only by evaporation.—All sorts of [Page 30] clayey soils contain more or less oil, in propor­tion to its tenacity.

A tough clay retains moisture so much as to rot the seeds and roots of plants. Clay does not admit the free access of heat and air (which are essentially necessary for promoting vegetation) and it is so baked and hardened by the heat of the sun, as to prevent the tender roots and fibres of plants from extending them­selves in search of food. Hence such manures as will open its pores, destroy its adhesion and correct its bad qualities, should be applied. Lime, and coal or wood ashes mixed with lime, are best adapted for clayey and stiff soils under the plow.

Of a LOAMY SOIL.

Loam is a medium between light and stiff soils; differs in quality as materially as ei­ther.

Black and hazel colored soils are generally the richest, and most proper for the support of vegetables, as they contain a sufficient de­gree of cohesion, and at the same time are so friable, as readily to admit the roots and fi­bres [Page 31] of plants to extend themselves in search of nourishment.

Red and other coloured soils generally con­tain a mixture of iron, copper or lead, or some acid which is poisonous to vegetation. A proper application of quick lime (as here­after directed, with an increase of quantity, as exigencies may require,) will effectually dissolve and destroy those pernicious particles, which, with the assistance of dung and suffi­cient plowings, will render the most barren soils fertile.

It must be remarked that according to the quantity of metallic particles impregnated with the soil, so in proportion should the quantity of lime be accordingly appli­ed.

Of SWAMPS and BOGGY SOILS.

Swamps and bogs generally consist of rotten trees, roots of weeds, and other half-dissolved vegetable substances, which having undergone some degree of putrefaction, are (similar to all corrupted vegetables) turned into a black, rich, spungy kind of earth that readily imbibes moisture; and its spunginess [Page 32] arises more or less, in proportion to the quan­tity of mud or slime carried over it by floods, which with the acid contained in the stagna­ted moisture prevent a complete putrefacti­on.

The first thing necessary to be done, in or­der to improve swampy and boggy ground, —is to make drains of a sufficient depth to carry off the stagnated waters, as their surface are a composition of moss, fibrous roots and coarse grass, they should be pared (to such depth as the roots penetrate) and burnt; such ashes abound with alkaline salts which, must be spread over the land—where lime can be conveninently procured, eighty bu­shels per acre, should be laid on in piles of about half a bushel to a perch, and as soon as slacked, it must be spread over the ashes (for the reason that will be assigned under the ar­ticle wood ashes) which should be plowed in, not more than four or five inches deep. By this method a fermentation and putrefac­tion will ensue, and after being exposed a few weeks to the influences of the atmosphere, the surface should be worked with loaded harrows, which will tear asunder, and mix the lime and ashes with the soil. The vege­table substances contained therein will soon [Page 33] be dissolved, and converted into an exceeding rich and fertilizing manure.

The specific gravity of lime and other ma­nures are so great, as to be continually falling downwards; therefore it is essentially necessa­ry that the first plowing should not exceed the depth of four or five inches.

The second plowing should be to form the ridges, by which the ashes and lime that were plowed in, will be turned upwards, and after being thoroughly incorporated with the soil by harrowing, may be planted with potatoes or such other vegetables as may best suit the judicious husbandman's inclinati­on.

As swampy and boggy lands are generally light and spungy, an addition of marle, clay, or loam will add cohesion to their parts, and will, in a very short time, most amply re­pay the agriculturist.

Of MANURES.

Lime, quick or unslacked, contains no salt; when slacked, attracts oils, acids and salts, from the earth and atmosphere. Clayey and other soils when first broken up or plowed, contain various mineral and poisonous parti­cles, weeds, worms, grubs and insects; all which lime dissolves. The oils and salts ab­sorbed from the earth and atmosphere, then become so intimately united with the animal and vegetable substances already dissolved by the lime, as to be converted into a soapy mat­ter, by which they are rendered miscible with water, and become the food of vegetables. Lime, by its expansive force, opens, divides, and lightens a stiff soil, by which it is easier pulverized, and gives a greater friability to stiff soils, than any other substance whatever. It is thus the roots of plants are permitted to extend themselves.

Lime, when too frequently and injudici­ously used, is a great impoverisher of lands kept long under tillage. It exhausts the earth by absorbing its oily particles; hence, the soil is rendered barren. The only remedy for such misconduct, by which the soil can be [Page 35] restored, is a compost of rotten dung or earth, or scrapings of a lime-stone road and dung, twice turned and properly mixed; or a thick crop of buck-wheat, clover, vetches, or tur­nips plowed in, and rolled with a heavy roll­er: such management will soon recruit the soil, and restore it to its proper vigor.

Lime, when properly and judiciously ap­plied, ranks first among the class of manures, particularly for all sorts of stiff and loamy soils.

Of DUNG.

Dung of all sorts contains salts and oils. The dung of horses, hogs and sheep, is the hottest and best adapted for stiff and cold soils.

Human ordure, the dung of poultry and rabbits, are all extremely hot and rich; but are procured in such small quantities, as not to merit the husbandman's particular attention. Hence should be mixed with other dung or earth.

[Page 36]The dung of horned cattle is fat and cooling; therefore most proper for light, san­dy and gravelly lands.

When dung is carried into the field, where it is intended to be used, the highest headlands and banks should be plowed or dug, and the dung deposited thereon, with earth thrown over. The head-land being plowed and pul­verized, will readily absorb the essence of the dung; and whatever quantity of the dissolv­ed salts and oils, that may be washed off by successive heavy rains, will be carried over, and greatly enrich that part of the field ad­joining to the dung, as the head-lands are ge­nerally the highest and richest parts of the ground, the earth being mixed with the dung will make a good compost; and for twenty loads of dung when spread on by itself, ten loads by being thus managed, will prove nearly if not equally as advantageous as when dung only is laid on. Hence, two acres of land, in lieu of one, or in proportion, may every year be manured, exclusive of the ad­vantage of making the land even.

Of FARM-YARDS and COMPOSTS.

The middle or center of the farm-yard should be two feet lower than the border, by this the urine and essence of the dung will be saved, which otherwise are liable to be carried off by the rains; a pool or reservoir should be made on the lowest ground adjoin­ing, to receive the superfluous drainings; which if sprinkled over the land with a wa­tering pot will be a good dressing.—In this yard should be put a stratum of about six inch­es of rich earth, ant-hills, scrapings of roads, sweepings of filth round the buildings, leaves of trees, corn-stalks, thistles and coarse weeds, and all other articles that can be converted in­to manure over which throw your stable dung and all the refuse straw. This yard should have a wall or close fence eight or nine feet high, with sheds against it, to keep the cattle warm and dry, and racks and mangers under them as well as cribs in the middle disposed regularly to entice the cattle to go over all parts alike, in this yard the whole stock of cattle should be turned to brouse on hay or straw every night; in the day time they can be turned into grass, turnips, or what feed you have for them. Those different articles [Page 38] will rot and imbime the essence of the dung laid on, as well as what the cattle make— when convenient opportunities permit of de­positing alternate stratums in this manner, an exceeding good compost is made at a small ex­pence.

The foddering of the cattle in winter on this compost, will increase and enrich it; and in hot weather there should frequently be laid a thin layer of mould over it, to prevent the sun from exhaling from it any of its proper­ties, and it should be turned and mixed before it is put on the land.

Human urine and soap suds (which in ge­neral are thrown away) if they were put on this compost, would pay the farmer some pounds every year.

MUD and LIME.

Good fat mud from rivers or the bottom of pools or ponds mixed with lime, makes a good compost for all sorts of lands.—To four loads of mud, (spread regularly to the size intended for the compost heap) put twen­ty bushels of quick lime spread over the mud, [Page 39] —and so on alternately, to the quantity you would wish to make.—The mud to be the last layer or stratum.

This should be done in the fall, for it to lay in that state all winter—in the spring it should be turned and well mixed; at midsum­mer give it another turning, when it will be ready to put on the land for wheat; ten loads to an acre is the quantity. I have had better crops of wheat by this management than my neighbours, who have put the same quantity of stable dung on their land.

BURNT-CLAY.

Burnt-clay is an absorbent, and acts nearly similar to lime, but not so powerfully. The method of burning it is as follows:

Get eight loads of clay, cut into spits, about as thick as a brick; let it be pretty will dried in the sun, and having made a heap of brush and other wood, coal or other combustibles, laid one upon another about as large as a small bon-fire, in a pyramidical form, bring the spits of clay, and lay them round the same, two or three spits thick, leaving only room to put in the fire; and then light the same. The [Page 40] clay, by the innate heat of the wood, &c. within, will soon take fire, and as it advances outwards, still lay on more spits of clay, pla­cing them in such an order, so that the fire may be pent up within the heap, and never suffered to get out; for if you do, your labour will be lost, and you must begin again.

After you have burnt up your eight loads of dry clay, the heat which is within, will be so great, as that it will fire any thing, and then you may lay on the clay green as it is dug out of the pit, being always watchful to keep a new addition of it; laying on one af­ter another; but not too fast, least you smo­ther the fire, and put it out: this you may enlarge and spread out at the feet, as the heap swells; and if occasion be, there may be stages of boards laid, on which the men may stand who place the spits of clay. This being done, and the fire kept continually in, and watched night and day, you will soon have as large a heap as you please for the im­provement of land; for the larger the heap grows, the easier it is to burn the clay. This is a most cheap dressing for arable or grass land, and not only agrees with all sorts of lands and situations: but also laid about the roots of young or old fruit-trees, pretty thick, [Page 41] enlarges, multiplies, and accelerates their fruit.

Of WOOD ASHES.

Wood ashes contain alkaline salts and ab­sorbent earth, attract moisture and inflamma­ble matter from the atmosphere, and keep the earth in an open state. Lime deprives wood ashes and other alkalines of their fixed air, increases their purposes of a caustic, and ena­bles them more readily to dissolve oils and mucilaginous particles.

Wood and all other vegetable ashes, from whatever vegetables they have been produ­ced, are of one and the same quality for the purposes of agriculture; and should (when conveniencies permit) be kept perfectly dry till they are used; when exposed to the rains, the salts are washed out, and of course, the ashes are not so efficacious.

Of SOOT.

Soot is a composition of fixed and volatile alkaline salts, oils, and a small quantity of calcareous earth, arising from the fuel, with [Page 42] the smoak, or may be rather deemed the smoak itself, gathered and fixed on the side of chimnies.

Soot is a most excellent top dressing for grain of all sorts, and for cold stiff pastures; it destroys moss and kills insects. When it can be procured on reasonable terms, it is a cheap and effectual manure; but should never be applied in a dry season, as it will injure the blades of grain or grass. The most pro­per quantity is from twenty-five to thirty bushels per acre, sowed early in the spring, before rain, which wash it off the leaves of the plants into the ground: and its sudden effects will soon be perceived, by the deep green and luxuriant growth of the crops.

Of COMMON SALT.

Common salt produced from sea-water and springs, is originally the same; differs in strength and some other qualities, according to the operation by which it is made; the quicker the liquor is evaporated, the weaker is the salt: when the liquor is evaporated over a strong fire, part of the strength or acid of the salt is raised with it. Hence, the more gentle the process, the stronger is [Page 43] the salt. Salt of itself is not beneficial to vegetation; when decomposed by being mix­ed with a proper compost, it may then assist to promote vegetation.

Of SEA SAND.

Sea sand is a good manure for all lands and soils, particularly light sandy lands. When carried immediately from such parts of the shores as are daily overflowed by the tides, it is saturated with strong salts of an al­kaline nature, and putrid matters which the sea-water contains; it adds tenacity to such light soils, by the putrid saline particles at­tracting and retaining moisture, which hav­ing undergone no operation of the fire, con­veys its original properties in their natural state. Hence it differs materially from com­mon salt.

Of SEA WEEDS.

Sea weeds contain alkaline salts and muci­lage; they should never be applied without being first mixed with lime and earth to fer­ment and putrefy; or with earth to ferment and putrefy—when burnt, they yield an excel­lent [Page 44] manure called kelp, containing vitrifiale earth, and a very strong alkali; soluble in wa­ter, it acts as vegetable ashes.

Weeds and offals of a garden or field, when burnt, produce alkaline salts and absorbent earth; if not burnt, should be mixed with the compost dunghill,—when the seeds of the weeds are formed, it is essentially necessary the weeds should be burnt, to prevent their seeds from ripening, and being conveyed in­to the ground with the manure; as couch and some other weeds vegetate at every joint or knot, they likewise should be burnt.

Of SHELLS of SEA FISH.

Shells of sea fish and all others, are com­posed of calcarous earth and salts, when ap­plied in their natural state, continue a long time without dissolving. When burnt, they make a strong lime more efficacious than stone lime—and as great quantities of oyster shells may be collected in the country, and the farmer can burn them with a tri­fling expence, it will make a cheap and lasting manure for clayey and loamy soils.

Of CHALK.

Chalk is an absorbent earth, containing nei­ther oil or salts; but when incorporated with the earth, it attracts acids, oils and salts, there­by enriching the soil; but as chalk doth not abound so plentifully in this country as it does in others, I shall not treat so largely on it as otherwise I should.

OF MARLE.

Marle is composed of lime, clay and sand; is increased in value according to the quanti­ty of lime it contains, and is best adapted for sands and light soils. The quantity is from forty to eighty loads per acre, in proportion to the lightness of the land.

OF BRICK AND LIME RUBBISH.

Brick and lime rubbish are good manures for cold arable lands; are absorbents, and lighten the soils.

OF SAW DUST, TANNERS BARK, &c.

Saw dust, tanners bark and rotten leaves are best for the compost dunghill; as well as the apple pulp, after being prest for cyder; therefore should be carried into the farm yard, as it is good for all soils.

OF ANT HILLS.

Ants are evidently known to be very inju­rious to lands, particularly pastures, and great destroyers of fruit. Observations instruct me that they multiply and increase most in cold, clayey, or such other soils as contain the greatest acidity; the hills they raise, pro­duce but a very small quantity of such coarse grass, as no animal choose to eat. The longer these hills are permitted to remain on the soil, the more they are extended over the surface, and increase in number. Hence, the ground they occupy is so much land lost to the farmer; and on lands that are mowed, these hills and hillocks quickly blunt the edge of the mower's scythe. The heavy falls of autumnal rains that saturate the earth, oblige these sagacious but injurious insects to ascend [Page 47] from under the surface of the ground, into a higher situation in their mansions, which are most conveniently constructed for their resi­dence and defence from rains.—The vernal heat of the sun does also influence them to occupy their upper appartments; these are the seasons best adapted for their destruction.

In the months of November or December, when the earth is frequently filled with wa­ter, their hills should be pared off lower than the surface, and carried into the farm yard to the compost dunghill, or mixed with lime, where the eggs and insects will be convert­ed into a rich manure. Should any of the ants remain, the rain and frost will destroy them, or sow some fresh slacked lime over, which will effectually destroy them and soon produce a sweet herbage.

In the months of April or May, as the heat increases, these insects are also influen­ced to ascend their upper apartments, for to enjoy the sun's enlivening powers; at such seasons, they and their hills should be cut, carried off, and managed as before directed. The bare spots should be sowed with grass seeds and white clover, raked in, which will soon vegetate.

[Page 48]Three advantages result from such con­duct; the land is made even, the insects are destroyed, and a rich addition, far superior to common earth, is procured for the compost dung-hill.

OF WOOLEN RAGS, &c.

Woolen rags, cuttings of leather, particu­larly the refuse of skinners and tanners yards; with hair, and bones ground or powdered, are exceeding good manures, containing muci­lage, oils, and alkaline salts, and will suit all sorts of lands.

OF DEAD ANIMALS.

Dead animals should be buried in the dung-hill, where they will putrify, and greatly enrich it; they contain oil and salts.

OF URINE.

Human and animal urine are composed of water, oil and salt. Human urine should be carefully preserved in casks or tubs, and if [Page 49] not used by itself as a manure, should be thrown on the dunghill. All kinds of urine, when recently applied, are very acrid, and ra­ther hurtful to vegetation. When stale, their acrid properties are corrected by fermentati­on, and then they contribute greatly to fer­tilization.

Stale urine, and the draining from the dunghill, are greatly preferable to dung for fruit trees, as penetrating better to their roots, and not harboring insects; whereas dung se­cretes worms and insects, that are conveyed to the roots of the trees with the dung, which mixed with the mould undergo a second fer­mentation; and thereby the worms and in­sects acquire such strength, as to make the tender roots and fibres of the trees part of their food.—Hence trees being deprived of a great part of their grand resources, (which are conveyed to them through the pores or mouths of every root and fibre) become dis­eased, and frequently die. Another disad­vantage attends the application of dung and dead animals to the roots of trees; these manures are very improper, as they harbour worms and insects, that attract moles and other vermin, which do much injury, by breaking the roots and tender fibres of the plants, and by making hollow passages, which [Page 50] admit the cold air and frosts in winter, and the scorching heat in summer. Hence trees and plants become sickly, and are render­ed incapable of producing luxuriant crops.

Human urine is the richest, as containing more salts and oil than any other. As great quantities may be collected in cities and large towns, it should be kept in casks to ferment; and if mixed, when stale with piles of earth, it will form an excellent compost, far superi­or to dung. Stale urine, applied by water­ing pots, over the trenched garden grounds, after being levelled in the spring, will kill worms and insects, and prove an exceeding rich manure.

OF SOAP SUDS, &c.

Soap suds, and soap maker's ashes, is com­posed of vegetable or animal oil, alkaline salts and lime, by which their original textures are altered and become so combined, as to be easily rendered miscible by water. Hence soap suds and soap maker's ashes are excellent manures for all sorts of vegetables and fruit trees.

OF MALT DUST.

Malt dust is an exceeding good top dressing for corn and meadows in the spring. Dung and other manures plowed in, loosen and divide the soil, and are benefi­cial to succeeding crops. Whereas, top dress­ing, (excepting the alkaline manure) princi­pally nourish the plants, and supply food for those crops only on which they are laid, with­out loosening or dividing the soils, or being beneficial to succeeding ones. From twenty to forty bushels per acre, (according to the richness or poverty of the soil) is the most advantageous. When too great a quantity of malt dust is applied to grain, the straw grows so luxuriantly, as to be beaten down and laid by high winds and heavy rains.

OF A NEW, CHEAP AND EFFECTUAL ALKALINE MANURE.

Lands adjoining cities and large towns, may be manured on very reasonable terms; and according to the distance, so in proporti­on [Page 52] is the expence of carriage increased. Lands situated in the interior parts of the country, are in general manured only with the dung arising from the cattle and sheep folded on the grounds; the quantities thus obtained, are very insufficient for the pur­poses of prosecuting an advantgeous cultiva­tion.

All or most countries produce either wood, goss, heath or peat, frequently called turf, which are used for firing; their ashes are thrown (from a want of knowing their real value) into some open place, where they are exposed to rains, which wash away their salts and fertilizing properties. The great advantages of manures, particularly when the distance is too far to procure them from cities and towns, must be too obvious to the discerning agriculturist, to require any com­ment.

The alkaline and new manure, which I have experienced to be inferior to none, I have made as often as I could procure mate­rials, in the following manner, viz. Having collected from the side of ditches, and from commons, a quantity of brush and rubbish wood, briars, thorns, &c. stems and roots of weeds, stalks of beans, corn, and garden of-fals, [Page 53] which are burnt, and the ashes sifted; such cinders as are not thoroughly consum­ed, undergo the second operation of the fire, are again sifted, and immediately carried into the house to prevent the bad effects of rain; and to every four bushels of ashes, or in pro­portion, I add one bushel of quick lime, on which is thrown as much stale urine or drain­ings from the dunghill, as will thoroughly slack it, when the whole is turned and mix­ed as often as is necessary, so that the lime and ashes may be completely incorporated. The ashes of all vegetables are vetrifiable, and frequently found to contain metallic parti­cles. Quick or fresh burnt lime is freed from fixed air, its corrosive and acrimonious properties are so great, as to decompose me­tallic particles, as also to deprive alkalies of their fixed air, and disunite their texture, by which their powers are so much encreased, as to be the more readily enabled to dissolve oils, &c. for the purpose of making soap. Hence, in a similar manner, they unite with, and dissolve the oleaginous particles in the earth, by which the oils and salts are rendered miscible with water, and thereby converted into a most nutritive food for vegetables. When lime is exposed to the air (even in a house) it will absorb moisture, fall into a powder, attract fixed air, and by degrees lose its corrosive [Page 54] and accrimonious powers. Ashes also attract moisture, &c. Hence, if the alkaline manure is not immediately used, it should be carried into a loft or some dry place, well covered, and kept as close as possible from the air, by which its virtues will be retained. If used as a top dressing for wheat, eight or ten bushels per acre, sowed in the months of November or December, when the manure will be soon washed into the earth, will nourish and keep warm the roots of the plants, kill insects, and greatly fertilize the land for that and succeed­ing crops.

When applied to barley, it should be sown very early in the season, for reasons already given under the section of soot.

When applied for pastures, the land should be first harrowed with fine harrows, in the month of March or beginning of April, if the season and weather suits, and from eight to twelve bushels per acre, regularly sowed over.

The harrows will loosen the soil, admit the air and manure to the roots of the grass; their effects will soon become visible, and continue for some years.

[Page 55]When applied for a compost, twenty bu­shels or more to an acre (according to the na­ture of the soil) may be mixed and thorough­ly incorporated with sixty bushels of earth to an acre, and applied in the same manner as lime.

Sea shores produce great quantities of weeds, which when burnt, become a solid sub­stance called kelp, containing strong alkaline salts.

Such ashes, pulverized, sifted and mixed with lime, in the same manner as wood ashes, must prove more efficacious; as kelp con­tains a much greater proportion of alkaline salts, than the same weight of wood ashes; so in proportion, a less quantity will suf­fice.

As the properties of kelp are very corro­sive, it should be first mixed with lime, then with earth in a compost, in preference to its being applied alone, and should be kept in a dry place some weeks before it is used.

When wood, weeds, &c. are burnt in the open air, the volatile salts, oils, and part of [Page 56] the calcarious earth, ascend in the form of smoak, into the atmosphere.

Where large quantities of rubbish, wood, weeds, &c. can be procured, a small build­ing, sixteen feet long, twelve feet broad, and twelve feet high, or of any other size in pro­portion, covered with an arch or dome, with a high and narrow chimney, might be erect­ed at a very inconsiderable expence. The rubbish wood, &c. should be burnt therein; the volatile particles and calcarious earth would be preserved on the dome and walls, in the form of soot, the ashes would be kept dry, and the agriculturist would in a short time, be ful­ly repaid such expences.

OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

Natural philosophy is the knowledge or study of natural productions founded on rea­son and experience. By studying the quali­ties of natural bodies, in relation to their generation, motion, or other properties, the wonderful works of the creation are discover­ed to our view, that we may with cheerful and divine contemplation, sensibly feel and gratefully acknowledge the mysterious works of Providence.

[Page 57]God bestowed upon man the earth, that he might employ his time by labour, and understanding, in replenishing and subduing it.

By labour, to cultivate the ground; such employment makes him strong, active and healthy.

By understanding, to study the most bene­ficial methods of replenishing and applying such manures as are most effectual for subdu­ing and correcting its cohesive and injurious particles; that he may, by his industry and knowledge, be best enabled to supply the wants of nature.

Providence most wonderfully assists the in­dustry of man, by celestial and atmospherical influences, which greatly tend to enrich the earth, and to promote vegetation.

Of the SUN.

The sun is the principal source of heat, as well as light, without which, all bodies would become rigid, lifeless and fixed. Hence, animalization and vegetation are pro­moted, [Page 58] and the ocean and atmosphere conti­nue in a fluid state.

Heat contributes materially to promote the growth of plants; vibrates the parts of bodies; excites and promotes a motion in the fluids; resolves the watry and oily particles of the earth into vapour; rarifies the juices of ve­getables; exhales the putrid, volatilized, sul­phurious, saline and inflammable particles from dunghills, other corrupted bodies, and from smoak. Part is absorbed by vegetables which add to their increase: the remainder ascend and float in the atmosphere, where be­ing combined, are formed into a saline subtle oil, which by the summer showers and dews, are converted into nutriment, returned into the earth, and absorbed by the leaves and roots of plants.

The life and growth of animals and vegeta­bles, depend on a certain degree of heat, which every year confirms. As the heat de­creases in the fall, so in proportion, vegetables loose their verdure. And as the sun's enli­vening powers return in the succeeding spring, every plant will earlier or later refu­scitate, and accordingly grow to maturity.

[Page 59]Excessive heat without moisture, is inju­rious to vegetation; as more nourishment is exaled from the earth and plants, than is re­turned by that condensed vapour which falls in the form of dew.

By a defect of heat, the circulation of the sap becomes languid, and ceases; and accord­ing to the continuation of the cold drying winds, (without the intervention of rain or dew) so proportionable is the perspiration and circulation or motion of the juices stopped in the tender leaves, blossoms, and branches; the perspiring matter thereby adhering to the external part, are converted into a mucilage that harbours insects (which are the effects, but not the cause of blights,) similar to all corrupted animal bodies, which naturally se­crete worms.

It frequently happens that one part of a tree is suddenly scorched and shrivelled by a sharp hoary frost or cold wind, which stops the weak motion of its juices; while the other part appears healthy and in full verdure. Such effects arise from inward weakness, the want of sufficient moisture or nourishment, or from some bad quality in the soil or stock.

[Page 60]Soap suds, stale urine, or the drainings from the dunghill, applied to the roots of trees af­ter the earth has been dug or loosened, instead of secreting and nourishing, destroys worms and insects; keep the roots of trees warm in winter; and by their saline and oily par­ticles, attract and retain moisture in summer; —hence are the most effectual preservatives against blights and other diseases. In wet sea­sons these manures may be freely used, as the rains will sufficiently correct them when too strong; but in dry weather they should be properly diluted with water.

Of FROST.

Frost is the most severe effect of cold, but a great fertilizer of land, particularly all stiff and clayey soils. It answers several purposes; it locks up the surface of the earth, prevents the carrying off that substance necessary for vegetation, checks the growth of weeds, pre­vents the hatching of insects, and destroys them, lightens the earth, expands the moisture and breaks down the texture of the soil into the most minute particles.

[Page 61]White frost is no more than dew frozen, which does not injure vegetables material­ly.

Of HAIL.

Hail is drops of rain frozen in their pas­sage through the atmosphere. The greater the height they descend from, the greater is the resistence they meet with from the air, the more globular and the smaller is the hail. Hence, vice versa, the less the height of their descent, the less is the resistence they meet with in the air; of course, the less globular and the larger is the hail. It is very hurtful to vegetation, by beating the farina or blos­soms off the corn or trees.

Of SNOW.

Snow, is a meteor engendered in the air by moisture and cold; contains no nitro nor any other salts, leaves nothing that chrystalizes after dissolution; but contains inflammable matter, and makes the common air more noxious and unwholesome than before.

[Page 62]Snow fertilizes the ground, by preventing the escape of what nourishes plants, protects corn and other vegetables from the intenser cold air, and piercing winds, and keeps their roots warm.

Of LIGHTNING.

Lightning is a mixture of sulphurious and nitrous effluvia, which ferment, kindle, and occasion those explosions and vivid flames of fire, which we call thunder and lightning; and is in the hand of Providence in some re­spect similar to what electricity is in ours.

Lightning does much more good than hurt to vegetation; it frees the atmosphere from sulphurious and other noxious particles, and produces cold. Hence, the watry va­pours floating in the air are condenced, and descend in the form of rain, which greatly fertilize the land.

Of DEW.

Dew is a compound of moisture, oily, sa­line and volatile particles, exhaled by the heat of the sun from the sea, rivers, standing [Page 63] waters, marshy lands, the earth, dunghills and other putrid matters; all which are attracted by the wonderful power of the solar rays, and carried into the atmosphere, where they float, are intimately united, and kept in agitation by the heat of the sun, and become invisible; but when the solar heat begins to remit, and as the air cools, the watry compound particles are condensed, and fall upon the earth and leaves of vegetables. The stronger the heat of the sun, the greater is the exhalation and fall of dew at night.

As the sun ascends above the horizon in the summer, the exhalation, particularly of standing waters and marshy lands, is ex­tremely visible.

In the driest and warmest seasons, when the earth is parched and dried up, then Provi­dence most wonderfully assists and promotes vegetation, by the fall of dews on the leaves of trees, and vegetables: as the heat of the sun increases, it excites and promotes a moti­on in the juices, the leaves imbibe the fertile pearly drops, and convey them through the vessels, by which vegetables are nourished.

Of CLOUDS.

Clouds are a collection of vapours exaled from the sea, other waters, and from the land, by the sun or subterraneous heat, or both, which when exhaled, are too small to be perceived; but when they ascend into that region of the atmosphere of the same specific levity, there they float, are driven together by the agitation of the winds, con­densed by the cold, and rendered opake by the union of their parts. Hence, they visi­bly appear in the form of clouds, which, be­ing heavier than the air, of course fall thro' it; and according to the height they descend from, and the resistence they meet with from the atmosphere, are broken and divided into proportionable small drops, called rain.

Of RAIN.

Rain is a precipitated cloud, broken and divided into innumerable drops. The grea­ter the height they descend from, the greater is the resistance they meet with from the air, the more are they divided, and lesser are the drops of rain. Hence, vice versa, the less [Page 65] the height of their descent, the lesser is the resistence they meet with in the air, of course the larger are the drops of rain.

Vegetables cannot grow without water. Rain promotes vegetation, by furnishing salts and oils from the atmosphere, by dissolving and uniting the oily and saline particles in the earth, by expanding the imbibing vessels, by attenuating the glutinous substances, by pro­moting the intestine motion of the juices, by loosening the earth, that the roots of plants may enjoy access of air, and be better ena­bled to extend themselves in search of those nutritive particles, conveyed to them, by means of heat and that most useful watry menstruum.

Excess of rain is hurtful to vegetation, par­ticularly when waters remain any considera­ble time on the ground, which lessen the warmth in the earth, and thereby prevent ve­getation; or destroy the roots of plants, and render such places barren; or produce such rank unwholesome weeds as are nourished by stagnated waters, which become putrid by the heat of the sun.

Too much moisture yields a thin vitiated food, prevents the access of air to the roots of [Page 66] plants, impedes their natural growth, and prevents their seeds from being perfect­ed.

If heavy rains fall when the plants are in bloom, their farina is washed off, and consequently there can be no impregnation. Hence, wet seasons produce the smallest crops.

The want of rain is also hurtful to vege­tation. Heat dissipates the moisture in the earth, which becomes too dry. Hence, it is baked and rent by the scorching rays of the sun, which destroy the roots of the plants, or so harden the earth, as to prevent the fi­bres from extending themselves in search of food.

Of AIR.

Air is a thin invisible elastic vapour, im­perceptible to all our senses, except of feel­ing.

The colder the weather, the more is the air condensed, whereby the heat of the fires [Page 67] are more confined, and become stronger in winter than in summer.

When water is converted into vapour by distillation or exalation, the water becomes lighter than the air. Hence, watry vapours are raised to a considerable height, and float in the atmosphere, where its weight, density, and pressure, is less than near the surface of the earth.

Moist vapours lessen the elasticity of the air, because the force of repulsion in the par­ticles of watry vapours, is less than in the particles of air.

A moist atmosphere is heavier than a dry and clear atmosphere, in proportion to the quantity of suspended watry particles; and according to its component parts, its weight varies, which barometers discover.

The elasticity of air is increased by heat, and decreased by cold.—Hence appears the use of thermometers, which indicate the various degrees of both.

Air is absolutely necessary for the support of animal and vegetable life; without it there could be no existence, which experiments [Page 68] with air-pumps sufficiently demonstrate. No seed can vegetate nor vegetable grow in any place deprived of air.

Fresh air is impregnated with a particular vivifying spirit, essentially necessary to the preservation of animal life.

Every time the air passes out of the lungs, part of the vivifying spirit is either destroyed or left behind.—Hence, animals die when confined in noxious air, as well as from the want of it.

Air is changed by the corruption and pu­trefaction of the vivifying spirit: as the pro­perties of things putrefied are different from the properties they contained before putre­faction; so, in proportion, is the health of ani­mals affected. Hence arise epidemical disea­ses amongst the inhabitants and animals of such countries as are marshy, and are surroun­ded or intersected with stagnated waters, which of course putrefy and destroy the vivi­fying spirit in that air.

The different effluvias diffused through the air, produce a variety of different effects. In all large cities, the air abounds with sul­phurious, acrid, and corrosive particles, which [Page 69] rust metals sooner than in the country; and near mines of copper, its effects are so great as to discolour silver and brass.

Air not only acts upon all bodies by its common properties of weight and elasticity; but also by the peculiar qualities of the in­gredients whereof it is composed, greatly pro­motes vegetation; for the more vegetables enjoy the free access of air, (not only to their leaves, stalks and branches, but also to their roots) the more they grow and thrive; such is the vivifying power of air, that it was con­sidered by the ancient philosophers as the first principle of all things.

As the learned and ingenious Dr. Hunter, of York, in Great-Britain, first made those im­portant and interesting discoveries, relative to the putrid and noxious particles of the air being consumed by the vegetable creation, and which were published in the year 1769, and 1770, I will beg leave to present the rea­der with such extracts as are necessary for my present subject.

"It is pleasing to observe how the dissolu­tion of one body is necessary for the life and increase of another. All nature is in moti­on. In consequence of the putrid fermenta­tion [Page 70] which is every where carried on, a quantity of vegetable nutriment ascends into the atmosphere—summer showers return much of it again; but part falls into the sea and is lost: to this we may add the animal and vegetable substances consumed on board of ships, all of which are buried in the ocean. The industry of man restores them to the earth; and we may presume that the fish ta­ken out of the sea, leaves a ballance in favour of mankind. Thus Providence with the most consummate wisdom, keeps up the necessary rotation of things."

"Hitherto I have considered plants as nou­rished by their roots. I shall now take a view of them as nourished by their leaves. An at­tention to this part of the vegetable system, is essentially necessary to the rational farmer. Vegetables that have a succulent leaf, such as vetches, peas, beans, and buckwheat, draw a great part of their nourishment from the air, and on that account, impoverish the soil less than wheat, cats, barley or rye, the leaves of which are of a firmer texture. Rape and hemp are oil-bearing plants, consequently im­poverishers of the soils; but the former less so than the latter, owing to the great succulen­cy of its leaf. The leaves of all kinds of grain are succulent for a time; during which period [Page 71] the plants take little from the earth; but as soon as the ear begins to be formed, they lose their softness, and diminish in their at­tractive power. The radical fibres are then more vigorously employed in extracting the oily particles of the earth, for the nourishment of the seed. Such I apprehend is the course of nature."

"In order that we may have a distinct view of the motion of the sap, it will be ne­cessary to reflect that the root, stem, branches and leaves are constructed in the same man­ner. Sallows, willows, vines, and most shrubs, will grow in an inverted state, with their tops downwards in the earth. Dr. Bradly describes the manner of inverting a young cherry tree, the roots of which will put forth leaves, and the branches become roots. Hence it is obvious that the nutritive matter may be conveyed as well by the leaves as the roots, their vascular structure being the very same.

"Air is to be found in every portion of earth: and as it always contains a solution of the volatile parts of animal and vegetable substances, we should be careful to keep our stiff soils as open as possible to its influence. It passes both in its active and fixed state, [Page 72] into the absorbent vessels of the root, and mixing with the juices of the plant, circu­lates through every part. Dr. Hales, in his statical experiments on the vine, discovered it ascending with the sap in the bleeding sea­son."

In the year 1773, the ingenious and inde­fatigable Dr. Priestly, presented to the royal society, his experiments on the different kinds of air, which clearly proves that putrid air arising from dunghills, and that the per­spiration of animals, are not only absorbed by vegetables, but also add to their increase. As those experiments are of too interesting a nature to be passed over unnoticed, for the benefit of those who have not had an oppor­tunity of seeing the original, I shall here transcribe part, referring the curious to the learned Doctor's publication.

"When air has been freshly and strongly tainted with putrefaction, so as to smell thro' the water, spriggs of mint have presently di­ed, upon being put into it, their leaves turn­ing black; but if they do not die presently, they thrive in a most surprizing manner.

"In no other circumstances have I ever seen vegetation so vigourous as in this kind of [Page 73] air, which is immediately fatal to animal life. Though these plants have been croud­ed in jars filled with this air, every leaf has been full of life; fresh shoots have branched out in various directions, and have grown much faster than other similar plants, grow­ing in the same exposure in common air. This observation led me to conclude, that plants instead of affecting the air in the same manner with animal respiration, reverse the effects of breathing, and tend to keep the atmosphere sweet and wholesome, when it is become noxious, in consequence of animals either living and breathing, or dying and pu­trefying in it.

"In order to ascertain this, I took a quan­tity of air, made thoroughly noxious by mice breathing and dying in it, and divided it into two parts; one of which I put into a phial immersed in water; and to the other (which was contained in a glass jar standing in wa­ter) I put a sprig of mint. This was about the beginning of August, 1771, and after eight or nine days, I found that a mouse liv­ed perfectly well in that part of the air, in which the sprig of mint had grown, but died, the moment it was put into the other part of the same original quantity of air, and which I had kept in the very same exposure, but [Page 74] without any plant growing in it.—This ex­periment I have several times repeated, some­times using air in which animals had breath­ed and died; sometimes using air tainted with vegetable or animal putrefactions, and generally with the same success.

On the IMPROVEMENT of WET LANDS.

The first and principal improvement of wet land is draining, without which, the greatest quantity of the best manure will prove inef­fectual. Coarse grass, rushes, horse-mints, and other noxious weeds, are the general productions of lands overcharged with moi­sture, proceeding from the water being re­tained by a stiff impervious clay, or from cold hungry springs, which are frequently loaded with minerals and acids; and from want of proper drains, the stagnated waters corrupt the natural nourishment, so essentially neces­sary for producing sweet herbage; but when the cause is removed, the effects will cease. Those luxurious, noxious weeds being de­prived of their nourishment, of course die, and sweet wholesome herbage naturally suc­ceed, without manure.

[Page 75]The greatest attention should be paid to the situation and declivity of the ground; the ditches at the lowest part of the land should be first opened of a sufficient depth and size, (according to the nature of the soil) at least three feet perpendicularly deep, two feet wide at the bottom, and four feet wide at the top, gradually increasing from the bot­tom to the surface; which slope will prevent the sides from falling in with rain or frosts. The mould thrown from this ditch or drain will make a bank on one side, on the top, a dwarf hedge may be made with some brush-wood at a very trifling expence, that will be superior to a post and rail fence—lands by that means may be put into small lots, which will be of great advantage to the farmer. Di­rections for making the hedge, I shall give hereafter—see hedging.

Small or leading drains should be made (according to their declivity) from twenty to twenty four inches deep, nine inches wide at bottom, and from fifteen to eighteen inches broad on the surface; extending through the most hollow, and from the lowest to the high­est parts of the land. These branches or small­er drains should be from twenty to forty or fif­ty feet apart (in proportion to the springs and wetness of the soil) cut across the ground, with [Page 76] a hanging level, sufficient to convey the water into the large drains.

If stones can be conveniently got, they are the most effectual for this purpose: when the work is properly executed it will last for ever. The best method I have experienced is, to place flat stones standing on the bottom as perpendicular as the sides of the drains will admit, with other flat stones on the oppo­site side, placed with the top part to rest against the upright stones, in the form of

should this cavity be insufficient for the current of water, another flat stone may be placed in a reversed form, as

by which there will be a double vacuum, fully sufficient for the greatest current; the remainder of the drains, when in arable lands, may be filled up with stones, to within about eight inches of the surface, covered with straw or stalks of any sort, to prevent the earth from falling between the stones, and filled up with the mould that came out of the drain; the remainder may be scattered over the land.

In draining pasture lands, the turf is care­fully laid aside, the drains filled with stones to within four or five inches of the surface; and the grass part of the turf is placed there­on, [Page 77] which saves the trouble of laying straw, and as effectually prevents the earth from fal­ling between the stones into the drains.

The effects of draining are too obvious to require any comment.

Of CLEARING LAND from TREES, &c.

The next improvement is, the clearing of lands from the stumps and roots of trees, grubbs, thorns, briers, &c.

When lands are encumbered by any of those before mentioned, it is impossible to plow land as it ought to be—when land is only scratched, and these rubbish receiving part of the nutritive food, good crops can­not be expected.

Timber and pollard trees are injurious to arable and pasture grounds; they obstruct the free circulation of the air and the effects of the sun. The leaves, particularly of ash, render the grass, whereon they fall, coarse and sour; which, when eaten by cows, affect their milk with a strong disagreeable taste.

[Page 78]Trees attract, and their shade and roots retain moisture and acidity in the soil; their wide extended fibrous roots, particularly of ash and hickory strike horizontally, near the surface, to a very considerable distance; they greatly impoverish pasture grounds, and im­pede the plow in arable land.

The roots of trees grow in proportion to their trunks and branches; therefore, no more than two or three should be left in a field for cattle to rub against, and for shade.

When trees are planted, or permitted to re­main for timber or for firing, the northern and eastern sides of fields, and irregular corners, are the most proper situations; where they afford shelter, and serve as a screen against cold winds, and do not obstruct the influences of the sun and air.

When lands are cleared from superfluous trees, &c. attention should be paid to the sur­face and condition of the ground—where ants inhabit, their hills should be pared off as before directed, carried to the middle of the field, and there mixed with the ashes made from the rubbish wood, &c. and lime, when [Page 79] thoroughly incorporated, it must be spread over the ground equally.

By placing the manure in the middle, it is the sooner, and at less expence carried over. But should there be any uneven land or banks, such should be plowed and harrowed, the pared hills should be deposited thereon and levelled, the ashes and lime should be laid on the middle of the bank, and as soon as the lime is slacked, it should immediately be mix­ed with the ant hills, ashes, and earth; and when well incorporated, should be applied in proportion as before.

Plowing of ground is of such absolute ne­cessity in all lands where grain and artificial grasses are sown, that whoever is wanting in this work, to get the earth into a fine, hol­low sweet condition when the grain is sown, may depend their crop will fall very short: and as I conceive, the neglect of that most useful and necessary part of husbandry in this country, to be one of the principal causes of the produce not to be equal to that of other countries, I shall be very particular in laying down the different methods I have used, as well as quote different authors: I shall first [Page 80] give a descripion of the different ploughs used in several counties in England.

The plough most used in Middlesex, Hert­ford, Berkshire, Bedfordshire, &c. is the two wheeled plough—as I have not seen one of them in this country, I shall give a description of it.

The two principal parts of this plough, are the head and the tail; the plough head contains the two wheels and their axis, or spindle pass­ing through a box, and turning round in it, and in the wheels; there are fixed perpendi­cularly in this box two crow staves, as they are called, which are flat and narrow boards, each having on it two rows of holes, whereby to raise or sink the beam of the plough, by pinning up or down the pillow, to increase or diminish the depth of the furrow.

Behind are a pair of gallows, through which the crow-staves pass at the top by mor­tises, into which they are pinned, and to these are fastened what they call the wilds, which are rings and crooks of iron by which the whole plough is drawn in the working.

From the box to the centre of the beam, there is carried an iron chain, consisting of [Page 81] four, five or more long links, and called the tow-chain: this fastens the plough-tail to the plough-head.

It is fixed to an iron collar, fastened in the beam at one end, and at the other passes through a hole in the middle of the box, and is pinned in with a wooden pin.

From the same iron collar to which the tow-chain is fixed, there is also another chain fastened, called the bridle-chain: this runs above the beam, as the tow-chain does below it, and is composed of smaller and more numerous links.

At the upper end, as the tow-chain enters the box of the plough there is a perpendicular stick, carried up parallel with the left crow-staff, and pretty near it, and fastened to it by a withe, or rope, or by the end of the bridle-chain itself, when that is long enough. This stake is also fastened in its lower part, under the gallows, to the same crow-staff, by another withe or piece of rope.

Those are the parts of which the head part of the plough is composed. The plough-tail consists of the beam carried from the [Page 82] head to the very extremity, and serving as the support and base of all the rest.

A little below the collar to which the tow-chain and bridle-chain are fastened, this beam is pierced with a large hole, which lets through the coulter: this is long and nar­row, terminating in an edge, and reaching just to the share; and it is fixed immovea­ble in its place by a wedge, which is driven into the hole of the beam with it: the of­fice of this coulter is to cut the earth as it is thrown up by the share.

Behind these, the same beam is pierced with two more holes, one very near its end: these give passage to two ablong pieces, called the fore-sheat and hinder-sheat, by which the plough-share is supported in its place.

To the top of the hinder-sheat there is fa­stened a short handle by a wooden pin.

Parallel to the hinder-sheat, there runs up a piece of wood of much the same form, called the drock; and to this is fastened another horizontal piece, called the ground-wrist; these are all on the right hand side of the plough, and parallel with the fore-sheat.

[Page 83]There runs another piece of much the same form with it, on the right hand; and the bottom of this is the earth-board. The long handle of this, which reaches as far as that of the sheat, is fastened to the drock, by a pin, the other end of which goes into the beam.

Near the lower end of the fore-sheat, there are two flat pieces of iron, which pass from the two sides of it up to the beam; and be­ing let through, are fastened to the upper part by screws and pins.—These keep the sheat in its place.

The structure of the four-coultered plough, is different, in some respects to this, though in general founded on it. Its beam is ten feet long, whereas that of the common plough is but eight. The beam is straight in the common plough; but in this it is arched in one fourth part of its length, near the plough-head.

At the distance of three feet four inches from the end of the beam at the plough-tail, the first coulter, or that next the share, is let through; and at thirteen inches from this, a second coulter is let through; a third at the same distance from that; and finally, [Page 84] the fourth at the same distance from the third, that is thirteen inches.

The crookedness of the upper part of the beam in this plough is contrived to avoid the two great length of the three foremost coul­ters, which would be too much, if the beam was straight all the way; and they would be apt to bend and be displaced, unless they were vastly heavy and clumsy. Ash is the best wood to make the beam of, it being suffici­ently strong and yet light.

The sheat in this plough is to be seven inch­es broad. The fixing of the share in this, as well as in the common plough, is the nicest part, and requires the utmost art of the ma­ker; for the well going of the plough wholly depends upon the placing this. Supposing the axis of the beam, and the left side of the share, to be horizontal, they must never be set paral­lel to each other; for if they are, the tail of the share, bearing against the trench as much as the point, would cause the point to incline to the right hand, and it would be carried out of the ground into the furrow.

If the point of the share should be set so, that its side should make an angle on the right side of the axis of the beam, this incon­venience [Page 85] would be much greater; and if its point should incline much to the left, and make too large an angle on that side with the axis of the beam, the plough would run quite to the left hand; and, if the holder, to pre­vent its running quite out of the ground, turns the upper part of this plough toward the left hand, the pin of the share will rise up and cut the furrow diagonally, leaving it half unplowed.

To avoid this, and several inconveniences, the straight side of the share must make an angle upon the left side of the beam; but that must be so very acute a one, that the tail of the share may only press against the side of the trench than the point does.

The great thing to be taken care of, is the placing the four coulters: for on this the success of the whole depends. These must be so set that the four planes, as the plough moves forward, may be all parallel to each other, or very nearly so; for if any one of them should be very much inclined to, or should recede much from either of the other, then they would not enter the ground toge­ther.

[Page 86]In order to the placing them thus, the beam must be carefully pierced in a proper manner. The second coulter-hole must be two inches and an half more on the right hand than the first: the third must be as much to the right of the second; and the fourth the same measure to the right hand of the third: and this two inches and an half must be care­fully measured from the centre of one hole to the centre of the other. Each of these holes is a mortise of an inch and quarter wide, and is three inches and an half long at the top, and three inches at the bottom. The two opposite sides of this hole are paral­lel to the top and bottom, but the back is oblique, and determines the obliquity of the standing of the coulter, which is wedged tight up to the poll.

The coulter is two feet eight inches long, before it is worn; the handle takes up sixteen inches of this length, and is allowed thus long that the coulter may be driven down as the point wears away.

The single wheel plough used in Essex, Suf­folk, Norfolk, &c. is a fine light plough cal­culated for two horses. The wheel is fixed to the beam by a piece of iron with holes in it, whereby it may be set near or off, deep and [Page 87] shallow. It has an iron earth-board made rounding, which turns the turf better than any other plough.

The single wheel plough used in Surry, Kent, Sussex, Hampshire, &c. is a clumsy heavy plough, very wide in the breech, con­sequently the draught of it must be very hard.

The swing plough used in Worcestershire, Gloucestershire, Warwickshire, Northamp­tonshire, &c. is much the same as that used in this country.

The hoe ploughs are two, one of them is that used in Essex, &c. only light, as it is often worked with one horse, to plow be­tween the rows of grain.—This is to go one bought, taking the mould away next the roots of the grain and throwing it up in a ridge in the middle of the alley.

The other plough has a share with a sin on each side; it has two earth-boards, they are equal on both sides, and made to let out to any weadth, or contracted in:—This plough is for going right in the middle of the alley between the grain, which throws up the mould equally up to the grain on both sides, [Page 88] and does as much work in half a bought as the other does in a whole one.

It is evident that earth often digged, and skreened in a garden, produces the best til­lage; so is it the principal reason that plow­ing and harrowing of land makes it the most fruitful; for by this means the spirit of the earth, or the Sal. Terroe is collected, as also that of the air, dews, and rain; when several vegetable salts are put into a condition to act, by the fineness of the earth, which are the life and nourishment of all things that grow therein; and for the want of these two qua­lifications, many crops have been lost. So that upon the due knowledge of plowing and the right practice thereof, depends chiefly the right benefit of farming. A light earth is ca­pacitated to receive the nitrous dews and ce­lestial influences, which coagulate and fix on the same; when a heavy sour earth misses, and goes without the benefit.

And therefore I shall endeavour to supply in some measure, I believe I may say, what most authors have been hitherto chiefly wan­ting in; and the chief reason for their omis­sion, I presume, is, their not being acquainted with the practical part of plowing, although [Page 89] it is certainly the most necessary branch of farming.

When the soil has been well loosened by deep repeated plowings and harrowings, its particles are minutely divided, and the roots of plants have liberty to spread freely. Hence are enabled to acquire such nourishment, as could not possible be obtained when con­fined between large impenetrable clods of earth.

Strong clayey ground cannot be too often plowed, and exposed to the sun aad frost. Gravels, sands, and such light grounds, are much sooner brought into a tilth; therefore less plowings will do. All grounds should be plowed as deep as the staple will allow: therefore the two horse farmers seldom cul­tivate the land as it should be, because their strength renders them uncapable of doing this work to the purpose, so that the roots of large weeds are left, which shoot up with the grain and grass, whereby is the occasion of great part of the crop being lost; for if only a poke root will set four horses, what chance has a pair with strong roots? It is therefore a farmer's interest to keep a horse extraordi­nary.

[Page 90]When land is plowed well, and the weeds killed, then is there greater room for manures and dressings, which in weedy grounds help to multiply and enlarge their product, and often is the cause of such weeds spoiling the crop.

PLOWING OF FALLOWS, OR FALLOWING,

Is preparing the land by plowing and ma­nuring, recovering that spirit lost in tillage; or sweetening, and destroying those particles hurtful to vegetation. Experience enables me to say, that summer fallows are unne­cessary on lands that can be brought into pro­per tillage for fallow crops.

The most attentive observations and expe­riments, have instructed me, that when pa­stures are intended to be broken up, the lat­ter part of September, or beginning of Octo­ber, is the most advantageous season. At that time vegetation begins to decline, conse­quently the produce of the land is but of lit­tle value, till the succeeding spring.

[Page 91]The ground, as soon as broken up, should be rolled with a heavy roller; the sward by that means, will be so closed that the heat and moisture will cause a speedy fermentation, and rot the sward more in October and No­vember, than it would in the four following months. It should be harrowed, that the earth may be loosened, and prepared to re­ceive the benefits of the air, rain, and frost.

The latter end of November, or the begin­ning of December, it should be obliquely plowed as deep as the staple will admit. By this mode, the baulks that were made at the first plowing will be corrected.

The land being thus left in its rough state, will be exposed to the winter frost, which will penetrate the hard clods, and by its expan­sive force, greatly assist in pulverizing the soil.

As soon as the weather will permit in the spring, it must be well worked with heavy harrows, by which the clods will be greatly, if not totally reduced; and by being thus divided, will receive farther benefit from the influences of the atmosphere.

[Page 92]In the month of March, or April, accord­ing to the season or climate, the land should be again rolled, to break the remaining clods; which being pressed into the ground, must be loosened and pulverized by harrow­ing. In this state the earth should remain for six or seven days, to receive further be­nefit from the atmosphere. Then plow for the crop.

After the land has been prepared in this manner, I have sown peas in drills at four feet distance—have given them two plow­ings with the hoe-ploughs, the produce per acre was seventy-five bushels, which I sold for 5s. 6d. sterling. When the peas were off, I plowed it up, sowed it with wheat in drills, at one foot distance, gave it two hand hoeings; the produce was fifty three bu­shels, which I sold for 7s. and 3d. pence ster­ling; so that the produce in two years, fetch­ed me 39l. 16s. 9d. per acre; from which deduct the expences, four plowings, at 8s. two rollings, at 1s. six harrowings at 1s. two bushels of peas for seed, at 5s. 6d. one bushel of wheat for do. 7s. 6d. drilling of the peas and wheat 4s. two years rent and taxes 2l. two horse and two hand hoeings 1l. 4s. hooking, reaping and housing 1l. 4s threshing and carrying to market 1l. 10s. makes the [Page 93] expences 9l. 0s. 6d. which deduct from 39l. 16s. 9d. the ballance is 30l. 16s. 3d. being the clear profit per acre for two years.

This method of cultivation fully proves the great advantage of good tillage. The ad­vantages arising from drilling in of grain are great, compared to the broad cast.—By the drill, the seed is deposited at such a certain re­guired regular distance and depth in the ground, as to meet with moisture. Every seed will soon vegetate, and even in the driest sea­son will produce one extraordinary crop, from five to twenty bushels per acre, more than by the common mode. The seed, by drilling is also secured from birds. The intervals ad­mit being hoed and cleaned from weeds, while the ground is preparing for a succeed­ing crop, besides by hoeing, the ground is so pulverized as readily to imbibe the dews and rains, keeps the pores open, so that in the dri­est seasons plants are kept in a moist state.

FALLOWING OF LAND THAT IS UNDER TILLAGE.

In order to illustrate the superior advanta­ges accruing from good management, tho­rough [Page 94] tillage, and changing of crops, to improper management, and the erroneous savings of labour and expence, I shall revert to other of my experiments to prove the most beneficial method of culture.

After a field had produced its regular ro­tation of crops, I fallow plowed it, that is, as soon as harvest was done, I plowed in the stubble and layed it up in one bout ridges, and let it lay in that rough state, till the fol­lowing spring; as soon as the weather would permit, gave it a good harrowing, which made the seeds of the weeds vegetate. In May obliquely plowed it; the latter end of June, gave it another good harrowing, then hauled on the manure, and spread it and plowed it in, and sowed turnip-seed, broad cast, every day what was plowed.

The seed was steeped in fish oil for twelve hours, which hinders the fly from hurting the plant, (In New-England, the beginning of July is the best season for sowing; in the middle states, about the middle of the month; and to the southward, the latter end.)

As soon as the plants were pretty large, before they bottled, I had them hoed, all the supurfluous ones cut up, and left at [Page 95] about fifteen inches apart. In October I gave them another hoeing: the two hoeings cost me 10s. per acre. The latter part of November they were at their full growth, so large, that they covered partly all the ground.

This field contained ten acres, which I penned, and fed off with sheep. I bought fifty weathers for 45l. and thirty ewes, with lamb, for 18l. The turnips were sufficient for fattening the weathers, and cupples, ex­clusive of feeding sixty store sheep, that fol­lowed those that were fattening, and eat up their leavings. The weathers I sold to the butcher for 112l. 10s. and the cupples for 57l. and the feed of the store sheep, I reckoned to be worth 9l. so that the profit of this fallow crop was 110l. 10s. which is 11l. 1s. per acre, exclusive of a good dressing from their ma­nure, for a succeeding crop.

The following spring, I gave this field two plowings, the first as shallow as possible, the second obliquely deeper, which turned up the sheeps dung. I then harrowed it as flat as possible, to lay it even fit for mowing. I then sowed it with spring barley, pretty thick in the drills, at a foot distance in the rows, which took six pecks to the acre, and [Page 96] sowed, broad cast, at the rate of six pounds of clover, and four pounds of trefoil seed per acre, and harrowed it in at once with light harrows.

This method of sowing the grass seeds with the grain, hindered me from hoeing of the barley; but its filling up the intermedi­ate spaces, prevented the weeds from grow­ing.

This barley tillered amazingly, at harvest the spaces were filled up, the straw was so strong, that it was with difficulty I could get it mowed; the ears were remarkably long, from fifteen to twenty grains on a side, and very full and plump.

I had it put in a bay of a barn by itself, had it threshed; the produce was 675 bushels, which I sold for 3s. 3d. per bushel, which is 109l. 13s. 9d. or 10l. 19s. 4d. ½ per acre pro­fit; for the clover and trefoil growing up with the barley, made the straw fine fodder, superior to bad hay, therefore more than paid all expences.

What grass growed after harvest, I left the winter to keep the roots warm. In the succeeding spring, early, I sowed ashes all [Page 97] over the field on the grass, and rolled it. I had two fine crops of hay, which I stacked by itself: the first cutting was upwards of eighteen tons, the second about twelve tons; so that the produce was three tons per acre, which that year was worth 5l. per ton.

As soon as the last crop of hay was off, I gave it one deep plowing, and sowed red Lammas wheat in drills, at one foot distance, one bushel of seed to the acre. The begin­ning of May following, I had it hoed with a running hoe (of which I shall give a de­scription hereafter) and had the weeds pulled out of the rows, which together cost me 5s. per acre.

At harvest there was not a weed to be seen, and the ears of the wheat were so full and heavy, that they hanged downwards. I had it reaped, and housed by itself, and threshed; the produce 565 bushels, which is 56 bu­shels and an half per acre, which I sold for 7s. per bushel, is 19l. 15s. 6d. per acre; from which deduct the expences of once plowing, 8s. seed 8s. drilling in the grain 4s. hoeing 5s. reaping 10s. houseing 6s. threshing and carrying to market 15s. the whole amount­ing [Page 98] to 2l. 16s. deducted from 19l. 15s. 6d. leaves a profit of 16l. 19s. 6d. per acre.

As soon as harvest was done, I plowed in the wheat stubble, and let it lay in a rough state the winter. In the spring early I har­rowed it, and gave it a deep plowing, and sowed, broad cast, twenty bushels of the white Poland oats, and harrowed them in. In May had them weeded by four boys, who were a week, which cost me 12s. Had them cut at harvest, and put by themselves and threshed; the produce was 640 bushels, which I sold for 3s. per bushel, is 96l. or 64 bushels per acre, is 9l. 12s. from which deduct the expences of once plowing, 8s. two bushels of seed, 6s. sowing and harrow­ing, 3s. weeding, 12s. mowing, 4s. house­ing, 6s. threshing and carrying to market, 12s. the whole amounting to 2l. 11s. de­ducted from 9l. 12s. leaves a profit of 7l. 1s per acre.

The land having gone under its regular course, is ready to begin with fallowing and manuring again, which will continualy keep the land improving, instead of impoverish­ing; and as it is five years going through its regular succession, the land under tillage, should be divided into five parts—for in­stance, [Page 99] we will suppose a plantation to be 50 acres, or 500; if 50 acres, there will be 10 fallowed every year, 10 under grass, and 10 under barley, 10 under wheat, and 10 un­der oats; if 500, there will be 100 acres under each.

I am fully convinced, that 50 acres of land properly managed, will produce more than 500 badly conducted. The profits of the 10 acres, if you examine the above ac­counts, you will find brought upwards of 120l. a year, clear profit. If 50 acres were conducted in the same manner, the profits would be 600l. a year.

I think that those observations evidently confirm, that savings of manure and labour, in husbandry, produce poverty; and that lands are too frequently brought into disre­pute, from the want of proper management. I am well convinced, that there is no land (that can be plowed) let it be of what sort or nature it will, but may be made to pro­duce a profitable crop, either of grain or grass (if the proper sort was adapted to the soil) and that it would be much more advan­tageous to cultivate one hundred acres, in a [Page 100] complete manner, than two hundred acres, in a slovenly and imperfect manner.

It appears to me, that Providence never intended tilled land should remain uncrop­ped; because weeds will naturally grow on the poorest, as well as better soils; and oc­cupy land, which, with judicious manage­ment, may be advantageously cultivated, by meliorating hoed crops; and those vacancies in the fields where grain has been sown too thin, or destroyed by birds or insects, are generally filled with weeds, which impove­rish the soil more than grain. Hence fallows are unnecessary, where fallow crops can be introduced.

I have made numerous experiments on fal­low crops, which if I was to insert the whole, would swell this treatise far beyond its limits; and as they might tend more to perplex than to convey useful knowledge, I will only se­lect the most useful.

Curious researches into the works of Pro­vidence, will investigate the cause, why some crops improve lands more than others: let this enquiry be our present attempt.

[Page 101]Beans, peas, potatoes, tares, vetches, clo­ver, lucern, saint-foin, burner, trefoil, and every other vegetable and grass that produce a succulent leaf, imbibe much nourishment from the atmosphere; their shade prevents the solar rays exhaling the moisture from their roots, which are numerous.

Horse beans are a very good fallow crop, but will not grow on all lands; a strong loam or clay are most suitable: sands and gravels are contrary to their nature. On a soil that suits them, their tap roots will grow from twelve to eighteen inches, or more, perpendicularly deep. Their numerous fibres, or laternal roots, will extend themselves ho­rizontally in a well loosened soil, as long as their roots and their size will be in propor­tion. Consequently the increase of produce, will also be in proportion to the roots and fibres.

I have particularly observed in dry sum­mers, that the greater the distance between, and the thinner the beans grew in the rows, the more they were blighted; but when thick they were not much affected. This convin­ced me, that there was not a sufficient shade to prevent the sun from exhaling more moi­sture from the roots, than what is returned [Page 102] by dews. In order to remedy this, where the beans grew thin, I have given them deep and frequent hoeings, which had the desired effect; for the ground being kept open, the dews easily penetrated to the roots.

The blight is occasioned by the plants be­ing deprived of nourishment, that for want of a proper supply of juices, they become sickly, the circulation being stopped in the leaves and extreme parts of their stalks. Hence the perspiration is converted into a sweet mucilage, which harbours the black insect called the Dolphin Fly, but vulgarly termed the Blight.

As beans are a profitable crop, as well as great benefit to the land, and will grow on stiff lands in the driest summers, observing the cautions above. I will give directi­ons for their cultivation. They may follow any grain; and to prepare the land for them, plow in the stubble after harvest; a month after, harrow it well, and late in the fall give it another plowing, as deep as possible, cross­ways, in one-bout ridges. In the winter, haul on the manure, and as soon as the wea­ther will permit, in the spring, spread the [Page 103] manure, and plow it in, and set or sow your beans as soon as possible.

If you have a drill, sow them at a foot distance between the rows, and at three in­ches in the rows. If you have no drill, strain a line, and set them with dibbers, at the same distance about three inches deep in the ground. It will take four bushels of seed to the acre. As soon as they are up three or four inches high, they should be hoed, and as soon as they begin blossoming, should be hoed again and moulded up.

By this method I have had 90 bushels on an acre, which I have sold at 5s. the bushel, and an excellent crop of wheat the following year. They are the best feed for horses, and hogs, far exceeding any other grain for fat­tening.

The next fallow crop that ranks on my list is peas; their effects as a meliorating crop are great; their shade prevents the solar rays exal­ing the moisture from their roots. In a well pulverized soil, the roots of peas will extend horizontally from twelve to eighteen inches; for the closer the peas are planted in the drills, the more they thrive and enrich the land: and instead of robbing each other of their [Page 104] food, they become combined into a formida­ble body—Therefore, by supporting each other, they are better enabled (than when single or few in number), to force their passage through the earth in search of food.

The more numerous are the plants of peas, the thicker is the shade, and the more is the moisture retained in the ground. Hence they cause a putrid fermentation which ferti­lizes the soil.

Early hoeing kills weeds, prevents their growth, so as to be soon stifled by the drilled peas; it also loosens the soil, and admits the extention of the roots; and as they are ge­nerally cut early, time permits to give the bet­ter tillage for wheat. They will grow in all soils; but in a stiff fertile ground, they yield the greatest crops.

There are several sorts of field peas; but the most useful are the Marlborough, maple, horn-grey, blue poplar and Dutch admi­rals. The Marlborough and maple, are large peas; the former is speckled, and the latter of a hazle color; the horn-grey, and blue, are small peas; the former of a grey color, the latter of a blue. The poplar, and Dutch [Page 105] admiral, are white peas; the former small, and the latter large.

Of all pulses that are sown or propagated, peas claim the pre-eminence, not only for their general use, both by sea and land, for man and horse, but also for the diversity of their kinds suited to different soils. The large sort require a rich moist earth, and the small will grow on sands and gravels. If the crop is sufficient to shade its roots, once or twice hoeing will be sufficient; but if not, and the summer should be a dry one, they will re­quire frequent hoeings to prevent the dol­phin fly from taking of them.

The land should be prepared in the same manner as I have directed for beans; the small sort are hardiest, therefore may be sown early in the spring; the others should be sown some time in April at furthest; the large sorts of peas should be sown in drills, one to every inch and half, and three feet between. The small sorts should be one inch apart in the drills, and two feet between; four bushels of seed is the quantity for an acre. I have had 90 bushels on an acre, which I have sold for 5s. per bushel, and have had a very great crop of wheat the following year.

[Page 106]The next fallow crop on my list is potatoes, which are generally supposed to impoverish land. My crops of wheat after potatoes, have, in every experiment, proved as good and fine as after any other vegetable, or fallow equally manured. I had two successive crops of potatoes, the last of which produced 30 sacks more than the first; with an excellent succeeding crop of wheat, and the ground be­ing left in good order, gives me reason to conceive, that potatoes do not impoverish the land.

In order that I might have an opportunity more conveniently and minutely to investi­gate the growth of potatoes, and to attain some further knowledge of the most advan­tageous method of their cultivation, I made the following experiment, viz.

On the second of May I had six large po­tatoes, that weighed two pounds and two ounces, cut into thirty three sets, with two eyes each, which were planted in a stiff deep soil, with a small quantity of rotten dung scattered under and over the sets, which were placed about six inches deep, at the follow­ing distance in the rows, divided by pegs;

• [Page 107]No. 1. Eleven cuts, at six inches distance.
• No. 2. Eleven cuts at nine inches distance.
• No. 3. Eleven cuts at twelve inches distance.

They were hoed twice. On the tenth of October, the earth was carefully drawn from off the plants, which were extended across the rows, each measuring alike one foot. The produce was as follows:

• No. 1. Contained 124 potatoes, which weighed 28lbs. 10 ozs. and occupied six feet in length.
• No. 2. Contained 130 potatoes, which weigh­ed 32lbs. 2 ozs. and occupied nine feet in length.
• No. 3. Contained 145 potatoes, which weigh­ed 31lbs. 2 ozs. and occupied 13 feet in length; the total weight was 91lbs. 14 ozs. which is in proportion to 123 hundred weight to an acre, and at 4s. the hundred, comes to 24l. 12s. per acre.

Although the ground was dug about a foot deep, the plants and fibres did not grow perpendicularly, but horizontally across the rows, so far and so high as the loosened or hoed earth extended.

[Page 108]Hence it evidently appears, that the soil be­ing continually moved by the growth of the potatoes and hoeings, its particles are so mi­nutely divided, as to permit the free admis­sion for the atmospherical influences, which fertilize the land, and renders the succeeding crops more productive after a fallow crop; for the soil being more pulverized, the roots of the succeeding plants can the easier range in search of food; which, in proportion to the nourishment they acquire, fills the grain, and makes it weigh heavier, than when its roots are confined; and is the most certain proof, that good tillage is one of the greatest secrets in agriculture.

I am convinced from the many experi­ments I have made, that on good loamy or stiff soils, wheat may alternately succeed ei­ther beans, peas, potatoes, or any other me­liorating hoed crops for any number of years, provided the stubble is immediately, or soon after harvest, plowed as deep as the stratum will admit, into one bout ridges, by which the soil will be kept dry and exposed to the frosts, that will pulverize it. This mode, with the addition of proper manure, once in about four years, will keep the land in excellent order, and improve it. I have experienced, [Page 109] that one plowing in the fall, is of more benefit, than two plowings in the spring.

As manures cannot always be procured in sufficient quantities to dress all the land the farmer would wish, I will put him in a way, from my own experience, which, with a few shillings, and a little labour, he may dress an acre of land, or as many as he pleas­es.

In sands and gravels, buck-wheat plowed in while green, is a good dressing. The land should be plowed in the fall, and laid up in ridges as before directed, to bring the land into a fine tilth, harrowed and plowed in the spring, and the beginning of May should be sown with a bushel and an half of buck-wheat, and harrowed in, in July. When in full bloom it should be well rolled and plowed in, in broad lands. When this is done, there will some appear above ground, between the furrows, that the plow did not cover. This must be struck down with an iron instrument, like a paddle, or paring-sho­vel, and let it lie in that state for a month.

In this time it will smoak, so as to be seen a great way, like a dung-hill; and as it is a green dressing will quickly rot in the ground. [Page 110] The next thing is to harrow it; then plow and sow wheat in broad lands; if you have a good crop of buck-wheat, it will be a good dressing for three years.

This great improver of land is such a friend to the farmer, that if its value was more generally known, this method would be more practised.

When the crop of wheat is off, you may plow in the stubble and sow winter barley, and the succeeding year oats, and after that a turnip fallow, to clear it well from weeds.

Clover plowed in, is a good green dress­ing. You may mow the first crop; and if you have a good second crop, do not be afraid of plowing it in, as it will fully repay you in your crop of wheat. It should be rolled and plowed in, the same as the buck-wheat. After it has lain some time to rot, you may harrow in your wheat; for it should not be plowed again, as directed for the buck-wheat.

I had near my house a small field which contained three acres and a quarter, two acres of it were saintfoin, and the remainder [Page 111] acre and a quarter was lucern. These grasses served eight horses (which was in continual work) for green meat; during the summer, it was cut and brought to the stable, a small patch every day, and by the time they had gone over the field, where they had first be­gan was ready for cutting again.

In about ten years the lucern began to wear out; that is, the twich and weeds had got the better of it; therefore in the fall of the year, I had that acre and quarter plowed up; it was so tough and matted with the twich grass and weeds, that the furrows were solid from one end to the other. I had it tore to pieces with heavy harrows, and with rakes had the rubbish collected together in heaps, got some dry brush wood and put it under the heaps and set it on fire; spread the ashes and gave it another plowing, and laid it up in one bout ridges.

In the following spring harrowed it well, and raked the stuff together and burnt it, and spread the ashes as before, and gave it ano­ther plowing; the latter end of May, harrow­ed and plowed it again. By this time it was as fine as a garden. The beginning of July plowed it and sowed it with tur­nips; had a very great crop, which paid [Page 112] me upwards of 20l. by feeding it with sheep. In the following spring, sowed spring barley, and lucern, each at 12 inches apart in the rows, that is, a row of lucern, between every row of barley, and a row of barley between every row of lucern; so that there was 6 in­ches between the barley, and lucern. At harvest I had upwards of 80 bushels of bar­ley cut off the acre and quarter, and a very promising crop of lucern left, and so clean not a weed to be seen; in the following spring had it hoed, cut it the latter end of May, had a ton and half of hay. As soon as the hay was off, had it hoed; the latter end of July cut again, had about a ton of hay; had it hoed as before, in October cut it again, had upwards of half a ton of hay.

This method I pursued, and the crops in­creased every year. The following year I had about a ton more, and the third year when I reckoned it had come to maturity, I had upwards of five tons. This proves as I said before, that good tillage is the grand se­cret of agriculture, and the crops will am­ply pay the husbandman for his labour.

OF PLOWING AND HARROWING.

Plowing is the action of breaking up, open­ing, and pulverizing the soil, that the roots and tender fibres of plants may be enabled to ex­tend themselves in quest of food.

When the soil has been well loosened by deep repeated plowings and harrowings, its particles are minutely divided, and the roots of plants have liberty to spread freely. Hence they are enabled to acquire such nourishment as could not possibly be obtained, when con­fined between large impenetrable clods of earth.

Thorough plowing, in a great measure, supplies the want of manure, by keeping the earth in a loose state, ready for the re­ception of atmospherical influences.

Duhamel says, "It is much more profita­ble to increase the fruitfulness of land by tillage than by dung:

"1st. Because only a certain quantity of dung can often times be had, the produce of 20 acres being scarcely sufficient to dung one; [Page 114] whereas the particles of the earth may be divided and sub-divided, ad infinitum. The benefit that can be procured from dungs is therefore limited; whereas no bounds can be set to the advantages which arise from tillage

"2d. Most plants that are reared in dung, have not the fine flavour of those that grow in a good soil, which has not been dunged. Greens and fruits are seldom so good in the neighborhood of great cities, where dung abounds, as in country gardens, where it cannot be so lavishly bestowed. But no­thing is more striking, than the difference between wine produced by a vine that has not been dunged at all, and that which is made from a vine that has been greatly dunged.

"3d. Dung, which according to Mr. Tull, acts by fermentation, causes indeed an inter­nal division of the particles, which may be of great use; but the plough not only di­vides the particles, but changes the situation, by turning the earth upside down. The part which was exposed to the influence of the air and dew, takes the place of another part which is removed from underneath to the surface, and the earth that is turned up is penetrated by the rain and dew, and by the rays of the sun; all which greatly conduce to render it fertile.

[Page 115]"4th. Dung harbours insects, which af­terwards feed upon the plants and spoil them. It is well known, that when lands are dung­ed in which trees are planted, their roots are in great danger of being hurt by insects; and this is one of the chief reasons why flo­rists banish dung from their gardens.

"5th. It is true, that dung is equally be­neficial to light and stiff grounds; but the same may be said of tillage.

"Too strong land is that of which the parts are so close, that roots cannot penetrate them without great difficulty.

"Now, if roots cannot extend themselves freely in the earth, they cannot draw from it the food of plants, which, for want of that food, will droop and languish. But when those lands shall have been divided by tillage, when their particles shall have been so sepa­rated, that roots are at liberty to extend them­selves, and traverse all those small spaces, they will be able to supply the plants with their necessary food, and they will thrive apace."

Tillage is equally beneficial to light lands; but for a contrary reason. The fault of these [Page 116] lands is their having too great spaces between their particles; and as most of those spaces have no communication one with another, the roots traversing the great cavities, with­out touching the particles of the earth, draw consequently no nourishment from it. But when the particles have been broken by re­peated plowings, the lesser intervals are mul­tiplied at the expence of the greater: the roots have liberty to extend themselves, and they glide in, as it were between the particles, meeting with a certain resistance which is necessary to their taking in the nutritive juice which the earth contains.

Mr. Evelyn, quoting Sir. Hugh Platt, says, "That if you take a certain quantity of even the most barren earth, you can find, reduce it to a fine powder, and expose it for a year to the vicissitudes and changes of the season, and influences of the heavens, it will acquire such a generous and masculine pregnancy, within that period, as to be able to receive an exotic plant from the farthest Indies, and to cause all vegetables to prosper in the most exalted degree, and to bear their fruit as kindly with us, as they do in their natural climates."

[Page 117]We are to suppose these exotics to have their due degrees of heat and moisture given them. To what shall we ascribe this great fertility? To the great division of the par­ticles of the earth, and the multiplication of their surfaces.

"By this toil (viz. pulverizing the earth,) adds he, "it is found that soil may be so al­tered from its former nature, as to render the harsh, and most uncivil clay, obsequeous to the husbandman, and to bring forth roots and plants, which otherwise require the lightest and hollowest mould.

"But what proves how beneficial plowing is in strong lands to facilitate the passages of the water, of the rays of the sun, and of the roots of plants, is, that their fertility is some­times increased by mixing them with sand in­stead of dung.

"Sand itself affords no nourishment, but by preventing the particles from returning, it produces the desired good effects. It does not appear, that light grounds require quite so many plowings. It might even be feared, least by frequent turnings of such lands, and exposing their parts to the sun, they might be exhausted.

[Page 118]"But though the sun robs the earth of its moisture, yet few of the particles fit for the nourishment of plants are exhausted with it; and experience shows, that light lands are bettered by being plowed; either because the breaking and stiring of their particles renders them fitter to receive the moisture of rain and dew, to profit by the influencees of the air, and be penetrated by the rays of the sun; or that the internal pores are better fitted for the ex­tension of roots; or again, because frequent plowings destroys weeds, which are more apt to grow in light grounds than in strong, especially when they are dunged.

"To prove by an experiment, what we have just advanced, with respect to light soils: let one half of a field be indifferently plowed, and the other half be plowed extremely well. Some time after, and in dry weather, let the whole field be cross-plowed. The land of that half the field which was thoroughly plow­ed, will be of a darker colour than that of the other half, which was but slightly plowed. This shews the benefit the land has received by plowing.

Some think to supply the want of plowing, by harrowing their land greatly after it has [Page 119] been sown; but this way of scratching the earth is of little service; and, when it is moist, the horses poach and damage it consi­derably."

In the year 1759, Mr. Delu gave five plowings to a wheat field, which had not been dunged; and at harvest, had taller and finer grain there than any the neighboring grounds produced, which had been dunged and culti­vated in the usual way.

I knew a farmer, who had not sufficient quantity of dung to cover more than half his fallow, which he sowed with wheat; the other half he intended for spring barley, but was advised (rather than leave the ground uncropped) to give two extraordinary plow­ings, and sow that also with wheat, which he did; and reaped a greater crop of better grain off the undunged than the dunged land.

In short, the advantage resulting from tho­rough pulverizing the land is so great, parti­cularly when plants are growing, that in some places it has been found fully to repay the expences, even of hoeing between grain sown broad cast.

FERTILIZING STEEPS.

As I have made numerous experiments with steeps; to recapitulate the whole, might tend to bewilder the imagination. There­fore as I have found the following to be the most fertilizing, and effectual to prevent blights and smut, I shall confine myself to them only.

Take one peck and an half of fresh and dry wood ashes, and one peck of unslacked lime, which put into a tub that will contain about 40 gallons of water, then add as much water as will slack the lime, and render the mixture (which should be well incorporated) into the consistence of stiff morter; in this state it should remain ten or twelve hours; afterwards add as much water as will reduce the mortar to a pulp, by stirring; then fill the tub with water, which must be stirred for two or three days; then draw off the clear lye into a proper vessel for steeping the grain, and gradually put the grain into it, skimming off the light grain that swims.

After it has steeped six hours, let it be ta­ken [Page 121] out, and immediately spread on a clean floor to dry, when it will be sufficiently pre­pared for drilling or sowing. The lye will retain its full virtue, and the same may be repeatedly used.

On examining the grains of wheat and barley through a microscope, I have frequent­ly observed the animalcules which appeared like small quantities of black powder on the flat or hollow part, or on the downy and ger­minating end of the grain.

In order to discover what effect the steep lye would have on insects, I procured two common red worms, alike in size and strength, one was put into a glass of spring water, the other into a glass of the lye; the last imme­diately appeared to be in great agonies, and died within forty minutes. The worm that was put into the spring water, was alive and active at the expiration of three weeks.

From this experiment I conclude, that as the lye operated so violently on an amphi­bious insect, animalcules, that are not am­phibious, must naturally be destroyed in a much shorter time. And in every experi­ment, I have found this lye to answer fully [Page 122] my expectations as a fetilizer, killing the animalcule and preventing blights and smut.

I shall add one more, by using of which, I have had amazing large crops:

Take half a bushel of the grain you intend sowing, put it to five pails-full of water, and boil it in a copper till the grain bursts, and the water thereby becomes impregnated with the essential salt of such grain; strain the liquor, (you may give the grain to the poultry, that there may be no waste,) while the liquor is hot put three pounds of nitre, or refined salt pe­tre, that it may dissolve, and add four or five pails-full of water which drains from the dung hill, or stale urine of any sort. And in this prepared liquor steep the grain twelve hours.

Let the liquor be four inches above the grain in the fat or tub, as the grain will swell and imbibe it. This liquor must be warm when the grain is put in, and stop all as close as you can, for that causes the salts to be put in motion. Imbibe the grain in the morning, and in the evening take it out, and spread it on a clean floor to dry, and by morning it will be fit to sow. The liquor that is left, will serve again, with the additi­on [Page 123] of 3 lbs. of nitre, and when you have done with it, it is admirable to sprinkle over a garden.

The excellency of this receipt, is obvious in several cases. 1st. It saves seed. 2d. It in some measure supplies the defect of full dressing the land, by the seed being full of riches when sown. 3d. It produces a greater quantity than ordinary; lastly, by this steep­ing, the grain will make its way out of the ground, if drought should succeed, which of­ten is the case in spring grain, to lay a long time before it vegetates. From this receipt, I have had from thirty to forty ears from one root.

The present mode of cultivation in this country, is very imperfect and erroneous. I shall first observe the meadows, which, in general, are swamps, bogs, or other parts where stagnated waters lay, which kills the natural grass and sweet herbage, and forces up in its room a sour coarse grass full of tus­sucks, that has no nourishment in it, either for creature or beast. If that sort of land was properly drained, according to the di­rections before given, that noxious grass would die of itself, and sweet herbage grow in its room. The watered meadows, like­wise, [Page 124] produce a sour washy hay, that has in it very little nourishment.

I will maintain that there is more nourish­ment in one ton of good upland hay, than there is in three tons of that sort.

Every farmer might choose some of his upland for natural grass, and as for foreign grasses, they might be adapted to the dif­ferent soils. The poorest land will bring good crops of some of them, of which I shall treat hereafter. See foreign grasses.

Secondly, on arable land. The farmers in general, in this country seem to have studied the cultivation of no grain but maize or Indian corn: the culture of that they appear to un­derstand well. It suits the Indians, as they have such a plenty of land, but being of a roving disposition they are not longer in a place than just to have two or three crops, and then remove to another spot. That cultivati­on may suit some of the farmers here, as well as the Indians (from whom they learned) as long as they can do like them; that is when they have wore out their land, to remove to another place; but when this country increas­es [Page 125] in population, and gets thicker inhabited, the case will be altered.

There is no grain so great an impoverisher of land as Indian corn; yet I have seen it planted on land that would have brought an excellent crop of wheat; and if they had two succeeding crops of wheat, it would not have impoverished the land so much as one of corn.

Wheat in general follows the corn, sown among it as it stands: and so on alternately, till the land is worn out. By this method, there is seldom above two or three good crops at first; every succeeding crop dwindles, which on the contrary, were they to follow the dictates of reason, in changing the crops from impoverishing to a meliorating, proper plowing, manuring, &c. they would soon find the benefit.

By perusing this treatise with proper at­tention, every thing that is necessary may be known: but as there are several obstinate and conceited people, some very ignorant men that I have discoursed with—who have told me, they know as much of farming as any [Page 126] one—such people I do not expect will give themselves that trouble.

For a new and advantageous mode of cul­ture, I refer the reader to my experiments on fallows and fallow crops, wherein is proved by occular demonstrations, the advan­tages accruing by proper pulverizing the earth, changing of crops, and letting grain and grasses grow in rotation, which will con­tinually keep the land in sufficient heart to support its crops.

I shall now proceed to explain the nature and properties of grain, and grasses, with their proper culture: first I shall begin with the most noble and useful of all grain,

WHEAT.

There are several sorts; but I shall only mention those most useful, which are the red and yellow lammas, the cone or bearded, and the Siberian or spring.

[Page 127]The red lammas has a red straw and a red ear. This is the best wheat, as it makes the finest flour.

The yellow lammas, has a red ear and a white straw, and is the second best.

The cone or bearded, is hardy, and will stand the inclemency of the weather, better than either, neither is the fly so apt to take it; besides the long beard protects it from the mildews; but the flour is harsh and coarse; therefore that sort of wheat sells six pence in a bushel, cheaper than the other. The spring or Siberian is very useful, as there is more time to prepare the land, that it may be sown after the winter fallow; there is one caution I beg leave to notice, that the grain of spring or Si­berian wheat, is much more liable to drop out of the ears than the winter wheat. Hence, it should be particularly attended to, and cut before it is too ripe.

When wheat is planted or sown early in the fall, less seed is required to the acre, than when planted late; because less of it will die; and poor land should always be allowed more seed than rich, because a greater number of the plants will perish on this land than the other. The least quantity [Page 128] of seed is necessary for rich land, that is sown early; for, in this case, very few of the seeds will fail to produce a plant that will live and flourish.

The unskilful husbandman considers none of these things: he goes by a general rule; at all seasons, and on all sorts of lands, the quantity is the same sown.

Another thing to be considered, is, that some wheat of the same species has its grains twice as large as others: in this case, a bu­shel, containing but half the number of grains that it does in smaller grained wheat, one bu­shel of the small grained will go as far as two bushels of the large; it is not the measure of the seeds, but the number of the grains be­ing the thing to be considered in regard to the sowing.

It is a very natural thing to suppose, that a large grained wheat will produce larger and finer plants, and larger grain than a small grained one; but my experiments have prov­ed that there is nothing in this; for the small­est grained wheat has produced full as large plants as the largest, and those with as great [Page 129] ears and as large seeds; but the young plants appeared smaller and poorer.

Wheat is the properest grain of any to fol­low clover, lucern, saintfoin, or any other grasses: because it will best bear with sour tilth, to harrow it in after one plowing.

The best method for those who keep sheep is to plow about half an acre at a time; sow that, and pen the sheep on it; then plow half an acre more and do the like, and so on till the field is done. The larger the fold the better, for the field will be sooner finished; and by that means the sheep will be gone from thence before the wheat is much up.—This dressing with the fold has several conveniencies; it not only enriches the land, but treads the grain in, and so preserves it from dying, makes it stand fast against the winds, and keeps it from spewing out in the winter.

The season for sowing winter wheat, is in the fall in moist weather, from the middle of August to the middle of October; the quantity of seed is from three pecks to a bu­shel and half per acre. The spring wheat should be sown in the spring, as soon as the sea­son [Page 130] will permit; from a bushel to a bushel and half per acre.

The imperfections of the old or common method of cultivation appearing to me very erroneous, caused me to make many different experiments on wheat, as well as other dif­ferent grain, to endeavour to find out a re­medy, and if possible to adopt some new or better method of culture: by observations and close attention, I soon succeeded. I fixed together with a pole three harrows, which, when measured I found would cover the breadth of nine feet.

I accordingly had my fields formed into eight feet ridges, the three harrows complete­ly covered these ridges; and instead of the horses treading the pulverized land, four hor­ses were parted, two walked in the furrows each side of the ridge, by which the soil was properly harrowed without being trod or har­dened, and the ground made sufficiently fine. The repeated trials I have made of this new mode of culture, has sufficiently confirmed me of its utility.

One recent experiment will, I presume, as well as one hundred, illustrate its superior ad­vantages.— [Page 131] A field of four acres which had a crop of potatoes, which I could not get out of the ground before the middle of Novem­ber; therefore the land could not be got into proper order before the beginning of Decem­ber, as it was in an excellent tilth, curiosity induced me to sow it, even so late in the sea­son with cone or bearded wheat; for which purpose my drill machine was used on part of the field; which was planted with a propor­tion of three pecks to an acre, the rows at one foot apart, on ridges eight feet broad; but such an excessive fall of rain commen­ced, as soon reduced the soil to a mere quag­mire, the horses sunk up to their knees in the ridges. Hence the drill could not be any more worked.

This part of the field being drilled, and no prospect of more favourable weather at so late a period of the season, my servants and myself (attending the operation of the ma­chine) were thorougly wetted. The weather being rather warm, my people continued in the field, sowed the remainder with a bushel and half per acre, and even in such a wet state harrowed in the seed with three harrows co­vering the ridges, two horses walking in each furrow. And that I might be further con­vinced of the disadvantages attending the [Page 132] horses treading on the ground, I had two ridges harrowed by the horses walking there­on.

The beginning of May, I had the drilled wheat hoed, which cost me four shillings per acre; the other part of the field was weeded, at an expence of five shillings per acre; and during the whole time of its grow­ing, the drilled wheat, vissibly appeared su­perior, in every respect, to the broad cast; the straw was in size similar to reeds, many measured six feet in length, and the ears con­tained from ninety to one hundred and twen­ty grains.

The beginning of September, I had three perches each, of the drilled, the broad cast by the new mode of culture, and the broad­cast sown in the common way, carefully cut, carried into the granary, and there threshed; and altho' such a number of inconveniences attending it, such as bad weather for sowing, the late season, the birds, instigated by hun­ger, at that season, pick up a great deal of the grain, will even scratch off the snow and get at the milky grain, which they feed on; under all those disasters the produce was as follows: the drilled, four pecks and half a pint; or per acre, fifty-three bushels and [Page 133] three pecks. The broad cast, new mode, three pecks and ten pints; or, per acre forty-eight bushels, one peck and five pints. The broad cast, old mode, two pecks and six pints; or, per acre, thirty-one bushels, two pecks and ten pints.

This comparative view, clearly illustrates the disadvantages attending horses walking on the grain, after it is sowed; which old mode produced near seventeen bushels per acre less, than by the new method of the horses walking in the furrows; and although the drill worked to every disadvantage, in what might be partly called mortar, with only depositing half the seed, and at twelve inches distance between the rows; yet it produced five bushels one peck, and eleven pints more than the new broad cast mode, and twenty-two bushels six pints more than the common old broad cast mode: which plainly shews the superiority of the drill husbandry.

There is not any part of husbandry which requires the farmer's attention, more than that of keeping his land clean from weeds; and yet there are few who trouble themselves about it, or who understand the proper me­thod of doing it. Few of them know those weeds which are annual, so as to distinguish [Page 134] them from those that are perennial; and, without this knowledge it will be much more difficult for a person to clean his land, let his industry be ever so great: for annual seeds may soon be destroyed, if taken in time; whereas, if they are neglected, their seeds will soon ripen, and scatter; after which it will require three times the labour and ex­pence to get rid of them, as would have been sufficient at the beginning; and then the crop would have had no bad neighbours to rob it of its nourishment.

There is also another great advantage in keeping grain clear of weeds, which is,—it is not so liable to blight or take the smut, as when it is full of weeds, as I have frequent­ly observed; for cleanliness is as essential to the well doing and growth of vegetables, as in animals—And the changing of seed annu­ally is also as necessary as the change of air is to all sorts of animals: for where this has been carefully practised, there has rarely hap­pened any smutty grain on the farm.

When wheat is not sown after grasses (which is the best method,) the land should be fallowed and drest; the method is to plow it into narrow ridges, in the fall, and let it lay in that rough state all winter. In the [Page 135] spring, as soon as the weather will permit, harrow it down, and as soon as the weeds be­gin to vegetate, plow it again; then harrow it and give it another plowing before you sow; for the more it is plowed and harrowed, the better will be the crop, and the fewer weeds will be produced.

There is also a very absurd method in common practice with the farmers, which is the carrying of their dressing and spreading it on the land in the summer; where it lies exposed till the sun has dried out all the goodness of it, before it is plowed into the ground, so that the dressing is of little value or use; the dung should never be laid on the land faster than it can be plowed in; for one load of dung so managed, is better than three in their usual method.

As wheat remains in the ground a longer time than most other sorts of grain, it requires a greater stock of nourishment, to lengthen and fill the ears; therefore if the dressing is exausted in winter, the grain will have but short ears, and those but lean, nor will the grain afford much flour: so that it frequent­ly happens, that a light dressing of foot or ashes in the spring, at the time when the [Page 136] wheat is beginning to stalk, proves of great service.

Deep plowing, where the staple of the ground is deep enough to admit of it, will al­so be of great service to the wheat or any other grain; for the small fibres of the roots, which are the mouths that supply the nou­rishment, extend themselves very deep into the ground: I have traced many of them up­wards of three feet, and do believe they spread much farther where the ground is light; therefore it is of great advantage to the crop to have the ground loosened and stirred to a proper depth.

RYE,

Is a grain that delights in a dry warm land, and will grow in most sorts of earth, so that it is brought into a fine tilth; it does not need so rich a ground, nor so much care or cost as wheat, only it must be sown in a dry time, for rain soon drowns it: wet is a great enemy to it; therefore dry, gravelly, or sandy, warm land, is usually termed rye-land, being more proper for that than for any other grain. It is quick of growth, soon up after it is sown, and sooner in the ear, and ripe, than other [Page 137] grain: the best time for sowing of it, is in Sep­tember, or October will do if it is dry. It should be sown after a summer fallow. It re­quires more seed than wheat, as it doth not til­ler so much; from a bushel and an half to two bushels and an half of seed is the quantity to be sown on an acre. It is ripe when the straw is yellow, the ear bends, and the grain feels hard. It should be well dryed before it is housed, as it is a grain that will grow in the ear sooner than any other if it be wet.

BARLEY,

If cultivated in a proper manner, is a very beneficial crop even equal to wheat. And as malt spirits, and beer are likely to become more general in this country, by which a great deal of money will be kept here, that is an­nually sent out for importing these articles. To encourage the growth of this grain, will be a benefit to the nation at large.

Barley is a grain that delights in a fine tilth and rich soil, and will do as well with a bushel and an half of seed on such land, as well as two bushels and an half on a rough and sour soil.

[Page 138]The land for winter barley should be mana­ged the same as for wheat; potatoes prepare the land suitable for it, or fallow and dress it with a compost manure, which is equal to stable dung.

Spring barley makes the best malt, if the grain is but large and plump, which if you give it proper cultivation, you may have it so in the driest summers. It thrives best after a fallow crop of turnips; but if your land is good, in a fine tilth, and drill it, you will be sure to have a great crop of fine bar­ley.

To make the ground ready for barley after wheat, presently after harvest plow in the wheat stubble, in four-throughed lands; ear­ly in the spring harrow it, and bought it up; let it lay a little, then bought it down; har­row it and plow it into broad lands, and sow it with barley; I have taken this method on a loam▪ and it proved a tilth as fine as a garden.

A single cluster of barley growing in a field planted with peas attracted my attention. The numerous stalks appeared to be the pro­duce of several grains, but when pulled out of the ground, I clearly perceived they were only the produce of a single grain, which had [Page 139] been dropped by accident; curiosity induced me to count the number of ears, which were twenty-eight, containing in the whole three-hundred and thirty grains. Such an amazing increase, astonished and made me reflect, if one grain produced upwards of three hundred, how came it that farmers could procure no more, and be well satisfied in obtaining a crop from thirty to forty bushels per acre from two or three bushels of seed on good land? The greatest of such product, is only twenty for one, and of course less by three hundred for one, than the produce of the single grain.

Being fully convinced that the old mode of cultivation was very erroneous, I determined to endeavor to find out where the errors lay. I had a bushel of barley measured, it weighed fifty-two pounds and a quarter, and accord­ing to the grains in 1 oz. the whole bushel contained five hundred and fifteen thousand grains.

I next had a bushel of wheat measured, it weighed sixty-two pounds, and contained five hundred and sixteen thousand grains. A bushel of poplar peas weighed sixty-four pounds, contained one hundred and seven thousand peas. A bushel of horse beans weighed sixty-four pounds, contained thirty-five [Page 140] thousand beans. A bushel of the Poland oats weighed thirty-two pounds, containing one million two hundred and sixty thousand grains. These were all large sized grains; therefore the smaller ones must contain a con­siderable quantity of more grains in the bushel.

Having thus far proceeded, I next reflec­ted, that admitting every grain sowed, was to vegetate, and produce no more than forty for one, the produce of two bushels of barley seed, ought to be eighty bushels per acre.— Therefore I was fully determined as soon as possible, particularly to investigate the future growth of grain. Opportunity did not per­mit my making any experiments till the fol­lowing spring, when I had beds dug eight feet three inches long, and two feet wide, which occupies a space of one sixteenth part of a square perch.

I thought it necessary for my future con­duct and experiments in agriculture, to re­duce the weight of the bushel of barley, being fifty-two pounds and a quarter, into drachms, that I might the better be enabled to propor­tion to an acre, the quantity of seed most advantageous for drilling, and sowing broad cast; accordingly found that fifty-two pounds and a quarter, contained thirteen thousand [Page 141] three hundred and seventy-six drachms. Then reduced an acre into sixteenths of a perch being two thousand five hundred and sixty; and dividing the drachms (thirteen thousand three hundred, and seventy-six, the contents of the bushel,) by the number of sixteens, (being two thousand five hundred and sixty in an acre) found the quotient to be 5 2560/157 [...] part of a drachm.

Therefore on the 17th of April, sowed broad cast five drachms and a quarter, as be­ing the nearest proportion of a bushel to an acre of land, on the first bed; and in propor­tion to two bushels on the second bed, and to three on the third bed, and to four on the fourth bed;—the soil a stiff unmanured loam, had been cropped with peas, the last year was winter fallowed, and dug a spit deep.

August 23d, cut the four beds, and the pro­duce was as follows:—that sown at the rate of one bushel to the acre, 184 drachms, or 35 bushels per acre. That sown at the rate of two bushels contained 207 drachms, or 39 bushels per acre. That sown at the rate of three bushels contained 261 drachms, or 49 bushels per acre. That sown at the rate of four bushels, contained 289 drachms, or 55 bushels per acre.

[Page 142]In order to prove the efficacy of the steeps before recommended, I divided four par­cels of seed, the same quantities as before enumerated, and steeped them in the prepa­red steep of the liquor of the barley boiled, nitre, and stale urine, according to the direc­tions there mentioned, and sowed them in the same manner as that not steeped: it was up in a few days, and the plants looked much more luxuriant than that not steeped; it tillered and branched double as much: that which was sown the thinest, was much stronger, had longer and fuller ears, and branched much more than the thick sown, but was not ripe for near a fortnight after the other which was not steeped.

The beginning of September, cut the four beds, and the produce was as follows:— that sown at the rate of one bushel to the acre, produced in proportion to 66 bushels per acre. That sown at the rate of two bu­shels produced in proportion to 69 bushels per acre. That sown at the rate of three bu­shels, produced in proportion to 58 bushels per acre. That sown at the rate of four bu­shels to the acre, produced in proportion to 56 bushels to the acre.

This experiment proves the steep to be a great fertilizer; which saves a great deal of seed.

[Page 143]From many experiments I have made, I find a bushel and an half of seed barley, stee­ped is the proper quantity, whereas by the above experiment of the unsteeped, four bu­shels is the quantity which produces the most. And that did not produce so much by eleven bushels per acre, as that which was only sown at the rate of one bushel steeped.

In drilling of grain, experience has convin­ced me, that one inch is the best distance for dropping the seed in the rows, and two inches deep; and in order more fully to be convin­ced which is the best distance in the intervals, for steeped, and unsteeped, I tried the following experiments: I sowed three beds of each at six eight, and twelve inches, between the rows. I shall first give the quantity of seed (as the steeped and unsteeped took equally the same quantity) that with the six inch intervals had four drills in each bed, which took nine drachms and an half: near two bushels to an acre. That with eight inch intervals had three drills in each bed, which took seven drachms, at the rate of a little better than five pecks per acre. That with twelve inch in­tervals, had two drills in each bed, and took four drachms and an half, which is at the rate of three pecks and an half per acre. It was each cut and threshed apart. The pro­duce [Page 144] was as follows:—the steeped sowed in the six inch intervals, produced in proportion to 90 bushels per acre. That in the eight inch intervals produced in proportion to 84 bushels per acre. That in the twelve inch intervals produced in proportion to 72 bu­shels per acre. The unsteeped in the six inch intervals, produced in proportion to 83 bu­shels per acre. That in the eight inch inter­vals, produced in proportion to 70 bushels per acre. That in the twelve inch intervals, produced in proportion to 56 bushels per acre.

These experiments prove the superiority of the drill to the broad cast, and that the most advantageous distance between the rows is six inches; and the steeped is far su­perior to the unsteeped, particularly where it was sowed farthest apart in the rows, as it had there more room to gather or branch. In the twelve inch intervals it gained 16 bu­shels. In the eight inch it gained 14 bushels. In the six inch, it only gained 7 bushels. I presume the reason was that it had not room in the six inch intervals, to increase itself as it had in the rest.

Every experiment was left without being weeded or hoed, that I might the better be ena­bled [Page 145] to observe the growth of weeds. In the broad cast where it was sown with four bushels of seed to the acre, contained but few: likewise that drilled at six inch inter­vals, contained very few or none.

When the barley was cut, the ground which was sown thickest broad-cast, and the ground on which the six inch drills grew, appeared more hollow, blacker and moister, than the other; and according to the in­crease of distance between the drills, so in pro­portion was the increase of weeds and dry­ness of the soil.

The roots of the thick sown, as well as that drilled at six inches, were so matted or combined together, as to keep the soil more hollow, and had extended themselves farther than any of the others; and I presume, that the thickness of their shade prevented the moisture being exhaled, which caused a kind of constant fermentation in the soil. Hence, the ground appeared more hollow, moister, and blacker, than between the drills at greater distances.

I have found great benefit in the lye-steep made from ashes and lime, but not so equal­ly fertilizing for barley as the other; but for [Page 146] wheat and peas, by the experiments that I have made, it appears superior.

OATS,

Are a profitable and necessary grain, and are principally recommended for horses, and commended for that use above all others, being of an opening nature. Poultry also love them, and makes them lay more eggs than any other grain—There are several sorts, but I shall distinguish them under three: the black, red, and white; black oats are commonly sown upon an etch crop, or a lay, as soon as the spring will admit, when the earth is moist, taking care to turn the turf well, and to lay it even and flat. If sown broad­cast, they must be harrowed the same way as the furrows lie, if a lay, or but a very little across, for fear of turning the turf; but upon an etch, as soon as the land is plowed on an edge, sow and harrow it in at once, and harrow it five or six times over, observing to harrow once or twice across, which breaks the clods, and covers the seed better than harrowing all one way, they are in general sown after one plowing. Three bushels of seed is the quantity for an acre. If they are [Page 147] drilled, six inches between the rows is the best distance, and two bushels to an acre at least, as oats will not tiller and spread like other grain; they are ripe when the stalk turns yellow, the grain feels hard, and the husk begins to open and shew the seed. After they are cut, they should lie for the dew and rain to plump them, and make them thresh well: and, if weedy, to dry the weeds; but if there happens much rain, they must be got in as soon as dry, otherwise the oats will soon fall out of the husks, and great part of the crop be lost.

This black oat is a hardy grain, and will bear a great deal of wet and cold. There is no land too rich, or too poor, too hot nor too cold for them.

The red oat is most common in northern countries; it is a sort of naked oat, and is ve­ry proper for making oat-meal, because the kernel threshes out of the hull without car­rying it to the mill or drying of it. This oat is cultivated in the same manner as bar­ley.

The white oat is commonly sown on an etch, after wheat, rye or barley. The best method to prepare the land is, to plow in [Page 148] the stubble in the fall, and lay it up in nar­row ridges; early in the spring, harrow it well, and give it two plowings before you sow, which is to be managed the same as the black oat on an etch, and the same quantity of seed.—They will bear sowing later than the other, as, the dryer the weather is when they are sown, the better.

The white oat grows best on high dry grounds, either gravels or sands, and they are the best of all to be sown on land very subject to weeds, because, being sown late, they allow a very late plowing, and growing very quick after this, they over-top the weeds sooner than any other plant.

BUCK OR FRENCH-WHEAT,

Is a grain exceeding advantageous on bar­ren, sandy ground. It is usually sown as barley, but later, from one to two bushels of seed to an acre; from May, till the latter end of July is the season for sowing of it. It is late before it is ripe. If the soil suits it, and is not poor, it will yield a great increase, from 60 to 70 bushels to an acre, and is ex­cellent food for hogs, poultry, &c. There is no danger of the seeds failing, nor of suffering [Page 149] by wet; after it is mown, it must lay several days to dry, that the stalks, (which are hard) may wither before it is housed.

If buck wheat is sown very thick, and suf­fered to grow till it is in blossom, and then rolled down and plowed in, makes an excel­lent lay for wheat or rye.

HORSE BEANS AND PEAS.

I have before given full and proper direc­tions for their cultivation in the management of fallows, and fallow crops, therefore here shall pass them over, and proceed to

MAIZE OR INDIAN CORN,

Is a very useful grain, either for the house, horses, cattle, or hogs: and it requires a less quantity of seed than any other, and will grow if two or three years old, but is a great impoverisher of land.

I have made several experiments in order to find the most advantageous method of planting it. The following has exceeded all others.

[Page 150]I prepared my land by plowing it up in the fall of the year, in single boughts; in the spring I harrowed it down as smooth as pos­sible, and plowed it; then I harrowed it again, and marked out the furrows at eight feet di­stance: in these furrows, I dropped the seed single, at about the distance of every foot— my cart loaded with manure from my com­post heap, followed in the alley between, and covered the seed in the two furrows, about three or four inches thick, with the manure. This was done almost as expeditiously as in the common way, covering it with mould by the hoe.

By this method, the plants came soon up, and flourished very vigorously. When the plants were about six inches high, I plowed between, taking the mould from the plants, and throwed it up in a ridge in the middle of the alley; and with a hand hoe cut up the weeds and superfluous plants. If they are left at two feet distance in the rows they will be thick enough. The stirring of the mould so near the plants, makes them thrive and grow surprisingly.

The next plowing, I took the mould from the middle, and throwed it up to the plants. Every time of plowing, I used the hand hoe [Page 151] to stir the ground between the plants, and destroy the weeds. The third plowing I did as the first, throwing up the mould in the middle of the alley. This is of more use than a person would imagine; for it admits the influences of the air and nitrous dews to penetrate to the roots.

The fourth plowing, (which was the last) I managed as the second, by throwing up the mould to the stalks of corn.—If this last plowing could be so contrived, as to be done early in the morning, before the sun has ex­aled the dew, it would bury those riches in the ground which would afford a double nou­rishment. My land, where I tried this expe­riment, is between a loam and a clay.

Sands, and light lands will not require so many plowings.

By the above method, middling lands will produce from fifty to eighty bushels per acre.

TARES AND VETCHES.

Tares are a very useful pulse; the haulm is something like the pea, but exceedingly [Page 152] sweet and nourishing for horses and cows, best for cutting and bringing into the stable and cow house. They are a great sweetener and en­richer of land, by their long luxuriant haulm covering the ground. The time for sowing is early in the spring, three bushels of seed to an acre; the land should be in a fine tilth. If left for seed, they will be ripe in August. In good land there will be from 50 to 60 bu­shel per acre.

There are two sorts of vetches, the winter and the summer vetch. Their haulm and seed are much like the tare, and their cul­tivation and quantity of seed exactly alike.

The winter vetch is sown in the fall, and the spring vetch early in the spring; the for­mer will stand the severity of the winter; but the latter is tender.

They are sown to much advantage in some places: they are good, strong and nou­rishing food for horses, or cattle, either green or in the straw.

GRASSES.

The great improvements that are made by sowing land in tillage with grass seeds, do [Page 153] more encourage the use thereof, and especi­ally those of clover, trefoil, saintfoin and lu­cerne, because the harrowing in of grain up­on only one plowing, saves a great expence and time, besides the produce of large crops; and as some of these grasses will suit all soils, the farmer, if he has no meadow, either wet or dry, may, by the help of these grass­es be able to make hay enough for his creatures and stock, and to spare; which will be a great improvement to dry farms, and be the means of reducing the price of meadow land, which at present is very high. I shall first begin with

CLOVER.

Clover grass hath been the name a great while, both for the great improvement it brings by its prodigious burthen, as also for its excellent sweetness both in grass and hay, and the riches with which it impreg­nates the ground, by the stalk and roots; the former by receiving the nitrous dews, which descend by them to the roots and ground about them; the latter also affords a sort of dressing to the ground after it is plowed up; and above all, saves that expence which ma­ny are at yearly for weeding their ground, [Page 154] which is by this grass entirely got under; and also the damage prevented that the grain ge­nerally sustains by the weeds growing amongst it: so that it may be depended on, nothing better clears the ground of trumpery and weeds than a good crop of clover, as I have often experienced. It enriches and is of great service to stiff foils, either clay or loam by its deep and lateral roots opening and hollowing the ground, and will in that sort of land, if it is in good heart, bring a ve­ry great crop; but in sands or gravels, if a dry season, the crop will be very short, as it will burn.

The land for sowing this on, as well as all other sown grasses, should be made very fine, that is brought into a fine tilth, otherwise above half the seed will be wasted. Fallow crops are best to prepare the land; turnips, potatoes and peas, I have found to be the best, and I have had better crops by sowing it by itself in August.

If it is sown with grain, spring grain is the best; after the grain is up, sow the clover seed and roll it in, for that method new moulds the grain, and makes it grow amazingly, and then there is no danger of the clover [Page 155] getting a head, and damaging the grain as is often the case in wet springs.

If you sow it among your winter grain, it must be sown in the spring, and bush harrow it in; this method moulds the grain and co­vers the seed.—The land in the spring is often settled and baked hard, therefore there can­not be so good a chance of having so good a crop of grass with winter grain as with spring. In the choice of this seed, that which is of a bright yellow, with a good quantity of the purple and brown coloured, seed amongst it; for that shows the ripeness of the seed; when the white and light yellow coloured, is that which has not come to its full maturity, or not ripe. When it is thorough ripe, and well got in, the seed will be good for five or six years. The quantity of good seed to be sown per acre, is from six to ten pounds, ac­cording to the fineness and richness of the soil.

In May, or the beginning of June, this grass will be fit to cut, and there should be great care taken in making of it; for it will require a great deal more labour and time to dry than common grass, and will shrink into less compass; but, if it be not too rank, it will make extraordinary rich food for cattle. [Page 156] The time for cutting it is when it begins to flower; for if it stands much longer, the lower parts of the stems will begin to dry, where­by it will make a less quantity of hay, and that not so well flavoured.

I have cut three crops of this grass some years; but the best way is to cut it once in the spring, and feed it the remaining part of the year, whereby the land will be enriched, and the plants will grow much stronger.

One acre of this grass (if a good crop,) will feed as many cattle as three or four of com­mon grass; but great care must be taken of the cattle when they are first put into it, lest it hoves and bursts them: to prevent which the best method is, before they are turned in to eat it, let them fill their bellies with some other food, and at first turn them in only for a few hours, and stint them as to quantity; and this by degrees, letting them first be in the middle of the day, when there is no moisture on the grass, and so every day, suffering them to remain a longer time, until they are fully seasoned to it: but great care should be taken never to turn them into this food in wet wea­ther; or, if they have been for some time accustomed to this food, it will be proper to turn them out at night in wet weather, and [Page 157] let them have hay or straw, which will pre­vent the ill consequences of this food.

The best method of making clover hay, I have found to be thus:—after it is mowed, put it up with the fork or rake in little sepa­rate parcels, about the bigness of a bushel, then turn it bottom upwards several times, till it is made; so that you never separate it till it be carted home; by this means the leaf and flower is kept on, which otherwise would be mostly lost, which is the best part of the hay.

If clover is kept for seed, and it is a fa­vourable season, you may have two crops; but in general there is but one crop saved, and that is the second, as it grows more even and has less weeds in it than the first. When it is kept for seed, it must stand till the heads are very brown, and full ripe, which may be known by rubbing them between your hands. I have had from two crops of seed in one sea­son, upwards of six bushels on an acre, and from one crop near four bushels. It is a seed that is hard to get out by threshing, therefore the spring is the best time for this work when [Page 158] the drying winds blow, which should be let into the barn as much as possible.

I have made experiments to know the pro­fits of a clover crop; the first was as follows: Six acres of clover I cut, and fed cattle in racks, from the latter end of April, to the latter end of October following, which main­tained ten oxen, thirteen cows, three horses, and twenty-six hogs; which after the rate of 2s. per week for each kine and horse, and 4d. per week for each hog, which came to 3l. 1s. 6d. 1-2, or 80l. for twenty-six weeks. The summer profit then of each acre was 13l. 6s. 8d. besides the latter-math.

The next experiment was on four acres of clover, which I let go to seed. At twice mowing I had twelve tons of hay and twen­ty four bushels and a half of seed. The hay was not near so good as if it had been cut green, therefore I allowed it to be worth on­ly 2l. per ton. The clover seed I sold for 50s. per bushel, so that the amount of the produce of the four acres was 85l. 5s. or 21l. 6s. 3d. per acre. When a clover lay is plow­ed up, if the land is not rich or in good heart, it is an excellent method to plow in the last crop, and you may depend on having a good [Page 159] crop of wheat after it; this I have experien­ced often.

A top dressing is of great benefit to clo­ver, if sown over early in the spring; on stiff soils, ashes or soot is the best; on light lands, the plaister of Paris. If any of those are sown over ever so thin, it will nearly dou­ble the crop.

TREFOIL.

Lands naturally kind for grain, and unkind for common grass, are undoubtedly kind for trefoil; and though it be much impover­ished by long sowing, that it will bear grain no longer, it will bring a crop of this grass. Experience convinces me that it will grow in any soil: even rocky, hilly, or gravelly ground, of a very small value, may be impro­ved by this grass; but if the land be a clay, and it lays wet, it must be drained and made as dry as you can.

That the pasture is as good and better on trefoil than clover, for cattle, and especially cows; for it will not only cause them to give more milk in quantity, but better in quality, and also makes butter and cheese of a delicate [Page 160] yellow colour. The hay thereof is nourishing and makes oxen and other cattle as fat as any other hay, if it be made in good season, that is, whilst it is full of yellow blossoms, and not over dry (for it is soon made.) It does not loose its colour, or shrink in making, as clover grass does; but is much finer, green­er, and in all points better than clover is. It is particularly good for fattening of ewes and lambs, and free from breeding rottenness, which other pastures are apt to do. And as clover makes sick and kills many cattle, this is free from any such danger; the cattle are so sensible of it, that where they are sown to­gether, they will not touch the clover, till they have eat the trefoil bare.

Trefoil will endure much longer than clo­ver, if it stands not for seed; for that is de­structive to the root; because being cut in the heat of summer, the heat draws out the sap which should nourish it.

The crop is not so bulky as clover, but the many good qualities enumerated as above, makes it a beneficial crop. It is most profit­able fed green, as it fattens oxen, cows or sheep in a short time. If made into hay, it should be cut when in full blossom; it is soon made, as it need not be dryed so much [Page 161] as other hay. The quantity of seed to be sown per acre, is, if in the hull, two bushels; but if the seed is naked and clean, from ten to twelve pounds is the quantity per acre; or if sown with clover, half of each.

Trefoil is sown the same as clover, on a fine tilth, with, or without grain. The mak­ing the hay and every particular management the same as clover. The seed is of a bright yellow colour, not any purple or brown seeds like clover, but in shape and size like it.

SAINTFOIN,

Took its name from the French; for the word Saintfoin, translated into English, is Holy-Hay, which name they gave it from its excellent nutritive quality.

There may be more benefit reaped from this grass, than any other; as you may get a very great crop in the most dryest land, on hills, gravels, sands, or even barren ground; and it will so improve all those lands in such an extraordinary manner that they will bring great crops of any sort of grain after it.

[Page 162]The stalks of the plant in poor land will be two feet high, and in rich land it will grow as high as six feet. It has tufts of red flowers, of three, four, or five inches in length of the honey-suckle kind: they are so beauti­ful, and sweet, that I have seen them much esteemed in a garden, and called the French honey-suckle.

This plant will make twenty times the in­crease in poor ground than the common turf; and this is owing to its having a long per­pendicular root called tap roots, as well as numbers of horizontal ones: the perpendicu­lar ones sink to a great depth to attract its nourishment. The length of this root is scarce to be credited by any but those who have seen it; I have drawn it out of the ground near fourteen feet; and some have told me they have traversed it to double that length. This is the reason, I presume why this plant will bear drouth, when all other grasses have been burnt up by the excessive dryness of the season. I have at one cutting got two tons of this hay per acre.

Cold, clay, or wet land is not suitable for this grass, as it would chill and rot the roots. The long root of saintfoin, has near the sur­face, many horizontal roots issuing from it, [Page 163] which extend themselves every way; there are of the same kind all the way down, as the roots go, but they grow shorter and short­er all the way.

Any dry land may be made to produce this valuable and useful plant, though it be ever so poor; but the richest and best land will pro­duce the greatest crops of it.

The best method of sowing it is by drill­ing, but the earth must be very well prepared, and the seed well ordered, or else very little of it will grow. The heads of these seeds are so large, and their necks so weak, that if they be above an inch deep, they are not able to rise through the incumbent mould, and, if they are not covered, they will be mal­ted; that is, it will send out its root while it lies above ground, and be killed by the air.

The best season for planting it is the be­ginning of spring; and it is always strong­est when planted alone.

If barley, oats, or any other grain sown with the saintfoin, happen to be lodged after­wards, it kills the young saintfoin. The quantity of seed to be drilled or sown broad­cast [Page 164] upon an acre of land will depend wholly on the goodness of it; for there is some seed, of which not one in ten will strike; whereas, in good seed, not one in twenty will fail. The method of knowing the goodness, is by sow­ing a certain number of the seeds, and seeing how many plants are produced by them. If it is above two years old, it will not grow. The external signs of the seeds being good, are, that the husk is of a bright colour rather of a purple, and the kernel plump, of a light grey or blue colour. If the kernel be cut across, and appear greenish and fresh, it is a certain sign it is good. If be of a yellowish colour, and friable, and looks thin and pitted, it is a bad sign. The quantity of seed allow­ed to the acre in the drill way, is much less than by sowing broad-cast. A bushel of seed to an acre of land, is 20 seeds to eack square foot of land if sown broad-cast, which would be sufficient; but there must be an allowance made for casualties.

The quantity of good seed I have found by experience is, for sowing broad-cast, two bushels, and for drilling, one bushel. And as the saintfoin does not cover all the ground the first year, which spaces are generally oc­cupied by weeds; to remedy this, when I have sown it broad cast, I have sown four or [Page 165] five pounds of clover seed with it to the acre, which has answered a very good purpose, as I have then had a crop the first year.

The Saintfoin is but a slow grower at first, the second year perhaps will not exceed a clo­ver crop, but afterwards it increases every year, for six or seven years before it comes to its full perfection; and as that increases, the clover goes off, and makes room for it.

This valuable plant will keep in perfecti­on for twenty years, if you only give it a slight top dressing with soot or ashes, once in four or five years. The first summer, nor early the next spring, it should not be fed, because it will be apt to bleed itself to death: for the sweetness of it is such, that it will en­tice cattle to bite into the knot in the ground and spoil it; but afterwards, when it has ga­thered strength, the best method will be to mow the first crop, and feed it after, which is excellent for cows and sheep.

This plant, as well as trefoil, will not thrive in a wet moist soil; and as saintfoin thrives best on high grounds, it is a great ad­vantage in the article of making it into hay, as it has greatly more advantage of the sun, and less to fear of mischief from wet, than [Page 166] grass which grows in low grounds.—On the high grounds, the wind will dry more in an hour, than it will in meadows that lie low, in a whole day; and often the crops of saint­foin make a very good hay in the same sea­sons in which all the grass hay is spoiled. The sun on the high grounds has also a more be­nign influence, and sends off the dew there, two hours earlier in the morning, and holds it up as much longer in the evening; by these advantages, the saintfoin has more time to dry, and is made with half the expence of common hay.

Saintfoin for hay, should be cut when it is half blossomed, and managed the same, as before directed for clover. If saved for seed, it must be the first cutting. You may know when it is ripe by the seeds coming out easily in your hand; dry it in the field, and thresh it there on a cloth, as it will shed, and you will loose great part of the seed if you carry it to the barn. The straw will be as good as hay for horses; and the hay, when it has been well got in, my horses that have worked hard, have been kept on it alone without any grain, have been so fond of it that they have refused beans and oats mixed with chaff in the common way for it. Sheep also will be satted in pens in winter, with on­ly [Page 167] this hay and water, better than with corn, peas, oats, and the like. In short, there is no hay that is made, is equal to it, and the pro­duce will be double that of clover. The land where it is sown should be very clean from weeds, under a fine tilth; which is best done by a turnip fallow.

LUCERNE,

Is the same plant which the ancients were so fond of, under the name of Medica, and in the culture of which they bestowed such great care and pains. Its leaves grow three at a joint, like those of the clover; its flow­ers are blue, and its pods of a screw like shape, containing seeds like those of the red clover, but longer, and more kidney shaped, and the colour all yellow. The stalks grow erect, and, after mowing, they immediately grow up again from the parts where they were cut off. The roots are longer than the saintfoin, and are not single, but some times they run perpendicularly, in three or four places from the crown.

It is the only plant in the world, whose hay is equal to the saintfoin for the fattening [Page 168] of cattle; but its virtues in that respect are very great. It is the sweetest grass in the world, but must be given to cattle with cau­tion, and in small quantities, otherwise they will swell, and incur diseases from it.

Though the common methods of husband­ry will not raise lucerne to any great advan­tage, yet the drilling and the horse-hoe hus­bandry will raise it, annually increasing in value to the owner, and make one of the most profitable articles of his business.

The soil to plant it on, must be either a hot gravel, or a very rich and dry land, that has not an under stratum of clay, and is not too near springs of water. The natural poorness of gravel or sand, may be made up by dung, and the benefit of the hoe, and the natural richness of the other lands, being increas­ed by howing and cleansing from grass, the lucerne will thrive with less heat; for what is wanted in one of those qualities, must be made up in the other.

The best season for planting of it is early in the spring, the earlier the better; for then there is always moisture enough in the earth to make it grow, and not so much heat as would dry up its tender roots, and kill it [Page 169] after the first shootings. About a pound and an half of seed will be enough for an acre.

The planting it in autumn, in some cli­mates, might do; but here the winters are too cold, which would kill great part of the tender plants, and greatly stunt and injure those it does not kill. The number of the lu­cerne plants should be less than those of saint­foin, to an acre, because they grow much larger in this way of management, and each occupies a greater space of ground, and pro­duces a larger quantity of hay.

The quick growth of this plant, requires that it should have large supplies of nourish­ment, and good room to grow in; and it is better in all things of this kind to err in setting the plants too far distant, than in setting them too near.

The most fatal diseases incident to lucern, are starving and smothering; for this reason, good cultivation is necessary to it, and the of­ten turning the earth with the hoe all about it. By this means, a plant, that in the com­mon way of sowing, would not have been more than eight or nine inches high, will be four or five feet, and will spread every way, [Page 170] so as to produce a quantity of hay, more like the cutting of a shrub, than a plant.

The plants should stand at five inches dis­tance in single rows, and the intervals be­tween these rows, must be left wide enough for the use of the hoe plough, (if managed according to the horse-hoe husbandry;) but if hand hoed, one foot between the rows will do: for which I will refer you to my expe­riments on fallow crops, where you will find, that by this method, I had at the rate of four tun of lucern hay per acre. But lucern sown in drills so near, will in a few years, meet in the rows, which will hinder the mould be­ing stirred, when it will starve for want of nourishment, and thereby wear out.

Lucern is of much quicker growth than saintfoin, or any other grass. I have cut it four times in a season; whereas the others are seldom cut above twice.

Lucern is to be made into hay, the same as saintfoin or clover; but this must be ob­served, that it is always to be cut just before it comes to flower. It is a fine food, if cut for the cattle green, it is so sweet and full of [Page 171] nourishment: but it must be kept clean from natural grass, as that soon choaks and kills it.

RYE-GRASS.

Rye-grass, when young in the spring, is proper for fattening of horses or beasts, and is of very great advantage for milch cows, as it causes an abundance of milk, making ex­cellent butter and cheese, and is of great ser­vice for ewes and lambs, or to feed any large cattle in the early part of the season, before clover and the other grasses come in; it be­ing much more quick in growth than they.

As for the soil, clay, or any other sour and uncultivated land, is proper for it; nor it doth not take so much tillage as other grass seeds do, growing well amongst the most stub­born clods that lie in the way: on which ac­count, where any person has any cold sour lands, they cant be better employed than in such a way; it being always to be observed, that those lands which will not suit clover, trefoil, saintfoin, or lucern, will well suit this grass. It will last some years, and for the feeding of cattle, it is of great advantage, as well as the great bulk of hay it makes, which is double that of common grass; but if it [Page 172] should be a dry summer, there will be but a short crop in the fall. Being sown in the fall, it will be fit to graze the following year, for horses and beasts, without danger of mak­ing it bleed.

If this seed be sown on land entirely devot­ed to it, and on which, in all probability, no grain, at least but little, will grow; then two bushels of seed is the least that can be sown there.

Although rye-grass is proper to be sown upon cold, coarse, austere ground only, I have frequently seen it admitted into lands whose soil was suitable for the other more va­luable grasses, which would have been much more advantageous.

I have frequently sown rye-grass, mixed with clover seed, with my spring grain. The quantity has been one bushel of rye-grass, and six-pounds of clover seed, by which I have found great benefit, as it has greatly in­creased the bulk of hay; and when I have fed it, has prevented the pernicious effects that clover has alone.

Rye-grass seldom wants any assistance, till after it has been sown two or three years; [Page 173] when it does, you may dress it with shovel­lings of streets or roads, or earth dug from the sides of roads, or any compost what-ever.

The hay of rye-grass must be cut and ma­naged as common grass hay.

TIMOTHY-GRASS,

Is a species of grass, something like rye-grass, and makes the best hay and the greatest quantity of any known at present in this country. It is supposed to be a native here. I cannot find any author, that has given any account of it. The best time for sowing the seed is from the middle to the latter end of August. A moist rich land will produce from two to four tuns of hay per acre; one peck of clean seed is sufficient to sow an acre, some sow it with grain, but the best method is to sow it by itself.

BURNET.

Burnet is a hardy grass, and will stand the frost and severity of the winter, better than any other; and like rye-grass makes an ear­ly pasture, it being of a quick growth. It [Page 174] will grow on any soil, but a loam suits it best. The land intended for it, should be brought into a fine tilth; from 16lbs to 20lbs of seed is sufficient for an acre. The seed must be covered with a very light harrow, and the ground rolled; the time for sowing it is from April till September. It should be mowed but once the first year.

The time for mowing of it (if not saved for seed) should be when in full blossom. When the seeds of the plant are to be saved it must be neither fed or mowed in the spring. The seed will be ripe about the middle of June, when it must be reaped like wheat, and threshed on a cloth, before it is too dry, because it is apt to shed, and it should after­wards be dried perfectly. It does not lose its leaves in drying; and though the hay made of it be sticky, it will after thresh­ing be very agreeable to horses, which are so fond of it, that they never waste any. The seed is so nourishing that it fattens them pre­sently. I have had from one acre upwards of three tuns of hay and above forty bushels of seed.

The before mentioned grasses may all be seen growing at the author's place of resi­dence.

UPLAND MEADOWS.

For upland meadows that are sown with common grass, the land should be rich and good; and before it is lain down, should be well cleaned from weeds, and brought into a fine tilth; which is best done by a crop of turnips or potatoes.

When the land is prepared, there is a cau­tion very necessary, that is, to be very parti­cular in your seed, that it came from a clean meadow; for if you sow seed that came off a foul piece, you will fill your meadow with weeds and couch grass, which will ruin your land. Two bushels of grass seed will be suffi­cient, mixed with three pounds of white clo­ver seed, and three pounds of trefoil seed. It may be sown in the fall, or early in the spring. If sown in the fall, it should be done the latter end of August, or the beginning of September, that the grass may be well rooted before the frost sets in, which is apt to turn the plants out of the ground, when they are not well rooted.

[Page 176]This seed should be sown, in moist wea­ther. The following spring, if there should be any troublesome weeds come up among the grass, they should be carefully cut up with a spaddle before they grow large; and this should be repeated two or three times in the summer, which will effectually destroy them.

LOW OR WATERED MEADOWS.

Low or watered meadows require the same management and precaution as the up­land. I have often seen good meadows spoiled by improper treatment, such as flowing the low grounds all the winter, whereby the roots of all the sweetest kinds of grass are destroy­ed, and only such grasses left, as are natives of marshes, which are coarse and sour; and, if people were curious to examine the herbage of these water-meadows, they would find the bulk of them composed of bad weeds, such as grow by the sides of rivers, brooks, and ditches. The seeds of those obnoxious weeds falling into the waters in the autumn, are carried by the stream, and deposited on the land, where they grow, and fill the ground in every part: but so incurious are the generality of farmers in this respect, that, if the ground is but well covered, they care [Page 177] not what it is; few of them ever taking any pains to weed or clean their pasture.

The method which I propose for the ma­nagement of these meadows is, never to flow them till the middle or latter end of March; and after the hay is carried off the ground, no cattle should be turned into the meadows, till the surface of the ground is become firm; for otherwise the grass will suffer more from the treading of the cattle, than it will receive benefit by the flowing. Another great im­provement of these lands might be procured by rolling them with a heavy roller in spring and fall. This will press the surface of the ground even, whereby it may be mown much closer; and it will also sweeten the grass.

A comparison of different methods of farming, in the different counties of England.

The county of Hertford is allowed by the exactest observators, to be a most healthful situation, abounding with red clays, loams, chalks, gravels, and sands, that lie in many hills and a few vallies, which are most of them naturally poor soils of themselves, but of late greatly improved by the industry of [Page 178] its farmers, who living within a day's journey of London, many of them have been encou­raged to employ their teams at vacant times to carry meal, bran, chaff, grain, wood, and other vendables thither, in order to load back again with soot, ashes, hoofs, horn-shavings, rags and other manures for dressing their land, and by the help of these and good plow­ing, many have the benefit of grain, grass, tur­nips, &c. yearly, without the loss of one sum­mer for the fallow season; which of late has become so profitable, that the hilly farms let for more than the vale ground, that are in themselves richer than the hilly lands, being a black mould mixed with a bluish clay, that will with half the dressing return the most plentiful crops of wheat, barley and beans; but then there is this difference in the hill country, they have sometimes three crops in less than a year and an half; as clover, tur­nips, wheat or barley; or else, peas turnips, wheat or barley, &c, by means of their con­venient inclosures; whilst they in their valley open fields, are confined to lose a year and an half, before they must set on a barley crop after their beans. They are not under the necessity of much brain work to study the improvement of their land in their open fields because every farmer acts commonly as his neighbour does, and that year after year in [Page 179] one and the same sort of management. For if they would do otherwise, they are hindred by the want of inclosure: so that in the open vale ground the science of farming is as easy and plain, as it is hard and difficult in the hil­ly lands, where an acute farmer is obliged to form a plan of his future proceedings three years at least before hand, that each crop may succeed one another in such order as to impoverish the ground as little as possible; not but both vales and hills vary much in many places, in the several ways of husban­dry.

In Bucks, Berks, Bedford, Oxford, Worce­ster, Gloucester, Hereford and Somersetshire, in the vale parts, some fallow their ground every third year; others every fourth year; some set their horse beans with a dibber, some drill them, and others sow them broad-cast, and plow them in. Some plow up their sward or grass ground, and sow wheat, which they sell at an extraordinary price, as coming off fresh earth, or virgin mould, which the hilly farmers buy for the sake of the change of ground, and being clean from the seeds of weeds and other trumpery.

In the hilly parts they cut up their turf or peat, and burn it to ashes to dress their ground [Page 180] with. Here they drill and hoe their hog-peas. Some again follow the ingenious Mr. Tull's way of drilling in wheat, and other grain, and grass seeds, in order to sow the interspaces the next year that lay vacant the preceding; which is a good way, and would answer in this country if the charge of hoe­ing could be avoided; but that is such an expensive article, as will not suit the farmers mind nor pocket. The method also of drill­ing in horse-beans at six feet distance, has been practised, and the hoeing part supplied by the plough; but the attempt proved unsuc­cessful, because as they managed it, the weeds came up and choaked the beans. If a proper method had been made use of, I am confi­dent, from my own experiments, it would have answered very well.

In Cornwall, Devonshire, and several other maritime countries, they dress with sea sand oar-weed, sea mud or vaes, shells and some­times fish; as I knew it once done in Corn­wall, where there were such numbers of pil­chards affrighted to the shore by the porpoi­ses, that several laid them on their lands, and afforded a great improvement by the oily, sulphurious parts of the fish.

[Page 181]In Cambridgeshire, Northamptonshire, &c. several make use of rape-canes, ground at the oil mills into powder, which is of great service to their land.

In Berks, and the hilly parts of Bucks, several sow them for their cattle.

In Essex, Sussex and several other coun­ties, they send from ten to twenty miles for lime to manure their ground with, as they do in Herts &c. with chalk, rags, horn-sha­vings, sheeps trotters, hoofs, hair, ashes and foot.

In Surry, Suffolk, and many other places, the marle-pits excel, as well as others, that dress their clays with sand, and sands with clays. The marles in Warwickshire and Northamptonshire are of two colours, red and blue; the red is as hard as an earth floor, which obliges them to dig it out of the pits with mattocks and crows of iron; from thence they lay it in heaps in their fields, and in three or four nights time, its small pieces and bits, will shoal by the help of the dews and rain in August and Septem­ber. The blue sort being softer, is much ea­sier managed.

[Page 182]In Surry, Kent and Berks, their French wheat is a great improvement, by being plow­ed in to dress their ground. In Middlesex several do the same by their clover.

In the vales, their way of cleaning wheat and other grains, is very different from theirs in the hills; the former following their anci­ent way of wind-fanning it; the latter, by throwing it, which is done with as much ex­pedition and with fewer hands.

Their hedging in the low countries varies much from that of the high lands; in the low countries they cut half the side of the hedge for fuel, and leave the other half for fence: but in the hilly countries they plaish all that is left, and make a sort of a wall-hedge, about four feet high from the ground, which makes an excellent fence, far exceeding the other.

In the vales, their wheat and beans are larger bodied than those on the hills, by rea­son of their excellent, strong black soils; but their barley and oats are not so good, because their ground is so rank as runs them mostly into straw, and less into grain, that often lays them flat to the ground, by the greatness of their bulk, and then it is generally lean, poor grain.

[Page 183]In Kent, their ploughs that have two broad boards, are excellently well adapted to the culture of their hilly grounds, because they turn a thorough or furrow all one way, and thereby leaves no bendings as the wheel Hertfordshire plough does; which renders them very useful in turning the ground from the lower part towards the upper part; —But there is a new invented double plough answers extraordinary well, especially in bar­ley and turnip ground, and in sterile seasons; for then there may almost double work be done in half the time that a single plough is employed; and thus to save time and labour in those seasons when the farmer's great bene­fit lies in expedition, must certainly be of great value.

In the vales, they are in many places un­der the misfortune of having rotten sheep, by their watery situation, and loose sticky earth, that easily washes about the grass, and com­municates a poisonous quality into the blood, which sweeps away thousands in a year. To prevent such disasters in this country, I have given receipts in this treatise to prevent and cure the rot, and the red water; as well as other diseases, which if properly attended to, I am confident will be efficacious from my own experiments.

For RAISING the TURNIP, and preventing the FLY taking them.

First, to prepare the land to receive the seed. The ground should be broken up in the fall if new ground, if old ground, under grain, the stubble should be plowed in as soon as possible after harvest, and lay in that state all winter; in the spring as soon as the wea­ther will admit, give it another plowing cross­ways; in about a month give it a good har­rowing: in June carry on your dung, for if it is old land, it must have a good dress­ing.

The seed may be sown from the latter end of June to the latter end of July; the best method is to spread the dung as you plow: then plow it in, and sow as you plow: that is, what you plow in the morning, sow in the afternoon; the land should be harrowed twice in a place before you sow; then sow and harrow it in. One pound of seed would produce plants enough for an acre; but it is better to sow two pounds; for it is better to have too many plants than too few.

[Page 185]Steep the seed in oil for twelve hours; fish oil is the best. When you sow, drain the oil from the seed, and mix the seed with dust or dry sand to separate it. The oil makes the seed quickly germinate, and makes the plants healthy and luxuriant, which prevents the fly from making ravages among it; for all flies attack the sickly plants, the healthy outgrows them: it is when it is in its single leaf they do the damage; when it is in the rough leaf, it is out of danger.

I have sown large fields from twenty to thirty acres, and the fly has destroyed them. I have sown again and again, and they have done the same, which induced me to try ex­periments. I have mixed the seed with brim­stone, soot, ashes, &c. I have steeped the seed in lyes, urines, &c. but found none so efficacious as oil, which I found never to fail.

When the plant is strong, just before it be­gins to bottle, let them be well harrowed land­ways and across, and when they are bottled as big as a raddish, give them a hoeing, to free them from weeds, and cut up all the su­perfluous ones; and leave them at proper di­stances, which is from nine to twelve inches. Light land suits them best, and by observing [Page 186] the above rules, you may depend on a good crop.

FEEDING AND FATTENING SHEEP ON TURNIPS.

Feeding sheep with turnips is of great ad­vantage to the farmer, as they soon fatten on them, and their dung is of great service to the land; and it would likewise be a national be­nefit, if it was made a common practise of, as in Great-Britain; for by this method there might be a hundred sheep kept on a small plantation, where now they have not above ten.

The meat that is fatted with turnips, is su­perior in flavour to that fattened on the best meadows; and by the increase of the stock, our wool would be sufficient for our manu­factories, which at present the greatest part we are obliged to import.

In Great-Britain, they reckon turnips the basis of agriculture: therefore if a farmer there keeps no sheep, they predict his desti­ny.

[Page 187]There is some difficulty at first to make sheep that has not been used to them, eat them; they will sometimes fast two or three days; but after they have tasted them, they devour them voraciously—the young lambe fall to at once.

To turn a flock of sheep at large into a field of turnips, would be very disadvantageous, for they would destroy as many in a fortnight as would keep them the whole winter.

There are three other ways of feeding them on this food, all of which have their se­veral advantages. The first way is to divide the land by hurdles, (a description of which I shall give hereafter) and allow the weathers, ewes and lambs you intend to fatten, to come upon such a portion only at a time, as they can eat in one day, and so advance the hur­dles further into the ground daily, till all be eaten. They will eat the tops, and scoop out the middle of the turnip; what is left, the bottoms and out sides, should be picked up with an iron crook, and given to your store sheep, which may follow those you are fattening, and they will eat all clean up.

The second way is by enclosing the sheep in hurdles as before; but to pull up the tur­nips [Page 188] you suppose the sheep can eat in one day, and so on till all be eaten.

The third manner is to pull up the turnips, and remove them in a cart or waggon to some other place, spreading them on a fresh place every day; by this method the sheep will eat them up clean, both roots and leaves. The great advantage of this method is when there is land not far off that wants dung more than that where the turnips grow, which perhaps is also too wet for the sheep in winter. The expence of hurdles, and the trouble of mov­ing them, is saved in this case, which will counterbalance at least the expence of pul­ling and carting the turnips.

There is one caution necessary, that is, to house or bury a quantity of turnips, in case it should happen to be a severe winter, that your stock may not suffer. I have frequent­ly observed, when the snow has been a foot high, that the sheep have scraped off the snow, and found the turnips.

For making the hurdles, and placing of them; with the benefit received by the sheep's dung and urine.

The hurdles are made of thin light poles, split in two, any wood will do that will rend easy; the common length of the hurdle is eight feet; it is made like a gate, with five bars or slotes. There are two ends mortised, that the ends of the bars, or slotes go into: the feet of those ends are eighteen inches long, cut peaked or sharp to go into the ground: then there is a flat piece that is nailed to the bars right in the middle horizontally, and two other flat pieces which are also nailed to the bars, in a sloping manner as ties; they go from the feet on each side up to the top of that piece nailed in the middle, which keeps the hurdle from rakeing. The height of the hurdle is four feet; if they are made of light stuff, a man can carry four of them. For placing of them, there are holes made in the ground with a sharp iron crow, for receiving the feet of the hurdle, which is drove down with a wood-maul, and the ends are fastened together with withes: for fifty sheep, place [Page 190] five hurdles on every side, so that forty feet square will be so taken in, and so in propor­tion according to the flock. A man, when he has been used to this work, will re­move one of these pens in an hour.

There are many other benefits received by folding of sheep exclusive of feeding off the turnips. In many parts of England they fold upon their wheat. Every day they plow for wheat, they sow broad-cast and har­row it in. Their flock every night is brought from the pasture and folded on it: the sheep tread the ground down firm that it does not spew out in the winter, and their manure makes it grow vigorously, that they have ge­nerally great crops.

Sheeps dung is one of the best manures I know of. It succeeds upon all sorts of lands; but as it is not so conveniently collected as the dung of larger animals, it is commonly conveyed to the land it is intended for, by folding the sheep upon it. The urine as well as the dung, is thus given to the land, and is of great advantage.

In Flanders, they make many thousand loads of manure annually from their sheep: they cover the bottom of the folds considera­bly [Page 191] deep with some light and spungy earth, and when this has received the dung and urine of the animals for seven or eight days, they remove it and lay fresh in its place: the earth thus impregnated, becomes an excel­lent improvement to land, and they raise large crops by means of it, in places where very little could be expected without it. I have myself had contrivances something like it, which was covering the bottoms of the folds deep with sand, and changing it once a week; which I found was an excellent dressing for my clayey lands; both the sand and this peculiar kind of dung being appro­priated things for it.

I hope the foregoing hints and experiments will open the farmers eyes, and make them attentive to their interest, by increasing this useful animal.

The MANGEL WURZEL; or, ROOT OF SCARCITY.

This root is a native of Germany, from whence it took its name Mangel Wurzel, or root of scarcity. Its cultivation in that coun­try is great, for the use of all sorts of cattle, as [Page 192] well as for culinary uses. It was introduced into France, and from thence to England by that ingenious horticulturist, John Coakley Lettsom, whose laudable endeavours to en­courage the growth of so valuable a root, did not meet with that encouragement it deserv­ed, as it interfered with the profits and inte­rests of some oppulent gardeners, who would at any time sacrifice the public good to their own private emolument.

What makes this plant more valuable is, that every part of it is edible and salutary; and besides allowing nutritious fodder for cat­tle, affords a supply for the table both in sum­mer and winter. The leaves exceed spinach, and the roots those of parsnips. The stalks and ribs of the large leaves, divested of the leafy part, and peeled, eat like asparagus; or may be used in soups, which they greatly im­prove. The leaves tied up in a bag or net, with slices of meat interlaid and boiled, make a dish both pleasant and salutary; or with plumbs, damsons, sliced apples, quinces, &c. afford a diet that is highly esteemed by ma­ny.

This root ought not to be put into the class with turnips, or carrots, although by its ex­ternal appearance, and its seed, it very much [Page 193] resembles the beet root; it is superior to it in every respect, and appears to form a distinct species. Its culture is so easy, its advanta­ges so numerous, and it will answer so com­pletely the purposes of any other fodder, that it seems to me to deserve to be adopted every where, and to have the preference even in the best years, over all other roots with which beasts are nourished. It will grow in all climates and soils. Those lands that are moist and light are most suitable. If in hard and clayey grounds, it is prevented from ma­king its way far into the earth, it will extend itself horizontally, and will produce above the surface that which the nature of the soil hinders from being produced beneath it.

This most valuable root is not affected by the vicissitudes of the seasons, and has no de­structive enemy; the insects and vermin which make ravages on all other kinds of ve­getables, neither touch nor injure it. It is not attacked by blasting or mildew, and the greatest drought does not affect its vegetation; it does not injure the soil that nourishes it; but prepares it to receive, before the winter, the grain and other seeds that are intended to be deposited in it.

[Page 194]The time of sowing the seed is in April or the beginning of May; let the land be well prepared by plowing, and manured, and made light; steep the seeds in water twenty-four hours; lay the line upon the field, and plant the seeds at eighteen inches apart every way; you may set them with a stick, but they must not be buried above one inch deep. Af­ter ten or twelve days, it will be up, and eve­ry grain will have from two to four roots growing together. As soon as these small roots shew their fourth leaf, the feeblest of them must be carefully plucked off, and the finest and most vigorous root only left.

In a little time the growth of the roots thus selected will be astonishing; not one will fail.

As the roots naturally grow a little above the ground, notice those which do not so appear, and bare them by removing the earth from around their top; they must be hoed and kept clean from weeds.

In July, when the outward leaves are be­come about a foot long, the first crop of leaves is to be gathered, breaking them off round and near the root. For this purpose, the thumb should be placed within, and at the [Page 195] origin of the leaves, in order to strip them off, close to their insertion into the stem. Those leaves only should be gathered which bend towards the earth, and care should always be taken to leave those of the heart of the plant: they will thereby be reproduced, and grow more quickly.

Immediately after this first crop, the ground should be stirred. It is from this moment that the roots begin to grow large, and to in­crease in an astonishing manner. In good land the leaves may be plucked off every fort­night or three weeks.

The commencement of sharp frosts deter­mines the time of the crops of these roots: a fine day must be chosen for gathering them in, as it is necessary they should be got in dry. I have had the roots average seven pounds each on an acre. Which produce was fourteen tuns and an half per acre, and the leaves I reckoned weighed as much, which was twenty-nine tun of excellent food for cattle, from one acre of land.

In order to cause these roots and leaves to be eaten by all kinds of cattle, it is necessary to cut them in small pieces, after having well washed and cleansed the roots. I employed [Page 196] for this purpose a sharp instrument, made of a blade of iron a foot long and two inches broad, and twisted into the form of an

; in the middle of the two branches of the

was soldered a socket of about two inches long; in this socket was fixed a wooden handle of about three feet six inches in length; with this instrument they are cut with great facility. This operation was performed in a trough made for that purpose. A man may in one hour's time cut into small pieces a quantity of roots, sufficient for the nourish­ment of twelve oxen for a day. Before the roots are cast into the trough, it is necessary to split them, and cut them into quarters.

For horned cattle prepared in this manner, these roots, or leaves may be given, without any mixture; but if you want to husband the roots, you may mix one quarter of chaff with it cut from the hay of trefoil, lucern, saintfoin, or clover.

For horses during the summer, they may be fed with the leaves chopped, and mixed half with chopped hay, the same as before mentioned, and in the winter with the roots and hay cut in the same manner.

[Page 197]Hogs will also readily eat these leaves and roots, when cut small and mixed with any fat or milky drink, which is generally given them. They will become as fat by eating those, as other swine will by different kinds of food.

There is one caution necessary respecting these roots, which is to bury them or put them in a good cellar, to hinder the frost from spoiling them.

For RAISING and DRYING of HOPS.

The principal use of hops is well known to consist in preserving beer from growing sour, and to make it keep a long time. Hops boiled in the wort also makes the beer whole­somer and more grateful to the taste, as they communicate to it a diuretic virtue, to purge the blood, and is good for the jaundice and hypochondriac affections. And as it is ex­pected that beer will be the common and ge­neral drink of this country, I would advise those who are in a capacity, to make plan­tations as soon as they can.

There are four sorts of hops, the wild gar­lic hop, the long and square garlic hop, the [Page 198] oval hop, and the long white hop: the two former are not worth propagating; the lat­ter is more fertile and beautiful.

Any soil, except stony, rocky, and stiff clay will suit them; the best however, is that which is light, deep, and rich, and the bet­ter for sand being mixed with it: a black garden mould is excellent. An open situati­on to the south-east and south-west points agree best with hops, if they are defended with trees planted on the east, north and west sides the better. The sets may be planted in the fall or early in the spring, either in October, March or the beginning of April: as the season and climate suits. The distance of the hills in dry hot ground may be six feet; but in moist and rich ground eight feet.

The largest sets are to be chosen from se­ven to ten inches long, with three or four joints each. These are to be set in holes about fourteen inches over, and at each cor­ner of the hole and a fifth in the middle, rais­ing the earth two or three inches about, leaving two or three joints above the ground.

If the ground be poor, or stiff, some good mould, or a compost of manure and earth [Page 199] must be laid in the holes, and it is a great expence and trouble in watering of them, that may be saved by putting in the bottom of the hole some horse litter or straw, and covering it with mould in the shape of a bason. In the summer keep all weeds, between clear with the hoe, and about June twist them to­gether, and let them lie, that they may not bear the first year, by which means the plants will be much stronger. To make good such lost time, you may plant the interspaces with garden beans.

In November, either dig or plow those in­terspaces, and give the land a dressing of rot­ten dung, cutting the hop vines down to the earth, covering them with fat mould. In March, the second year, if the weather will permit, open the hills and cut away all the new suckers, then pole them with twelve feet poles; the third year they are in full perfec­tion, and will last about twenty years; one pole will do for the first year you pole them, but afterwards they must have three poles to a hill, twenty feet long; but do not pole till the shoots are ten inches high, making first a hole with an iron crow to put the poles in, that must be cut three square at their ends.

[Page 200]When the vines are about three feet, and all are not taken to the poles, guide the rest to them, and tie them with withered rushes or yarn to the empty poles, and at a proper distance therefrom, but not so close tied as to hinder their climbing; two or three strings are sufficient for a pole. The poles are to lean outwards, particularly towards the south, to receive the sun's beams; it being observ­ed, that a leaning pole will bear more hops than an upright one.

About mid-summer, when the hop begins to branch out, such as have not got up to the tops of the poles, should have their heads nipt off, or else diverted from the pole, in order to branch the better, for the increase of the hop. They blow in July, and are ripe in August: their ripeness is known by their fragrancy, change of colour, by being easily pulled, and by the brownish colour of the seed.

Hops should be gathered when somewhat brownish, and that without delay. In order to this, make a frame with four short poles or sticks, laid on four forks driven into the ground, to contain a hair cloth, or blanket tacked round it about the edges. On this de­vice, the poles with the hops may be laid, [Page 201] and at each side the pickers may stand and pick the hops into it. When the blanket or hair-cloth is full, untack and carry it away, and place it, when emptied, into the same frame again; and this frame may be remov­ed to some new place of the garden.

Hops should not be gathered when wet; but if dew or rain be on them, shake the poles, and they will dry the sooner. As fast as the hops are picked, they must be dried. The general expeditious way of drying hops, is by the kiln, which extracts their humidity in a little time; but then such violence is not so natural as the heat of the sun, that is the best of all other ways, where conveniency will allow; for the spirituous parts of this plant are so nice, that it cannot endure any violent heat without prejudice to its fine virtues, that are of a friendly, opening quality, when its aromatick, subtle spirits are thus mostly kept in.

If they are kiln dried, the common one in a hair-cloth is not so proper as one made of a bed of flat ledges, an inch thick, and two or three inches broad, sawn and laid across each other, chequer ways, the flat way, about three inches distant; the ledges so entered, are put into another, that the floor may be even and [Page 202] smooth: this bed may rest on two or three joists, set edgeways; then covered with large double tin plates soldered together at each joint, and order the ledges so, before they are laid, that the joints of the tin may always lie over the middle of a ledge: then fit boards about the edges of the kiln, to keep up the hops, only let one side be to remove for shoving off the hops. They may be very safely turned on this tin bed, and with a small expence of fuel; besides, any manner of fu­el will serve for this purpose, the smoke not passing through the hops, but conveyances made for it, at the several corners of the kiln.

After hops have lain a month to cool and toughen, in order to bag them, there is a round or square hole made in an upper floor, big enough for a man to turn himself in; then tack a hoop about the mouth of the bag fast with pack thread, so as to bear the weight of the hops and the man that treads them; that done, let the bag down through the hole; the hoop above will keep it from sliding quite through. First tie a handful of hops at each lower corner, with pack thread, to serve as a tassel, for conveniently moving the bag; then go into the bag, and tread the hops on every side, another still casting in the hops as fast as you require, till it be full; when it is well trodden and full, let the bag down by [Page 203] unripping the hoop, and close the mouth of the bag, filling the two upper corners as you did the lower. This bag, if well packed and dryed will keep several years in a dry place; only care must be taken that the mice do not make their nests in the hops.

The profits of a hop-garden per acre, if the blight and fly does not take them, is from thirty to fifty pounds.

How to manage the KITCHEN and FLOWER GARDEN.

Some ingenious men have hinted to me that they would wish me to give a botanical description of herbaceous plants and flowers in the Linnaean system, (which I conceive myself fully capable) and should have been happy if I could have obliged my curious patrons; but it would have swelled my work far beyond its limits; and when I consider that my treatise is chiefly intended for the farmer, who has not time to study so labo­rious a science, which is not like an unactive and sedentary science, like geometry or hi­story that may be acquired by a recluse and solitary application, within the narrow pre­cincts [Page 204] of a closet; or, like chemistry, anato­my, and astronomy, requiring only such ope­rations as may be performed without a great deal of exercise, toil and fatigue.

The botanist must wander over mountains and vallies, range the gloomy forests and wil­derness, climb the steepest rocks, and expose his life to the brinks of hideous precipices, in quest of knowledge.

I shall therefore confine myself at present, to the cultivation and management of the most useful vegetables for the table, and herbs for the house, with these flowers that will re­quire the least trouble.

To the curious in botany, I recommend the perusal of some of the best authors on that science, which are Boerhaave, Grew, Bradley, Miller, Dillenius, Linnaeus, and Sir Hans Sloane.

Mr. Humphry Marshall has given a very good description in the Linnaean system of forest trees, and shrubs, natives of this country, and promised in the introduction to his work, that if the work then published, met with the encouragement of the public, he would also treat on our native herbaceous [Page 205] plants. By his silence I fear his work did not meet with that encouragement it deserv­ed. I hope I shall never find this country stigmatized for not giving encouragement to merit, and genius.

I have only to say (like Marshall) if this present work meets with encouragement, in my next edition, I shall add many useful and interesting subjects, particularly in agricul­ture, horticulture and botany.

The introduction of many foreign shrubs and plants into this county, will be of parti­cular benefit. The diversity of climate and soil here, will suit any of them. The vine, the almond and fig-tree will grow as well here, and be as productive as in France, Por­tugal or Spain; only give them proper culti­tivation. So will liquorice, rhubarb, madder, and many other foreign useful shrubs and plants.

I shall now proceed to give directions for managing the kitchen and flower garden, but shall not treat this subject as most authors have on that science, beginning the calendar January and so on; for the seasons are dif­ferent in this country in the different states. My intention is chiefly intended for the bene­fit [Page 206] of the farmer: therefore shall begin with the proper seasons for sowing the seeds, and secondly, how to transplant and manage them.

It is first necessary to prepare the ground to receive the seeds and plants, which is best done by digging it up in the fall of the year, and laying it up in ridges, which is done by trenching; this meliorates the earth, and then it requires but little labour to make it fit for sowing, and planting, which is done by throw­ing the ridges into the trenches and levelling of it; this will enable you to take the first opportunity in the spring, whereby you will be able to get early crops, besides having your ground mellow, which will make the seeds vegetate in half the time.

To the Southward they have the advan­tage over the colder parts, as many of their seeds may be sown in the fall of the year as they will stand the winter, such as cabbage, colliflower, spinach, onions, lettuce, endive, radishes, peas, beans, &c. but where the frost is severe, these must be sown early in the spring.

I will here set down alphabetically the dif­ferent plants to be propagated; first the kitch­en [Page 207] garden plants are asparagus, artichokes, beans, beets, brocoli, cabbage, colliflower, capsicum, cucumbers, coleworts, celery, cher­vil, carrots, endive, kidney beans, lettuces, melons, mustard, onions, parsnips, potatoes, parsley, purslane, peas, radishes, rape, savoy, spinach, shallots, squashes, turnips, turnip-cabbage, water melon. Sweet pot herbs, anise, balm, borage, bugloss, basil, carraway, chamomile, clary, dill, fennel, hyssop, laven­der, marjoram, marigold, mint, orach, penny-royal, rosemary, savory, tansey, tarragon, thyme.

Flowers, first the biennial and perennial: aster, apocynum, astragalus, aconite angelica, batchelor's button, balm of Gilead, bell flow­er, Canterbury bells, carnations, cyanus, cye­lamen, chalone, columbines, Christmas rose, clarey, everlasting pea, golden rod, geranium, hollyhocks, iris, lupins, lilly of the valley, lilly French, polyanthus, peony, pinks, Solomon's seal, sweet William, valerian, violets, wall flowers: the above flowers are propagated by off sets, layers and slips.

The following biennials may be raised from seed. Auriculas, agremone, aloes, colum­bines, campanula, French honysuckle, globe thistle, globularia, gentian, holy hocks, horned [Page 208] poppy, honesty, Indian pink, monks hood, nettle leaved bell flower, polyanthus, pulsa­tilla, rose campion, rockets, stock gilliflowers, sweet William, snap dragon, sweet scabious, tree primrose, tree mallow, valeran, veroni­cus.

The following are annuals which come up, flower, produce seeds and die the same year: African marrigold, amaranthus, basil, bottle goard, china after, chryoanthemum, convo­liulus, Capsicum, Chinese holyhock, French marigold, minionetta, palma christi, sweet sultan, tree amaranthus, ten week stocks, yel­low balsom, zennia.

Bulbous and tuberous rooted flower plants. Anemonies, amaryllis, asphodel lilly, bella­donna lilly, crocuses, corona imperiallis, col­chicums, corona regalis, cyclamon, dogs tooth, hyacinths, iris, bulbosa, molly allium, muscaria, narcissus, lillies, naustrums, jonquils ranunculus, snow drops, squills, tuberose, tu­lips. Those roots if the climate is not too severe, should be set late in the fall; but where the frost is intense, they must be set as early in the spring as possible.

The ground where the seeds are sown both for flowers and for the kitchen garden, should [Page 209] be made rich and very fine: and as I observ­ed before, where the climate will not admit of the following seeds being sown in the fall, they must be sown early in the spring, such as cabbage colliflowers, coleworts, early cu­cumbers, celery, carrots, endive, lettuces, oni­ons, parsnips, early peas and beans, radishes, spinach, shallots, anise, balm, carroways, dill, fennel, hysop, lavender, marjoram, marigolds, mint, pennyroyal, rosemary, and thyme.

When the cabbage, colliflower, brocoli, sa­voy, green and bore-cole, and colewort plants, grow strong in the seed beds, they may be removed and transplanted where they are to stand.

The cabbage plants, must be set two feet a­part every way, and kept hoed, and as they grow, the mould should be drawn up to the stems.

For the reception of the colliflower and brocoli plants, let a piece of the richest ground be chosen, and spread thereon some good rotten dung, and then dig the ground one spade deep, and as you go on let the dung be regularly buried. The plants are to be set in this copartment at two feet and a half each way asunder; and they must be watered as soon [Page 210] as they are planted. If the ground is pretty clean from weeds, you may sow a thin crop of spinach on the same ground.

The savoy, green and boorcole, and colewort plants, may be planted the same as the cab­bage plants. The dwarf peas may be set at two feet distance in the rows; but the large high sorts, that require sticking, should be set at four feet distance between the rows. The small garden beans may be set at fourteen in­ches between the rows; but the large broad sort, must be set at two feet distance.

As there are several sorts of peas and beans, as well as cabbages and lettuces, I shall enu­merate their names. The early sort of peas, are the charlton hot spur, golden hot spur, Reading hot spur, and master's hot spur. The others are, nonparel, Spanish moratto, the large and dwarf marrowfat. Leadmas dwarf, is of a very low growth, but a plenti­ful bearer. The brown, green, white, and grey rouncival.

The early beans are the Mexican, Spanish, and Portugal. The next are the nonparel, long podded, sword long pods, Windsor, to­ker and Sandwich. The late are the white and red blossom, and the mumford.

[Page 211]The kidney beans, the dwarf sorts, are the early white, Battersea, and Canterbury white, red and black speckled, tawny, dun colour­ed, Chinese speckled, red, black, brown, and white. The runners are the Dutch, scarlet, and the large white.

The cabbages are the small early, the dwarf sugar loaf, early York, Battersea, long sided, large Scotch, large hollow, large drum, and the red Dutch.

The lettuces are the green, white, and red, cos, Aleppo, common cabbage, brown Dutch cabbage, white Dutch, grand admiral, Cilicia, imperial curled, and black Spanish. The Brocoli are, the early, and large purple, the brown, green and white. The turnips are the early Dutch, white, common, large white, the yellow, the large red, and green topped, field turnip, the long rooted, and the turnip cabbage.

The cucumbers are, the early, short prick­ly, short cluster prickly, the long and white, green Turkey, and Smyrna. The onions are, the Strasburg, the white, red, and silver skin­ned Spanish; the Portugal, Deptford, and Welch. The raddishes are the early short top, salmon, Italian, white, and red, turnip [Page 212] rooted, long rooted white, and large black Spanish turnip rooted. The potatoes are the early dwarfs, large round red, large long white, ladies fingers, round white, white kid­ney, and clustered American. And as some of those plants require particular management, I shall here give proper directions.

First, asparagus, is a fine vegetable. In making plantations of these plants, one great article to be considered, is, to make choice of a proper soil; choose the best the garden af­fords; it must not be wet, nor too strong or stubborn, but such as is moderately light and pliable, so as it will readily fall to pieces in digging and raking, and in a situation that en­joys the full sun.

The ground where you intend to make asparagus beds, should be regularly trench­ed, and a large quantity of good rotten dung buried equally in each trench, at least twelve or fifteen inches below the surface of the dug ground. The ground being dug and laid le­vel, divide it into beds four feet and an half wide, with alleys two feet wide between bed and bed; four rows of asparagus are to be planted in each bed, and ten or twelve inches distance to be allowed between plant and plant in the row, and let the outside rows of [Page 113] each bed be nine inches from the edge; the latter end of March or in April, as the season is, is the time for planting.

The following is the method: strain your lines lengthways the beds, nine inches from the edge, and then with a spade cut out a small trench close to the line, about six inch­es deep, making that side next the line near­ly upright; and when one trench is opened, plant that before you open another, placing the plants the distance of ten or twelve inch­es in the row.

In planting these plants, observe they must not be placed flat in the bottom of the trench, but nearly upright against the back of the trench or drill, that the crown of the plants may stand upright, and two or three inches below the surface of the ground, and let them be placed all at an equal depth, spreading their roots somewhat regular, against the back of the trench, and at the same time drawing a little earth up against them with the hand as you place them, just to fix the plants in their due position, till the row is planted, then when one row is thus planted, immediately with a rake, draw the earth into the drill over the plants, and then proceed to open another drill or trench as before directed, [Page 214] plant it in the same manner, and cover in the plants as before, and so on till the whole is planted. When they are all planted, let the surface of the beds be raked smooth, and clear them from stones. At each cor­ner of the bed, let a firm stake be driven in the ground, to serve as a mark for the al­leys.

The asparagus being planted, the next care is, when the plants come up, which will be in a month, to keep them clean from weeds, which must be well attended to during the summer season.

Let it next be observed, that it will be three years from the time of planting, before the asparagus plants produce buds large enough for use; though sometimes a few of the lar­gest buds may be cut the second spring after planting; but I should advise to let it be the third year, before you make a general cut­ting.

A plantation of asparagus, if the beds are properly dressed every year, as I shall hereaf­ter direct, will continue to produce good buds for ten or twelve years.

[Page 215]The seeds for these plants may be sown in the spring of the year in rich mould at five or six inches apart, and it must be observ­ed they are not to exceed two years old before they are planted as before directed.

The manner of dressing the asparagus beds is as follows: in October, cut down the stalks close to the surface of the beds; carry them immediately off the ground; then with a sharp hoe cut up all the weeds, and draw them off the beds into the alleys. This done, stretch the line, and with a spade mark out the alleys from about eighteen inches to two feet wide, according to the width they were first made. Then dig the alleys one spade deep, and spread the earth evenly over the beds; and as you advance in digging, let the weeds which were raked off the beds into the alleys, be digged into the bottom, and cover them a proper depth with earth; but when the beds are old they will need an augment of old rotten dung once in two or three years; this is the time to do it, but the manure or dung must be applied before the alleys are digged, or the beds landed up.

Every spring the asparagus beds must be dressed and forked, which is done by slightly digging them with a three pronged fork; this [Page 216] work should be done very early in the spring, before the buds shoot out. The beds be­ing forked, they must be immediately raked even.

For artichokes, the land must be good and well dressed with dung. The slips or suckers slipped off from the old plants are the proper­est sets to plant. There are two sorts, the large globe artichoke, and the French or green oval; but the former is greatly preferable, the heads being considerably larger, and the eat­able parts more thick and fleshy. They should be planted in an open situation; plant the sets with a dibble in rows a yard asunder, and not less than two feet, nor more than a yard distant from one another in the row. Give them some water immediately after they are planted, to settle the earth about the plants.

The above plantation, if kept clear from weeds, and now and then watered in dry weather and in the beginning of the summer, will not fail to produce good artichokes the following autumn.

A plantation of artichokes will continue to produce good heads six years, and sometimes longer; but it must be observed, that if requi­red [Page 217] to have a succession of these fruits for four or five months in the summer, should make a new plantation every spring; for the old stocks which have been planted a year or two or more, produce heads in June and July; and those planted now, pro­duce heads in August, September, and Oc­tober.

JERUSALEM ARTICHOKES.

These roots will thrive in almost any soil, and multiply so exceedingly that it is not easy to clear the ground of them, for the least bit will grow. The root, the eatable part of this plant, being large fleshy tubers, bearing some resemblance to a potatoe, but of a more irre­gular form, and tastes somewhat like the bot­tom of an artichoke, (hence probably the name) are in perfection in autumn and all the winter, and are very good and wholesome to boil and eat with butter, &c. Let them be planted in rows a yard asunder, four or five inches deep, and eighteen inches distant in the rows. Observe the same method in pre­paring the sets, and planting them as is here­after directed for potatoes.

PLANTING POTATOES.

Be careful to procure some good sets, that is, to pick a quantity of the best kind of po­tatoes perfectly sound, and of a tolerable large size: these are to be prepared for plant­ing by cutting each root into two, three, or more pieces, minding▪ particularly that each piece be furnished with at least one or two eyes, which is sufficient. Being thus prepa­red, they are to be planted in rows not less than eighteen inches distance: if they are to be plowed between, they must not be less than three feet, and if four feet apart, the more eligible.

The best method I have found by experi­ence is to make a trench either with the spade or plough, about five inches deep; and put­ting long dung or straw at the bottom, and laying the sets on it at their proper distances, which is from nine to twelve inches, covering them with mould. They must be kept clear from weeds.

PEAS and BEANS, to have a regular sup­ply, should be sown from the first breaking up of the winter to the beginning of June. [Page 219] Those late sown, the peas should be of the dwarf kind, and the Toker, Sandwich, and the white blossom beans are the proper­est.

RADDISHES, some of them should be sown in the fall, as they will grow well at that time.

TURNIPS may be sown from the begin­ning of May, till the latter end of July.

GRAFTING AND BUDDING OF TREES.

Grafting may be begun any time after the first of March, if the weather will permit. The sorts proper to begin with are pears, plumbs, and cherries; apples may also be grafted at the same time, or they may be de­ferred a fortnight or three weeks longer. It should be observed, that where grafting is to be done, you should begin to prepare for it the middle or latter end of February.

The first thing to be done towards this work; is to collect the grafts: and it must be observed these must be young shoots, such only as were produced last year; for those that are more than one year's growth never [Page 220] take well. These shoots or grafts you may begin to cut from the trees from the middle of February, in mild weather, and lay the lower ends of them in dry earth, in a warm border, till the grafting time; and if severe weather should happen in the interim, cover them with long litter. The reason for cut­ting the grafts so soon, is, because the buds will now begin to swell fast; and if the grafts were not to be cut off in proper time, the buds would be too far advanced, and the grafts would by that means, not take kindly with the stock, or, at least, not shoot so free­ly.

Before I proceed to the methods of graft­ing, it will first be necessary to mention what stocks are proper to graft the different kinds of fruit upon; for instance, apples should be grafted upon stocks raised from the kernels of the same kinds of fruit, i. e. any kinds of ap­ples; for the grafts or buds of these trees will not take well upon any other stocks.

The time for sowing the kernels of any sorts of apples or wild crabs, is either in No­vember or March; but if not sown till March, they must be kept in sand till that time. These are to be sown in beds three feet and a half wide, observing to sow them mode­rately [Page 221] thick, and cover them about an inch at least with earth. The plants will come up in five or six weeks, if sown in the spring; and in the autumn or spring following, some of the largest plants should be drawn out and planted in nursery beds; and in the second or third year after, they will be in order to ground graft on; but those that are for head grafting you may let stand four or five years.

Pears are generally grafted or budded upon stocks raised also from kernels of any of their own kinds of fruits; likewise upon quince stocks, which do very well. Sometimes they are grafted upon white thorn stocks; but this is not commonly practised, as these stocks have an ill effect on several sorts of their fruit: the season for sowing the kernels of the pears and quinces to raise stocks, the transplanting, and time of grafting, is the same as mention­ed before for apples.

Cherries are propagated by grafting or budding them upon stocks, raised from the stones of the common black or red cherry, or upon stocks raised from the stones of any other kind of these fruit; but the two first are most esteemed for that purpose, because they generally shoot much freer than any [Page 222] other. The season for sowing the cherry-stones, and the management in every respect, is the same as before mentioned for apples and pears.

Plumbs are also grafted or budded upon plumb stocks; that is, stocks raised by sowing the stones of any of the common sorts of the same fruit; also raised occasionally by suck­ers, sent up from the roots of any kinds of plumb-trees. The time for sowing the stones to raise the stocks, and the management in every respect, is the same as the fruits before mentioned.

Thus observe as before, let the stocks for grafting, both of fruit trees and others, be always of the same family or genus as that of the respective trees which are to be graft­ed.

Note, stocks raised from seed, being mostly of a stronger growth, are commonly called free stocks.

General OBSERVATIONS for performing the WORK.

There are several methods of grafting, but I shall only take notice of four, which are practised with the greatest success, such as whip-grafting, cleft-grafting, crown-grafting, and grafting by approach or in-arching.

Previous to grafting, you must be provid­ed with a proper grafting knife; a quantity of strong bass-strings for bandages, to tie the stocks and grafts firmly together; and some well wrought clay, to clay them round over the tying, to secure them from the air and wet.

Observe that the stocks intended to be graf­ted, must previous to the insertion of the graft, be headed down; which, if intended for ground grafting, must be headed pretty low within five or six inches of the ground; but if for head grafting, they may be headed at four, five or six feet. If ground grafted, you must train up one strong shoot from the graft for a stem, till it is five or six feet high, then [Page 224] topped or cut off at that height, to cause it to throw out branches to form the head.

FIRST. WHIP-GRAFTING.

This kind of grafting is practised with the greatest success upon small stocks, from about a quarter or one third of an inch to half an inch, or near an inch in diameter: but com­monly prefer small stocks of about half an inch or near equal in size with the graft; and the method of performing this work is this, have your cions or grafts, &c. ready; then be­gin by cutting off the head of the stock at a convenient height, according to the above rules; this done, fix upon a smooth part of the stock, where headed off, and there pare off the rind with a little of the wood, in a somewhat sloping manner upwards, about an inch, or near an inch and half in length; then, having the cions cut into lengths of four or five eyes each, prepare one to fit the stock as above, by cutting it also a little slo­ping, so as to exactly fit the cut part of the stock, as if cut from the same place, that the rinds of both may join in every part; then cut a slit or tongue about half an inch in length upwards in the cion, and cut a slit [Page 225] the same length downwards, in the stock to receive the said tongue; in that manner fix the graft in the stock, taking care that the sap or rind of both may meet, or join as ex­act as possible in every part.

Having thus fixed the graft, let it be im­mediately tied with a string of soft bass, bringing it in a neat manner several times round the graft and stocks, taking care to preserve the graft in its due position; and let the bandage be neatly tied, and immediately cover the place with some grafting clay, ob­serving to bring the clay near an inch above the top of the stock, and a little lower than the bottom part of the graft, leaving a due thickness on every side of the graft, and stock, making it a roundish oval form, and take care to close it well in every part, that no wet, wind, or sun can enter, to prevent which, is the whole intention of the clay; for without that precaution, the operation would prove fruitless; and in this manner proceed with the rest.

In performing the operation of whip-graf­ting, some grafters first cut and prepare the cion, and then cut and fit the stocks to that; but it is not material which, provided it be [Page 226] done in an exact and somewhat expeditious manner.

Next it must be noted, that the grafts must be now and then examined, to see if the clay any where falls off, or cracks; if it does, it must be renewed with fresh clay. By the last week in May, or first week in June, the grafts and stocks will be well united, and then take off the clay, and loosen the bandages.

SECOND. CLEFT-GRAFTING.

The next general method of grafting is, that by clefting the stock, commonly called cleft or slit-grafting, because the stock is cleft, and the graft put into the cleft part; and is performed in the following manner:

The proper sized stocks on which this kind of grafting is performed, are gene­rally about an inch, or an inch and an half, and even two inches, or more, in dia­meter. First, with a strong knife, or small saw, cut off the head of your stock, and pare it very smooth; this done, fix upon a smooth part of the stock, just below where headed, to place your graft, and on the opposite side to [Page 227] that, cut away part of the stock, about an inch and an half, in a sloping manner upwards, so as the crown of the stock may not be more than about half an inch broad. This done, prepare your graft or cion, which is done in this manner: observe to cut your grafts into due lengths, leaving four or five eyes to each; then take your sharpest knife, and pare away the bark and some of the wood, at the lower end of the graft, in a slooping man­ner, about an inch and an half, or near two inches in length; and then cut the other side in the same form, making it to have a wedge-like shape; but let one side of it, which is to be placed outwards in the stocks, be left near double the thickness of the other side.

The graft being prepared, take your strong knife, and place it on the middle of the stock, cross-ways the top of the sloped part, and with your mallet strike your knife to the stock, observing to cleave it no farther than what is necessary to admit the graft readily; then place the grafting chissel, or some instru­ment a little way into the cleft at the sloped part of the stock, to keep it open for the re­ception of the graft, which then directly in­troduce into the cleft on the uncut or upright side of the stock at the back of the slope, in­serting [Page 228] it with great exactness, as far as it is cut, with the thickest edge outwards, and so that the rind may meet exactly every way with the rind of the stock.

The graft being placed, then remove the grafting chissel, taking care not to displace the graft; this done, let it be tied and well clayed in the manner as before directed, in the work of whip or tongue-grafting; or, if in this cleft-grafting, you choose to put in two grafts, it may be performed on large stocks, and which must be twice cleft, and the clefts must not be across, but parallel to each other, and so fix the grafts in the stock, observing to bind, and clay them as before. This kind of grafting may likewise be per­formed on the branches of trees that already bear fruit, if you desire to change the sorts.

THIRD. CROWN-GRAFTING.

This way of grafting is commonly practised upon such stocks as are too large and stub­born to cleave, and is often perfomed upon the branches of apple and large pear trees, &c. that already bear fruit, when it is in­tended to change the sorts, or to renew the tree with fresh bearing wood.

[Page 229]The manner of doing this sort of grafting is as follows: first to cut off the head of the tree or stock level, or of any parti­cular branch of a tree which you intend to graft, and pare the top perfectly smooth, then prepare your grafts, which is done by cutting one side flat and a little sloping about two inches in length, making a kind of shoulder at the top of the cut, to rest on the head of the stock; and pare off only a little of the bark towards each edge of the other side of the graft; then raise the bark of the stock, first by slitting it downwards, and then having a small wedge of hard wood, or rather iron, one side of it formed somewhat round­ish, the other flat; let this instrument be dri­ven down gently between the bark and wood of the stock or branch, the flat side towards the wood, driving it far enough to make room for the graft; then drawing out the wedge, slip down the graft, placing the cut or sloped side towards the wood, thrusting it down as far as cut, resting the shoulder thereof upon the top of the stock; and in this manner you may put four, five, or six grafts, or as many as may seem convenient, upon each stock or branch, and bind them round with strong bass.

[Page 230]When the grafts are all thus fixed, you must then immediately apply a good quanti­ty of well wrought clay; bringing it close about the stalk and grafts, observing to raise it at least an inch above the top of the stock, in a rounding manner, so as to throw the wet quickly off, and prevent its lodging or getting into the work, which would ruin all.

These trees which are grafted this way, will take and shoot very free; but there is, for the first year or two after grafting, an incon­venience attending them, and that is the grafts being liable to be blown out of the stock by violent winds; but this may be remedied by tying two or three sticks to the body of the stock, or branch, that is grafted, and the grafts tied to the sticks.

FOURTH. GRAFTING by APPROACH, Or, IN-ARCHING.

Another way of grafting occasionally prac­tised, is generally called in-arching, or grafting by approach; but is not near so commonly, practised as the three ways beforementioned, and was chiefly invented for such trees, as [Page 231] are not easily propagated by any other me­thod.

The method of performing the operation is this: when it is intended to propagate any kind of trees or shrubs by this manner of grafting, it must be observed, that the stock you would graft upon, and the tree from which you would take the graft, must stand so near, or can be placed so near, that the bo­dy of the branch you would in-arch, can, as it grows, be brought to approach and join readily to a convenient part of the body of the stock; for the graft is not to be separated from the mother plant, till some months af­ter performing the operation; nor is the head of the stock to be cut off till that time, except you cannot otherwise conveniently fix the graft.

For instance, either having the stocks and the trees designed to in-arch from, growing on the same ground near together, or in pots, or that you want to in-arch some branches of trees, &c. and that the said branches are three, four, or five feet or more from the surface of the ground, and suppose the stalks you would graft upon to be in pots; in that case there must be a kind of [...]light stage erected, close to, and as high as the branches of the tree: [Page 232] upon this stage the pots which contain the stalks must be placed.

Thus far observed, then, in either case, proceed to the work, take one of the branches you desire to in-arch, and bring the body of the said branch to touch that of the stock at such a convenient height, where the stock and graft is nearly of a size, and mark the parts where the graft and stock will most rea­dily join together; then in that part of the branch pare away the bark and part of the wood, about three inches in length, and in the same manner let the rind and wood be pared off that side of the stock where the branch is to be joined, the same length and breadth, so that both the cut parts may exact­ly join rind to rind; then cut a slit or thin tongue upwards in the branch, and make a slit of the same length to receive it down­wards in the stock; then let them be joined, placing the branch with the top upright, slip­ping the tongue of the graft into the slit made in the stock: and see that the cut parts join in an exact manner, and let them be imme­diately tied together with some bass, and af­terwards cover over the place with a due quantity of well wrought clay, very well clo­sed, that no air nor wet can penetrate.

[Page 233]After this, let a stout stake be driven into the ground, and that part of the stock and graft must be fastened to it, which prevents the graft from being displaced by the wind. Remember that the stock and graft are to re­main in that position for at least fifteen or sixteen weeks, when they will be well united. The graft is then to be separated from the mother plant; being careful to do this with a perfect sharp knife, cutting off the branch with a slope downwards to the stock; and if not done in grafting, the head of the stock to be cut close to the graft. The old clay and ban­dage are at this time to be taken off: and at the same time it will be adviseable to tie them again gently, and also to put some fresh clay which will be of great service, and let them re­main so for a month or five weeks.

By this kind of grafting, you may raise al­most any kind of tree or shrub; as is often practised by way of curiosity, to ingraft a fruit bearing branch of a fruit-tree upon one of the common stocks of the respective sorts; by which means, there is raised a new tree, bear­ing fruit in a few months: this is sometimes practised upon orange-trees, &c. by grafting fruit branches on stocks raised to a proper size, from the kernels of the fruit.

[Page 234]Note, in this method of grafting, the stocks may occasionally be both in the full ground or in pots, the latter is necessary where the branches of the trees you would in-arch are not near enough the ground, or for orange and other green-house trees and shrubs; but as for such trees and shrubs as grow in the common ground, and whose branches are fa­vorably situated for that work, there may be stocks placed either in pots, or planted in the ground near the said trees, &c. or it may be performed on stocks or trees that grow acci­dentally near.

BUDDING OR INOCULATING.

The proper time for budding or inocula­ting, is from the latter end of June to the beginning of August; first begin on stone fruit, the early kinds, such as apricots, peaches, and nectarines; cloudy weather best suits this work; but if no such weather happens, it will then be most proper to do it principally in a morning or evening.

The proper stocks on which to bud the above kinds of fruit-trees, are principally those of the plumb, raised from the stones of the fruit; and when two or three years old, [Page 235] are of a proper size to bud upon; or these stocks may be also raised from the suckers of plumb-trees.

It will be of particular service in this coun­try to bud the peach on plumb-stocks, as it will make the peach trees lasting; for the worm that destroys the peach-tree raised from the stone of that fruit in a few years, will not hurt that raised on the plumb-stock. —The buds must be inserted one in a stock at about six inches from the ground, if the tree is intended to be a dwarf; but for a large standard, the budding may be perform­ed at the height of three, four, five or six feet.

Cherries are to be budded principally up­on cherry stocks, which must be also raised by sowing the stones; and all sorts of plumbs should be budded on plumb stocks; pears may be budded on pear stocks; and these must be raised by sowing the kernels. Oran­ges and lemons must be budded on stocks rais­ed from the kernels of the same fruit. Roses, jessamines, myrtles, and any other curious shrubs, may be inoculated; the curious sorts budded on the common ones of the same species;

[Page 236]Budding may also be performed upon trees that bear fruit. What is meant by this, is where there are trees, that produce fruit not of the approved kinds; such trees may be budded with the sorts desired; and the bud­ding is to be performed upon strong shoots of the same summer's growth. Several buds may be put into every such tree, by which means the tree will be soon covered with the desired kinds, and in two or three years af­ter budding they will begin to bear.

The manner of performing the work of budding or inoculating is this: in the first place, be provided with a sharp pen-knife, with a flat ivory haft. The haft should be somewhat taper, and quite thin at the end; which knife and haft is to be used as hereaf­ter directed; and also provide some new bass mat, for bandages; and let this, before you use it, be soaked in water. In the next place, you are to provide a parcel of cuttings of the respective trees from which you intend to take the buds: these cuttings must be shoots of the same summer's growth, and must be cut from trees as are in health, bear well, and shoot freely, minding to choose such shoots as have strength, and are free in their growth, but not luxuriant.

[Page 237]Having your cuttings, knife, bass, and eve­ry thing ready, then proceed in the following manner: With the above knife, make a cross cut in the rind of the stock, minding to make the cut no deeper than the bark; then from the middle of the cross cut let another be made downward, about two inches in length, so that the the two cuts together form a

, in which insert the bud. Then get one of your cuttings, or shoots, and take off the bud in this manner: you are to begin toward the lower, or biggest end of the shoot; and in the first place, cut off all the leaves, but observing to leave part of the foot stalk of each remaining; then, about an inch be­low the lower bud or eye, make a cross cut in the shoot, almost half way through, with the knive slanting upwards, and with a clean cut, bring it out about half an inch above the eye or bud, detaching the bud with part of the bark and wood thereto: then immedi­ately let that part of the wood which was taken off with the bud, be separated from the bark, in which is contained the bud; and this is readily done with your knife, placing the point of it between the bark and wood at one end, and so pull off the woody part, which will readily part from the bark; then quickly examine the inside, to see if the eye of the bud be left; for if there appears a small [Page 238] hole, the eye is gone with the wood, and is therefore useless: take another; but if there be no hole, the bud is good, and is to be im­mediately inserted in the stalk, observing for the reception of the bud, to raise gently, with the haft of your knife, the bark of the stalk on each side of the perpendicular slit, from the cross cut above, and directly thrust the bud gently in between the bark and the wood, placing it as smooth as possible, with the eye of the bud in the middle, ob­serving, if the bud be too long for the incis­sion in the stalk, shorten it accordingly when inserted, so as to make it slip in readily, and lie perfectly close in every part.

Having thus fixed the bud, let the stalk in that part be immediately bound round with a string of new bass mat, beginning a little be­low the cut, and proceeding upwards, draw­ing it closely round to the top of the slit; but be sure to miss the eye of the bud, bringing the tying close to it below and above, only just leaving the eye of the bud open; and this finishes the work for the present.

In three weeks, or a month after the inocula­tion is performed, the buds will have united with the stalk, which is discoverable by the bud appearing plump; and those that have not taken, will appear black and decayed; [Page 239] therefore let the bandages of those that have taken, be loosened; and this is done in order to give free course to the sap, that the bud ac­cording as it swells, may not be pinched; for were the bandages suffered to remain as first tied, they would pinch the buds and spoil them. To prevent this, it would be most ad­viseable to loosen them all in about three weeks, or, at farthest, a month after budding, which concludes the work till the March fol­lowing, as, until which time, the bud remains dormant, then shoots forth with vigor.

At the time, i. e. the beginning of March, you are to cut off the heads of the stocks; observing to cut them off about a hand's breadth above the insertion of the bud; and this part of the stock left above the bud is to remain till the next spring, and will serve to tie the shoot to, which the bud makes the first summer: for the buds never begin to shoot till the spring after budding. Or, in the spring, as aforesaid, you may cut the head off at once near the bud, behind it in a slanting manner.

The fruit trees which were grafted and budded a year ago, should have their shoots, which were produced the last summer, short­ened, that they may send forth lateral shoots, [Page 240] or branches, to form a regular head near the stock.

Examine the trees; which were budded the last summer, and let all shoots that arise from the stock, besides the bud-shoot be dis­placed; for these would rob the proper shoot of some nourishment.

Having dwelt very fully on the proper me­thods of propagating all the sorts of fruit trees as is necessary for the farmer, which by pro­per attention, every one, even of the meanest capacity, may plant nurseries of young trees of their own, and bring them to that perfec­tion fit for planting out in the field, which will save them that money; for the nursery will be of no expence, and attended with very little trouble.

There are some very ignorant men, who raise those trees which they sell to the farmer. These men make you believe there is some great art in propagating these species, when at the same time nothing can be more plain and easy. The plants for the stocks to graft on, may be picked up in your orchards, fields, or gardens, which if taken up at the proper season (spring and fall) and planted at fifteen or eighteen inches apart in the rows, and five [Page 241] feet between the rows, which will admit of its being plowed between to keep them clear from weeds. By this method there may be collected in a short time, a sufficient quantity of stocks, fit for grafting or budding. Ob­serve when those young plants are planted, let them be well watered.

I shall now proceed to shew the great advan­tages accruing to the farmer by planting fruit trees in the field: it furnishes him with a good beverage for common use; and likewise if he chooses to distil his cider, it will make a good wholesome spirit; and what the far­mer has to spare, will always fetch him ready money.

PROPER METHODS of PLANTING and MANAGING TREES in the FIELD.

The proper time for planting them out, is, from the beginning of October, till the begin­ning of May, in mild open weather; they should not be planted too near or close toge­ther, two pole or perch is the nearest distance, but if they were planted three perch apart eve­ry way it would be much better, as they would [Page 242] not be so apt to blight, neither would they hurt the grain or grass that grow underneath.

I shall first give directions for planting those fields that are under the plow; and se­condly, those fields that are under grass, or has a sward.

The method of planting fruit trees in the plowed fields is to open a wide hole for every tree about a spade deep, at the proper distan­ces you intend planting of them, and loosen the bottom well; then prune the roots of the trees; that is, cut off bruised or broken roots, and trim the ends a little of all, the very long straggling roots in general; and prune out ir­regular shoots of the head: then place the tree in the hole, put some good mould to the roots and cover them about four inches, then get some long dung that is moist, or wet straw and fill up the hole with it, then throw some good mould over the dung or straw, which raise in form of a hill, and make a trench round the tree at the distance of about eigh­teen inches from the stem of the tree, to re­ceive, and retain the wet; which will save the trouble of watering in dry weather.

To support the new planted fruit-trees from the violence of the winds, let stakes be drove down in those trenches, and fastened [Page 243] atop to the stem of the tree, with straw bands, as they are soft and will hinder the tree from chafing.

The method of planting fruit trees in those fields under grass, or turf, should be done in the following manner; pare as thin a turf off as possible, then take up all the mould even to the clay, gravel, or sand; this done, put the turf at the bottom of the hole, the grass down­wards, spread a little good mould on the same, on which plant the tree as before directed: Then with a spade first give a circular cut a­bout the bason-heap of mould; then six or eight inches back from that, give another cir­cular cut, and turn up all the turf, letting it lie with the grass part downwards, slopeways, and joining the said bason-heap; by this, there will be a round gutter, which at all times is ready to receive and make a lodge­ment of all rains that shall fall, and will suf­ficiently supply the fibrous roots with moi­sture as they gradually proceed from the ma­ster-roots.

The dung or straw being placed between the two moulds, becomes a watering pot to the root, and by the help of the uper mould, [Page 244] laid in a bason form, shelters and shades the same, both from the sun and air's too violent influences.

There is another method which I have tried with success; I had a field that was 40 poles or perches square, all round this field next to the fence I planted with apple trees, at the distance of two perch asunder, and twenty feet from the fence, so that I had eighty trees in one row, in the form of a square. The middle of the field was plowed in general, and sowed with grain, the border all round for forty feet was laid down with grass, so that the trees stood in the middle of the grass plat. These trees bore abundantly; the cause of which I imagine was by their having a free circulation of the air; and I had great crops of grain in the middle of the field, from its not being shad­ed too much, and by the trees fending off the cold winds.

To make a COMPOSITION for curing IN­JURIES and DEFECTS in TREES.

Take one bushel of fresh cow-dung, half a bushel of lime rubbish of old buildings (that from the ceilings is preferable) half a bushel [Page 245] of wood ashes, and one gallon of pit or river sand. The three last articles are to be sifted fine before they are mixed; then work them well with a spade, and then with a wooden beater, until the stuff is very smooth, like fine plaister used for the ceilings of rooms.

The composition being thus made, care must be taken to prepare the tree properly for its application, by cutting away all the dead, de­cayed, and injured part, till you come to the fresh found wood, leaving the surface of the wood very smooth, and rounding off the edg­es of the bark, with a draw-knife, or other instrument perfectly smooth, which must be particularly attended to; then lay on the plaister about one eighth of an inch thick, all over the part where the wood or bark has been so cut away, finishing off the edges as thin as possible; then take a quantity of dry wood ashes, mixed with a sixth part of the ashes of burnt bones, put it into a tin box with holes atop, and shake the powder on the surface of the plaister, till the whole is cover­ed with it, and in half an hour shake on more, and rub it with your hand, and repeat it till the whole surface is dry and smooth.

All trees cut down near the ground, should have the surface quite smooth and rounding [Page 246] as before; and the powder as before should be mixed with an equal quantity of powder of alibaster, as the growth of the tree will gradu­ally affect the plaister, by raising up its edges next to the bark, care must be taken where that happens, to rub it over with the finger, that the plaister may be kept whole to prevent the air and wet from penetrating into the wood. If any of the composition is left, it should be put in a tub, and covered over with urine.

DIRECTIONS for BREWING of BEER.

I would wish to introduce the drinking of beer in this country, for the common drink; knowing by experience that it is the most wholesome beveradge made use of; therefore recommend it to private families, to brew their own beer.

The high price beer is sold at by the brew­ers, may deter some from undertaking it: thinking it may be very expensive; but I shall here lay down the expence, which will satisfy them to the contrary.

If the farmers were to let their men have good beer, or ale, at hay and harvest time, [Page] to drink instead of cider and spirits, they would be able to go through double the la­bour, with half the fatigue to themselves. In order to prepare for the breewing of beer, the utensils must first be procured, and fixed. For those that can afford it, and would wish to have a handy and complete brewhouse, I will give them a sketch of one, with the pro­per utensils on a plan fit for family use.

First, the brew-house should be erected on the northern side of your buildings, for shade and coolness; the ground plan should be twenty feet, by fifteen feet; three sides out of the four should be open, especially of the upper part, to let in the free circulation of air: these o­pen sides should have brackets slanting down­wards, to fix or nail battons on about three or four inches wide, to keep out the wet. The copper, which at least should hold forty gallons, should be fixed at the close end, with a chimney to go through the roof. This copper should have a brass cock, and the cop­per should be set pretty high. The mash ton should hold double the quantity of the copper, in order to hold the malt, as well as the water; this ton should be circular, and largest at the bottom, and should be so placed that the water from the copper may run through a shute into the top of the mash ton. [Page 248] And underneath this mash ton, there must be placed an underback, made in the same form of the mash ton, but need not hold more than the copper, then there must be two coolers made square and shallow, not above six inches deep, and placed one above the other; the top of the highest must not be higher than the top of the copper, and each of them must hold as much as the copper, and underneath, or near the coolers, must be fix­ed a working ton, of the same form of the mash ton, and the same size; there should be a false bottom to the mash ton, and a cock fixt below the false bottom, to let the wort out into the underback; and in this under­back should be fixed a pump, to pump up the wort, back into the copper; then there is wanting a mashing oar, pails, bowl, &c.

METHOD of BREWING BEER, or ALE, from MALT.

The process of brewing is as follows: a quantity of water being boiled in your cop­per, is emptied into the mash tub; and as soon as the vapour is spent, the malt is pour­ed upon it; but it must not be stirred till the malt has settled gradually, and the liquor, on [Page 249] pressing it down with the hand, appears above it, then it must be stirred well and worked with the mash oar, for a quarter of an hour, then cover it close with bags, &c. which must con­tinue undisturbed for half an hour; then draw the wort off into the underback, and put your quantity of hops into it, which should be put into a large net. As soon as your water boils again, empty it into the mash tub, which is to be stirred and w [...]k­ed with the mash oar for half an hour, and co­ver the top with fresh malt; then cover it up with bags. &c, as before, when it must stand for an hour and an half before it is let into the underback.

Observe, that as soon as the second cop­per of boiling water is emptied into the mash tub, then the first wort mixed with hops must be returned into the copper and boiled an hour for strong beer, if to be drank new; an hour, and an half if to be kept some time; al­ways taking care to make the wort boil rea­sonably fast; for if it simmers long, it will waste more and ferment worse.

This first wort or strong beer when boiled enough is put into the upper cooler, and from that let into the lower one. If it is in the summer, it must be drawn off very cool into the working ton, but if it is in the winter, [Page 250] it must be blood warm when you set it to work. The second wort is for table beer and common drink, which is let into the under­back, from that to the copper, &c. the same as the strong beer; the same hops, with only a few fresh ones will do for it.

When the wort is cool enough for the fat, a little yeast is mixed with a sufficient quan­tity of warm wort to make it ferment in the hand bowl, and this fermentation is put in­to the working tub, and when it has raised a thick yeast or scum upon the wort in the fat, it should be mixed again with the hand-bo [...]l. When it is sufficiently fermented in the fat, it must be put into your casks or bar­rels, and there suffered to ferment a few days longer. After which the vessels must be stopped close, and not opened till fit to drink.

Soft water is the best for brewing: rain wa­ter exceeds all others; therefore, if it could be so contrived to have a back, what the brew­ers call a liquor back, on the top of the brew-house, and the rain water conveyed to it by gutters from all parts of your house, you might save a sufficient stock; which might be let into the copper by a pipe with a cock at the end, which would save a great deal of la­bour.

[Page 251]The beer may be brewed to what strength you please. I have used six bushels of malt to make one barrel of strong beer, and one barrel of middling; but the strong beer, when I have kept it till it was two or three years old, has been almost as strong as bran­dy. I have found that three bushels of good malt has made me one barrel of strong beer, and one barrel of common, and was very good.

The quantity of hops to be used is accord­ing to their quality, and the time you would wish to keep it. If the hops are good, and the beer is intended to be drank new, two pounds will do for two barrels. If you would wish it to keep any time, you must use four pounds; and if to be kept till it is old, six pounds of hops to the two barrels of beer, will not be too much.

There are many who cannot afford to build a brew-house, or to buy the utensils as be­forementioned; therefore I will endeavour to put them in a method to do it at a small expence. A back kitchen or any outhouse, where a small copper can be put up, will serve instead of a brew-house; for if the copper is small, it is only boiling it the oftner. Rum hogsheads may often be bought at the [Page 252] stores for five shillings or a dollar a piece: four of those hogsheads properly cut, will serve for all the utensils, for mash tub, underback, coolers and working tub; then two bushels of malt, and two pounds of hops, will make two barrels of good beer, if the first and second worts are mixed together.

To make CIDER keep, and be much stronger than common.

It is of great importance in making cider to have the fruit thoroughly ripe. The jui­ces of unripe fruit, retain their harsh, sour state in spite of all endeavours, and never acquire that racy, mellow flavour, which the sun only can bestow. It should therefore be the first care of every one concerned in ma­king cider, to let his apples hang on the trees, till they arrive at their full maturity.

When your apples are fit for gathering (which should always be done by hand) it is essential to choose dry weather for that pur­pose; for water is a bad ingredient in all vi­nous liquors: one general rule for all fruits is to press their juice for fermenting, when [Page 253] the fruit is in the greatest perfection for eat­ing.

Apples that have lain any time in heaps to sweat, are generally covered with a clam­my moisture; this should be wiped off, for it is a watry juice, which would impoverish the cider; the rotten parts of the apples should all be cut out, for they communicate to the cider a putrid taste.

In breaking of the apples, that engine is best, which least bruises the skin, pulp, and kernels of the apple; because from an immo­derate breaking of them in some kinds of ap­ples, there proceeds such an austerity and bit­terness, as the cider never can be cured of. In pressing of them, they should not be pres­sed too near, and the pulp should be wrap­ped up in clean hair cloths, instead of the common custom of this country, inclosing it with bands of straw, which straw, when it has heated in the mow or stack, gives the cider a bad flavour. And in order to avoid a great deal of trouble, and to perform the work more effectually, by divesting the new made cider of what pummice and other impurities which remain; after straining it through a hair sieve, on its coming from the press, it is [Page 254] necessary to be provided with a large open vat, which will contain a whole making, or as much as can be pressed in one day. Af­ter the cider has remained in this vat a day, or some times less, according to the ripeness of the fruit, of which it has been made, and the state of the weather, you will find rise to the top, the pummice or grosser parts of the pulp, &c. of the apples; and in a day or two more, at most, grow very thick; and when little white bubbles or fermentations of the bigness of the top of your finger, break through it, then presently draw it off through a cock or faucet hole, within three inches of the bottom, that the lees may not be drawn off, but quietly remain behind.

If the cider is not immediately drawn off, on the first appearance of these white fer­mentations, all the head, which is then be­come a thick crust, will sink to the bottom; so that, if this crisis, which happens but once of the first separation of the cider from its lees is neglected, the opportunity of making sweet cider will be lost and irrecoverable.

On drawing off the cider from the vat, it must be tunned into close casks well scented, and a match burnt in them before the cider is put in.

[Page 255]To have cider perfectly sweet, after it is tunned into close casks, you are again care­fully to watch and observe its state, and when you find white bubbles or fermentations as aforesaid, at the bung-hole, immediately rack it off again into another clean and well scent­ted cask; after which most probable, it will be March before it ferments again, when it must be racked off as before: and to hinder its fermenting again, put a handful in each barrel, of powdered loam or clay, and to strengthen and make it keep, put a quart of apple brandy into each barrel; and every cask must be filled up to the bung, and closely bunged down.

To make CIDER STRONGER than the common method.

Take a cask of cider, or more, managed as before directed, and make a stand for it in your garden, or any other place where it will be exposed to the weather: before the frost sets in, let the cider be set on the stand, but not filled full by two or three gallons, and when you find that all the aquae parts are frozen, draw off the oily and spirituous part, and bottle it, putting two or three raisin in [Page 256] each bottle, and you will find it excellent strong cider; and you will not loose above one third of your cider: Indeed it cannot be properly called so, as it is only the watry part of the cider that is lost.

A DESCRIPTION OF A DRILL MACHINE.

The use of this machine is for planting all sorts of grain, grasses, turnips, &c. in equi­distant rows.

It consists of a box in which the cilinders and hoppers are confined to keep the grain, &c. dry, and that the wind should not affect the delivery, an axle-tree goes through this box which is square, and the cilinders are fixed on it, which is so contrived to slide off and on: for there is two sets of cilinders, one set for the large sorts of grain, such as indian-corn, peas, beans, &c. the other set for wheat, barley, oats, &c.

This axle-tree is worked by a pair of wheels, four feet in diameter, which sup­ports the box; and as the cilinders have holes cut in them to receive the grain from [Page 257] the hoppers, the wheels turning round as it is drawn by the horses, it drops from these holes, into tin funnels, that are placed underneath, that goes to the back part of the iron coulters, which are hollow behind; those coulters open a furrow to receive the grain which falls through the tin funnels, whereby it is depo­sited regularly.

These coulters are put into a frame, which is fastened by two bolts and screws that go through holes that are in the top of the coul­ters: so that these coulters may be removed to any distance apart, from six inches, to four feet. When at six inches, there are six coul­ters fixed in the frame; then it sows six rows at a time; if at twelve inches, four coulters, and if at its utmost weadth only two coul­ters.

The two wheels that work the machine are set at four feet, six inches apart, and there are sharp iron spikes, fixed round the rim to keep it from slipping. By this pair of wheels, and a small one before fixed in the frame two feet diameter, this machine is worked. This small wheel's gudgeons goes into holes in ears, which are fastened to the frame; these ears have four holes in them an inch distant [Page 258] from each other; which raises and lowers the frame, whereby the grain is deposited, from one inch to four inches deep into the ground. This frame has two handles behind to turn the machine round at the land's end, so that if the two wheels were taken from it, it would have the appearance of a long wheel barrow with a high box fixed on it. There is a flap at the top of the box, for the purpose of opening to put the seed into the hoppers: and another flap before it, that is for the conveni­ency of opening to get at the works: there is a small harrow fixed with chains at the back part of the frame, that follows the coulters and covers the seed. The two sets of cilinders as mentioned before, consist of four and six; the four is for the large seed, which never require the seed to be set nearer than twelve inches between the rows; the six are for small grain or seed, and may be set as near as six inches or at nine, twelve, &c. There are also two sets of hoppers made to fit each set of cilin­ders, and at the back of those hoppers there are regulators with brushes, that slide down on the cilinders, which are fixed to any height by screws, which lets the seed through slow or fast, according as they are fixed, by which means may be sown from half a bushel to three bushel of grain to an acre.

[Page 259]The coulters are fixed on two bars in a triangular manner, which when set at six in­ches, makes it twelve, which admits of stones, clods, and weeds, to go through, which hin­ders them from clogging. Before the fore wheel, there is a bar fixed in the frame with a hole in the centre, this is for a pin to go through to fix a whipple tree, for two horses to go a breast: likewise iron rings at each end for chains, for one horse to draw it, or for two, one going before the other.

DESCRIPTION of a RUNNING HOE.

This hoe is for cutting weeds between the drilled grain, and adding earth up to the ve­getables; if the ground is mellow, and free from stones, a man will hoe a great deal with it in a day. The construction of it is some thing like a breast plow, to shove on forward. The two corners are points, which extend out about four inches more than the middle, it goes in a circular manner from the corners to the middle, so that it forms a half circle; at the other end of the hoe is a socket for put­ting in a wooden handle; in this part of the hoe, the socket rises gradually up, in order to raise the handle to go against the thighs, or breast, for shoveing it along; and at that [Page 260] part of the plate of the hoe, next the handle or socket, is fixed a plate of iron, rising high in the middle, and goes off to nothing at the sides, in the form of a half moon; this throws up the mould on each side, and moulds up the grain, &c.

The edge being in a circular manner, col­lects the weeds and are in a manner enclosed, and are more effectually destroyed than when the blades is square or angular, and it works much easier.

The handle should be three feet six inches long, with the socket six inches, makes it four feet; the end of the handle next the hoe should bend downwards to raise the other end to its proper heigth; at the other end of the handle must be a cross piece, and in the middle of this cross piece must be fixed a pad stuffed, about one foot long, and at each end must be six inches left to lay hold of with the hands, which will make this cross piece two feet long.

This hoe may be made of any breadth, ac­cording to the weadth of the alleys between the grain, &c. if the rows are at six inches apart, the hoe must not be above four in­ches; if at nine inches, the hoe must be [Page 261] six, and if twelve inches, eight, and so in pro­portion.

FOR MAKING and PLAISHING of HEDGES.

This manner of fencing will be found a cheap and excellent method, and if properly made will excel a post and rail fence, for no sort of cattle can go through it, neither will they attempt to leap over it. On many plan­tations they have not wood enough to make posts and rails for fencing, therefore are at a great expence in purchasing of them. There are very few plantations but has sufficent for hedging; and those that have not, may in a little time raise enough, by sowing acorns, the haw, or beech, or planting of alder, wil­low, poplar, &c. where the hedge, or hedge row is intended; for the largest wood that is required, need not be above four or five inches in circumference.

The method of making this hedge or fence is as follows: first dig a trench or ditch, three feet wide at top, which should be dug down in a sloping manner, till it comes to two feet [Page 262] at bottom, and the ditch should be two feet deep, where the ground will admit of its be­ing dug so deep. There should be three or four layers of turf laid upon one another on the top of the edge of the trench, on that side you intend to make the hedge, and the mould that is dug out of the ditch should be thrown up on the turf, to make a bank for the hedge; the turf that is placed on the edge grows, and the roots of the turf extend them­selves into the bank, which prevents the frost in the winter from making it scarf in.

On the top of this bank, nine or ten inches from the edge, the hedge is made; first cut the stakes five feet long, of any sort of wood, from two inches and a half, to five inches in circumference. If the stakes exceed five feet in length that will not signify, as the tops may be cut off to their proper length after the hedge is finished. The bottom of those stakes should be cut sharp in a three square manner. They should then be drove in the bank with a maul about eighteen inches deep and not to exceed two feet apart between them; if they are put in a straight line, they will look the better.

Then cut the eithers, which should be out of your longest and straitest poles, and pretty [Page 263] stout, but not so stout as the stakes; these eithers are for putting on the top in a wick­er manner, to keep the brush in tight that is put between the stakes.

In cutting out these stakes, and eithers, you will cut a good deal of brush, which will all do for filling up; you must cut some more small brush, to have a sufficient quantity. This brush should be twin­ed in between the stakes in a wicker manner as well as the eithers, that is before one stake, and behind the next, and so on, and it should be pressed down tight. All the live wood that is growing near the hedge, and can be lain down and trained to it, should be cut about half off, and laid down in the hedge among the brush in a wicker manner as be­fore directed; and if there is any vines, twine them in the same manner: all those will make fresh shoots, and grow up in the hedge, and strengthen and make it more lasting.

This hedge will last six years, and by that time your wood where you cut, will be grown up again, and will serve to make a new fence. The ditch on the side of the fence, may be made to serve two purposes; for where the land is wet, and wants draining, it will serve for that purpose, and carry off the wa­ter.

How to manage and fatten Cows, Oxen, Sheep, Hogs, Calves, and Lambs.

First cows, and oxen. Cows very much vary, not only in their make and shape, but also in their bags or udders, which the buyer should have a particular regard to: some have their leathers thick and fleshy, others thin and lainge. The thick leathered one will often seem big, and give but little milk, and that very hard to be got, when, a thinner one shall give much more, and be easily milked; therefore when a person is master of a right cow, it concerns him to keep her on; cows if well kept, will pay on an average about six pounds a year. In the winter, when you cant get grass for your cows, give them tur­nips, potatoes, grains, or malt dust; all of which are great breeders of milk; the malt dust must be prepared as follows: to one cow put two quarts in a tub, pouring boiling water on it, and so three times a day.

A cow in a middling case, that is fed with straw in the winter, need not have hay above a month before she calves, for that she will give more milk than if she had it longer; be­cause [Page 265] the fatter the cow, the less the milk; and yet, if too poor, it is dangerous, least she falls in calving; a heifer will spring about three months before she calves, but a seven years old cow only three weeks; as soon as she has calved, throw a handful of salt on each side of the calf, which the cow will swal­low, by licking of it; this will cause her to glean speedily.

When a cow is bulled, as soon as it can be done, when she comes home, throw a pail of cold water on her udder behind, and keep her up from any other that night, because she will be apt to ride them, and so miss her bul­ling.

If you would fat a cow that has calved in the spring-time, dry her the beginning of August, and then she will get fat with the af­ter-pasture. Bullocks turned in to the pas­ture at the same time may be fatted. Cows and bullocks may be fatted in the winter in stalls with turnips and oil cake; they should be both chopped small. Let them have as many turnips as they will eat, and two quarts of the oil cake twice a day; they should have a little good hay now and then to brouze on.

[Page 266]Sheep, are a cattle that are kept at the least expence of any to the farmer, and will thrive upon almost any ground, and for this reason they ought to be prefered before the larger cattle. The best sort of sheep for fine wool are those bred on high dry ground. The marshes or low lands breed larger sheep, but their wool is not so good.

The farmer should always buy his sheep from a worse land than his own; they should be big boned, and have a long greasy wool, curling close and well. Those sheep always breed the finest wool, and are also the most approved of by the butcher, or sale in the market.

For the choice of sheep to breed, the ram must be young, and his skin of the same co­lour with his wool, for the lambs will be of the same colour with his skin. He should have a large long body, a broad forehead, round and well rising, large eyes and straight and short norstrils.

The polled sheep, that is those that have no horns are found to be the best breeders. The ewe should have a broad back, a large bending neck, small, but short, clean and nim­ble legs, and a thick deep wool covering her [Page 267] all over. To know whether they be sound or not examine the wool, that none of it be want­ing, and see that the gums be red, the teeth white and even, and the brisket skin red, the wool firm, the breath sweet, and the feet not hot. Two years old is the best time for begin­ning to breed, and the first lambs should not be kept too long to weaken them by suckling; but be sold as soon as conveniently may be. They will breed advantageously till they are seven years old.

To know the age of a sheep, look in his mouth the same as in a horse's; when he is one shear, he has two broad teeth before; when it is two shear it will have four; when three, six; when four, eight; after this their mouth begins to break.

As to the time of putting the rams to the ews, the farmer must consider at what time of the spring his grass will be fit to maintain them and their lambs, and whether he has tur­nips to do it till the grass comes; for very of­ten both the ewes and lambs are destroyed by the want of food. Many thousands of lambs and many ewes are lost some winters in this country from the same cause. If the lambs are only stunted in their growth by it, it is an accident that they never recover. Num­bers [Page 268] in my travels last winter and spring com­plained to me of their losing their lambs dai­ly. They said the ewe would not take to the lamb, or let it suck, and that they never knew any thing like it. The reason was obvious to me; the ewe was starved, therefore had no milk for her lamb, which was the reason of her running from it, and taking no notice of her young.

The ewe goes twenty weeks with lamb, and according to this it is easy to calculate the proper time you would have them to yean in.

Ewes that are big should be kept but bare, for it is very dangerous to them to be fat at the time of their bringing forth their young. They should be well fed indeed, like cows, a fortnight before hand, to put them in heart.

The method of fattening sheep and lambs on turnips you will find by turning back to the account given of the turnip and penning of sheep. I have only to add that there should be racks and mangers placed in the field that may be easily moved; in the racks there should be some good upland hay, and in the man­ger [Page 269] some grain. The tare or vetch is the best.

There is another method of fattening lambs, which is done in the house, therefore it is called house lamb; it is more delicate than that fatted in the field; which makes it fetch a greater price. This is done by suck­ling; the ewes are brought into the house to them twice a day, perhaps two or three for each lamb, that they may have their bellies full: they are fastened by their head, that they cannot run from the lambs.

Sheep, as well as bullocks and cows, should frequently have salt given them, which purifies the blood and keeps them in health.

Hogs are one of the most increasing and profitable species of animals that can be kept on a farm, therefore deserve the husband-man's particular attention. From experience I have found that swine prefer saintfoin and lucerne, to clover; those grasses will fatten them with a small quantity of corn, peas, or beans. Potatoes boiled in an iron pan, mix­ed with a small quantity of Indian, pea, or bean meal, is a good fatner for them. Peas makes the meat of swine sweeter and firmer [Page 270] than any other diet whatever. Pumpkins with a small quantity of corn or grain, will likewise fatten them.

When they are fattening in pens, it is ne­cessary twice or thrice a week to add about three table spoons full of salt, to half a bushel pail full of food, which assists digestion, con­solidates their food, and increases their appe­tites. About once a week, I have mixed two spoons full of madder, which prevents ob­structions, and on some other day in the week I give an equal quantity of flowers of salt pe­tre and sulphur well pounded and mixed; which purifies and cools the blood; which entirely prevents the meazles, keeps the swine extremely healthy, and fattens them more expeditiously.

Calves may be made very fat by the fol­lowing method: The first week they should not have their fill; but afterwards as much as they will suck; at three weeks or a month they should suck two cows; when they are five or six weeks old, they should have three cows to suck.

The calf should be kept in a close pen, sheltered at much as possible from the cold and the light, and have some clean wheat­en [Page 271] straw every day to lay down on, should have some powdered chalk, with some whea­ten flour in a trough, and some large pieces of chalk hung up for the calves to lick at pleasure, in order to whiten their flesh, make them suck, and keep them from being laxa­tive; and if then they should scour, (which hinders their fattening) give them four oun­ces of bole armonic, powdered and mixed with milk, through a horn.

Give them now and then some black pep­per mixed with urine, to cause a drought, that they may suck the more, and with bleeding them often, helps to fatten them the sooner. Bleed them when a month old; at six weeks do the same again; and so every week after you keep them, it whitens their flesh, and makes them fatter with less milk. I have had calves by these means at seven weeks old has weighed better than three hundred weight; which I have sold to the butcher for 7l. 15s. sterling.

There are two ways of breeding calves that are intended to be reared: the one is to let the calf run with its dam all the year round: this is the method in the cheap breeding coun­tries, and is generally allowed to make the best cattle.

[Page 272]The other way is to take them from the dam after they have sucked about a fortnight, they are then to be taught to drink fleet milk which is to be made but just warm for them, it being very dangerous to give it them too hot.

The best time for weaning of calves is from January to May; they should have milk for twelve weeks after, and a fortnight before that is left off, water should be mixed with the milk in larger and larger quantities. When the calf has fed on milk about a month, little whisps of hay should be placed all about him in cleft sticks to induce him to eat.

The latter end of April or beginning of May, they should be turned out to grass only for a few days; they should be taken in for the night, and have milk and water given them; the same may be also given them in a pail sometimes in the field, till they are able to feed themselves, that they do not regard it. The grass they are turn­ed into must not be too rank, but short and sweet, that they may like it and yet get it with some labour.

Calves should be always weaned at grass, for if it be done with hay and water, they [Page 273] often grow big bellied on it, and are apt to rot. When those among the males are se­lected which are to be kept as bulls, the rest should be gelded for oxen: the sooner the better, twenty days old is a very good time.

BREEDING and FATTENING HORSES.

A horse is a most noble and useful animal; and in order to have a good and beautiful race, it is necessary to choose for a stallion a fine barb, free from hereditary infirmities; such as weak eyes, bad feet, spavins, pursi­ness and the like. Disorders that arise from accidents are of no consequence, nor is the horse to be at all the less valued for them as a stallion.

Three months before this horse is to cover a mare, he should be fed with found oats, peas or beans, or with coarse bread, and a little hay, but a good quantity of wheat-straw; he should be led out twice a day to water all this time, and after every watering walked about an hour, but not over heated. If he be not prepared and put in heart in this manner, the colts will be weakly, and the [Page 274] horse himself will be spoiled, growing pursy and broken winded.

If he is put to too many mares, he will not last long; his mane and tail will begin to fall off through weekness, and it will be difficult to get up his flesh again by the next year. The number of mares should be proportioned to his strength; and twelve, fifteen, or at most twenty, are as many as a horse will well serve for in a season.

Mares go with foal eleven months and as many days over as they are years old. This being certainly known, it is easy to contrive so that all your foals may be brought forth at a time, when there is plenty of grass.

About the end of May the mares are to be put into an inclosure capable of feeding them, as long as the stallion is to be with them, or that they are in season. In this in­closure all the mares are to be put together, as well those which are barren as others.

The stallion's hind shoes are to be taken off, but the fore shoes should be left on to pre­serve his feet; then lead him forth and let him cover a mare twice in hand, to render him more tame and gentle: after this, take [Page 275] off the bridle, and turn him loose among the rest, where he will become familiar with them, and not one of them will be horsed, but when they are in season.

There should be a little lodge built up in some part of the inclosure, and corn, peas, beans, oats, bread, and other good food put into the manger in it, that the horse may re­tire into it in the scorching heats, and eat what he likes best. He must thus be enter­tained during the whole time he is with the mares, which is to be about six or seven weeks.

Mares that are very fat and gross do not hold well; but those which are moderately fat, conceive with the greatest success and ease.

To bring a mare in season, give her two quarts of hemp-seed night and morning for a week before she is brought to the horse. If she refuses it alone, it may be mixed with oats, corn, beans, &c. and if the stallion eat of it also, it will make him the better.

The stallion should not cover before he is six years old, nor after he is fifteen. A mare should never be covered before she is three [Page 276] years old: they should be always sound and healthful, and of a good breed: such as these will bring forth better and finer foals than any others.

The colts produced from these should not be used as stallions, for they will degenerate, and the race will soon become exactly the same as this country breed. If a barb is not to be had, an English or Spanish Horse is to be chosen.

The first backing of a horse is a thing of great consequence, as his value afterwards very much depends on it. After a colt has been exercised some time morning and even­ing, and becomes somewhat obedient, he is to be taken to some plowed lands, the light­er the better; he must be made to trot over these in the hand, by that means to tire him and abate his wantonness. When this is done, care must be taken that all the tack­ling be good and firm, and every thing in its due and proper place; then a person is to hold his head, and another to mount him, but this must not be done suddenly, or at a jerk, but very gradually and slowly, by seve­ral half-risings and heavings. If he bears this patiently, the person is to seat himself firmly on his back; but, if he be troublesome and [Page 277] not tamed enough, the person is to forbear the attempt to mount, and he is to be trot­ted hard in the hand over the same plowed lands again, till he is willing to receive the rider quietly on his back. When this is done, the person who is on his back must che­rish him, and the man who has his head must lead him a few paces forward; then he is to be cherished again.

The feet are to be fitted well in the stirrups and the toes turned out; afterwards the ri­der is to shrink and move himself in the sad­dle, and the person who holds his head is to withdraw his hand a little further from the mouth.

As the rider moves his toes forward, the holder must move him forward with the rein, till he is made to apprehend the rider's moti­on of body and foot, which must always go together, and with spirit, and will go for­ward without the other's assistance, and stay upon the restraint of the rider's hands. When this is accomplished let him be cherished and have grass and bread to eat; and then let the rider mount and alight several times, cherish­ing him between each time; and thus he is to be managed till he will go on or stand still, at pleasure. This being done, the long rein [Page 278] may be laid aside, and the band about his neck, which are always used on this occasion, and nothing will be necessary but the trench­es and caveson, with the martingale. A groom must lead the way before; or another horse, going only straight forwards, and ma­king him stand still when desired. In this manner, by sometimes following and some­times going before another horse on the trot, the creature will by degrees be brought to know that it is his business to be quiet and governable.

FATTENING OF HORSES.

The being able to do this speedily requires some art, and indeed is one of the greatest niceties of the whole management of that creature.

There is many methods; but the following may be most depended on: Take elecampane, cimmon seed, tamarisk, and aniseed, of each two ounces, common groundsel one handful. Boil all these very well, with two hands full of garlic scraped and cleaned, in a gallon of good beer; strain the liquor well off, and give the horse a quart of it every morning made hot; [Page 279] keep him warm after it. After he has taken this for four or five mornings, he may be turned out to grass, or kept in the house as the sea­son will permit; but whenever provender is given him, a quantity of a powder is to be prepared of equal parts of cummin seeds and elecampane, and give him half an ounce of it every time, sprinkling it in by degrees, as he eats, that he may not nauseate the whole.

If this method does not succeed in a short time, then take two spoons full of diapente; brew it in a pint of sweet wine, and give it the horse for three mornings. This will take off any inward sickness, and make the other things take effect. After this, feed him with good provender three times a day: that is, af­ter his watering in the morning, after his wa­tering in the evening, and at nine o'clock at night. If he does not eat the provender well and freely, it must be changed for some other kind.

If all this does not succeed, let the horse be blooded; and then take half a bushel of coarse barley meal, put it into a pail full of water, and stir the whole together very well, then let it settle by standing. Pour off the clear liquor into another vessel, and let him drink it for his common drink, and eat the [Page 280] remainder which falls to the bottom of the pail.

If he refuse to eat this alone, there may be some bran mixed among it. This should be given him three times a day, morning, noon, and night. If he does not rightly take to the meal with the bran, some oats must be mix­ed with it, and this will readily bring him to feed on it; but which ever way is used, they must be by degrees diminished in quantity, till at length he is brought to eat the meal alone; for that is the thing that must fatten him up.

Care must be taken that the barley be fresh ground, for it quickly grows sour; and when this has once been the case with one parcel, no art will ever bring the horse to touch it afterwards. Scarce any horse but will be fattened by keeping him to this diet about twenty days. Barley cools and purges the creature; but the greatest efficacy, as to the fattening him, lies in the water, which by this management takes up all the rich part of the barley into itself.

When the horse grows lusty on this diet, it must be taken from him by degrees; giv­ing [Page 281] him at first oats at once, and barley meal twice a day; and then oats twice, and the barley meal once, till he is perfectly weaned from it. In the mean time he must have good hay, and he must not be rid, only it will be proper to walk him gently about an hour or two in the heat of the day.

If it be found that the horse wants a good smart purging during the time of his continu­ing on the barley diet, the best time to give it him is after the first eight days, and the following is a very proper sort of physic: take of the finest aloes one ounce, agaric in pow­der half an ounce, and powder of florentine orris one ounce. Let all these be mixed to­gether, and put into a quart of milk warm from the cow. This will work very briskly, and after it is over, the usual diet is to be con­tinued. Give him a pint of linseed, or half a pint of linseed oil mixed with his feed now and then, which will keep him clear from the botts, as well as the more speedily fatten him.

How to know the AGE of a HORSE.

This is known from his teeth, hoof, coat, tail, and ears. The first year he has only [Page 282] small grinders and gatherers, of a brightish co­lour, which are called foal's teeth. The se­cond year he changes his four foremost teeth, viz. two above, and two below, and they ap­pear browner and bigger than the rest. The third year he changes the teeth next these, leaving no apparent foal's teeth before, but two above and two below on each side, which are all bright and small. The fourth year he changes the teeth next these, and leaves no more foal's teeth before, but one above and one below on each side. The fifth year his foremost teeth are all changed, and the tushes on each side are complete; and those which succeed the last foal's teeth are hollow, with a small black speck in the middle, which is called the mark in a horse's mouth, and continues till he is eight years old. The sixth year there ap­pears new tushes, near which is visible some young flesh, at the bottom of the tush; the tushes being white, small, short and sharp. The seventh year his teeth are at their full growth, and the mark in his mouth appears very plain. At eight, all his teeth are full, plain, and smooth, and the black mark but just discernable; the tushes looking more yellow than ordinary. The ninth, his fore­most teeth shew longer, broader, yellower, and fouler than before, the mark quite disap­pearing, [Page 283] and the tushes bluntish. At ten, no holes are felt on the inside of the upper tushes, which till then are easily felt. At eleven, his teeth are very long, yellow, black, and foul, and stand directly opposite each other. At twelve, the teeth of his upper jaw hang over those of his under. At thirteen, his tushes are worn almost close to his chaps if he has been much ridden; otherwise they will be long, black and foul.

With regard to the hoof: if it be smooth, moist, hollow, and well sounding, it is a sign of youth; but if, on the contrary, it be rugged and as it were covered with seams one above another, and withal, dry, foul and crusty, it is a sign of old age. If a joint about the stern of the tail, near the but­tock be felt to stick out more than the rest by the bigness of a nut, you may conclude him under ten, but if the joints are all smooth, he may be fifteen. If the eyes are round, full, and, as it were starting from his head, having no pits over them, but smooth and even with his temples, and free from wrinkles, both under and above, it is a certain mark of his youth.

If the skin be taken up in any part be­tween the finger and thumb; and being [Page 284] let go, returns suddenly to its place, and re­mains without wrinkles, he may be judged to be young. You may also judge of a hor­se's age by looking on his palate; for if he is old, the roof of his mouth is lean and dry to­wards the middle, and those ridges which in young horses are pretty high and plump, di­minish as they increase in age; so that in very old horses, the roof of the mouth is no­thing but skin and bone. This last is a ve­ry necessary remark especially in mares, which seldom have any tushes to discover their age by.

DISEASES HORSES are subject to, with the METHOD of CURE.

As this noble animal is subject to many disorders, it is necessary every owner should know how to treat them; therefore I shall give a short treatise on them, with some ap­proved receipts for their cure. I will ar­range them alphabetically.

ANTICOR is a dangerous disease, pro­ceeding from a fulness or inflammation of the blood, occasioned by high feeding, without exercise, or by over hard riding.

[Page 285]In this disease the corrupt and inflamed blood raises a swelling in the middle of the breast, just against the heart. Upon the first appearance of the swelling, a large quantity of blood should be taken from the palate veins, or, if they lie hid, from both sides of the neck. Then give to drink diapente with beer, adding thereto one ounce of sugar can­dy, and half an ounce of treacle. Anoint the swelling every day with a mixture of ba­silicon and hogs lard; and when the swell­ing is soft, let out the pus or matter, washing it with copperas water; then heal the sore in the common manner.

BOTTS are a species of worms which in­fest horses more in this country, than any other. They have large heads and little tails, and generally breed in the straight gut, near, the fundament: which if not destroyed, are the death of the creature.

To prevent their breeding, give your horses in the spring and fall, one ounce of powder­ed antimony and three ounces of the flour of brimstone, which will not only prevent the botts breeding, but also purify their blood. And at times make a decoction of spice wood: that is, cut the spice wood small, and boil it in water, and the decoction or liquor [Page 286] mixed with the horse's feed, and now and then a pint of flax-seed. By this method, your creatures will always be kept healthy, and free from botts.

If the botts should have got ahead, and are troublesome to the horse, (which may be known by his uneasiness and frisking of his tail) get one ounce of the best indigo, and divide it into two doses; when powdered, give him one in the morning and the other in the evening: or, get a handful of the leaves of tobacco, and chop them small, and give it him in his feed.

The FARCIN proceeds from different cau­ses; as from feeding on unwholesome hay, corn, or grain; from too high feeding, with­out suitable exercise; from over hard riding attended with sudden heats and colds; or from infection from another horse. It is a kind of venom or corruption of the blood, that appears in form of knots or cords along the veins, and by ulcers; these last are cured with a red hot iron; and the former by bleeding, purging and proper exercise.

The best preparation for the Farcin is, to steep the regulus of antimony in beer, with a little of the spice called the grains of para­radise, [Page 287] and a little sugar; of which give a horse about half a pint at a time, three times a day, with a day or two's intermission be­tween each day.

The GLANDERS consists in a running of corrupt matter from the nose, being first white, then yellow, green, and lastly black, when at its utmost malignity. It procceeds from various causes; from infection, a disor­der in the lungs, spleen, liver and brain, and in its last stage from the spine, and hence it is called the mourning of the chine.

In the first stage of this disease it may be easily cured, as its chief seat is in a little, soft, spongy flesh which is easily dilated by the least influx of blood. In the last stages there is no cure.

GRAVELLING is a disorder which tra­velling horses are liable to; when little gravel stones get in between the hoof and the shoe, they settle to the quick, and fret and fester the part. It is cured by pulling off the shoe, picking out the gravel, and drawing the place to the quick, then stopping up the foot with horse-grease and hot turpen­tine.

[Page 288]GALLING is very troublesome to the horse and rider on a journey, and the best horses are most subject to it; so that it con­cerns every traveller that goes long journies to prevent it, which may be done if the sad­dle fits well, and take a hind's or deer's skin, well furnished with hair, and fit it neatly be­neath the pannel of the saddle, so that the hai­ry side may be next to the horse; this does not harden by sweat, but keeps the horse from galling. This is also a method that should never be omitted with horses that are newly cured of such a hurt, as it will prevent their falling into it again.

It is always proper to take off the saddle as soon as the horse is brought in, and if in hot weather, to wash his back with cold wa­ter, and examine whether the back be at all pressed, or pinched in any part: and it will be well to examine it an hour after, to see what effect the standing has had; for often the part hurt will not shew it at first, but will swell violently afterwards. In this case, where the skin is not fretted, but a swelling comes on, a bag of coarse cloth should be fil­led with horse-dung, and tied on the swel­ling, which will not only prevent it from growing worse, but will take it quite down; or rub the swelling with good brandy, laying [Page 289] on a paper soaked in it. If the skin be bro­ken, a mixture of red wine and sallad oil, is a good remedy.

The HAW is a gristle growing between the nether eye-lid and the eye, which, if not timely extirpated, will put the eye entirely out. It owes its origin to tough phlegmatic humours, which falling from the head, and uniting together, form, at last, this infirmity.

The method of cure is as follows: The creature is to be held fast by the head, and a needle with a strong thread, is to be thrust through the upper eye-lid, and tied to his mane. Then the needle with a long thread, must be thrust through the haw, and the skin cut round it with a sharp knife: the haw is plucked out by means of the thread; after which the eye must be cleansed from the blood, and washed with beer, with salt dis­solved in it.

The hoof of a horse is liable to many infir­mities, such as casting of the hoof, hoof-bound, hoof-loosend, hoof-swelled, and brittle-hoof­ed.

Casting of the hoof, is when the whole cof­fin of the hoof becomes loosened, and falls off [Page 290] from the bone. This arises from some prick, stub, foundering, surbating, &c. that causes an imposthumation in the foot, whereby the hoof, and sometimes the coffin-bone, being spungy, falls off in large pieces.

Hoof-bound is the shrinking in of the hoof a-top and at the heel, which makes the skin grow over it. It is caused by keeping a horse too dry in the stable, straight-shoeing, or some unnatural heat after foundering.

Hoof-loosened, is a dividing of the horn of a horse's hoof from the flesh, at the setting on of the coronet. If the part­ing be round about the coronet, it comes by foundering; if in part, then by a prick, quit­ter-bone, gravelling, &c.

Hoof-swelled, is an infirmity that befals young horses, when over ridden, or wrought hard, which makes the hoof swell, by reason of the blood falling down and set­tling there; which, if not speedily removed, begets a wet spavin.

The brittle-hoof comes sometimes natural­ly, and sometimes artificially. When it comes naturally, it is generally hereditary, the sire or dam having had the same com­plaint. [Page 291] When it comes on accidentally, it is sometimes owing to a distemper falling down into the feet; and sometimes to the creature's being much foundered. The hoof, in this distember, is so friable and rotten, as it were, that it cracks and flakes off on eve­ry slight occasion. The cure in these several disorders is as follows: take bees wax, refined turpentine, suet, and hogs lard, of each four ounces; sallad oil a quarter of a pint, and of dog's grease, half a pound; let the whole be melted together and strained through a piece of canvass into a gallipot. The hoof is to be thoroughly anointed with this every day, morning and evening, especially at the root; and, if there are any large cracks, they must be filled up at every dressing, with a mixture of equal parts of cows-dung and hogs lard.

The LAMPERS is a swelling in a horse's palate, that hinders the creature from feed­ing, and makes him let his oats or corn fall half chewed out of his mouth. It arises from abundance of blood resorting to the first fur­row of the mouth, and from heat, &c. The cure is by burning it with a red hot iron, and afterwards anointing the place with olive oil.

[Page 292]The SPAVIN is a disease of which there are four kinds: two of them are seated on the inside at the bottom of the ham. The other two on the inside of the hoof under the joint. The two former is called the ox and dry spa­vin, and the two latter is called the bloody or wet spavin, and the bone spavin. The ox spavin is a callous tumor hard as a bone, and very painful. The dry spavin is more easily perceived by the horses raising one of his hind legs, with a twich, higher than the other. The blood spavin is a soft tumor which grows through a horse's hoof, and is usually full of blood. The bone spavin is a crusty sub­stance growing on the inside of the hoof un­der the joint. The ox and dry spavin is oc­casioned by a kick or some hurt, and the blood and bone spavin, by some infirmity in the hoof. The method of cure is by blistering the part, and if that does not cure it, firing is the only resource left.

The STAVERS or STAGGERS is a gid­diness in a horse's head, which ends in mad­ness. The signs of it are dimness of sight, reeling and staggering, watery eyes, &c. at length for every pain he beats his head against the wall, thrusts it into the litter, rises and lies down with fury, &c. The method of cure is as follows; the creature is first to be blooded [Page 293] largely, then a glyster is to be given him, com­posed of two quarts of emetic wine, and four ounces of the unguentum popalneum. When he has reposed an hour or two after voiding the glyster, let another be given him, made of two ounces of the scoriae of the liver of anti­mony finely powdered, boiled a little while in five pints of beer, and with the addition of four ounces of the same ointment, or of oint­ment of roses. This last glyster is to be fre­quently repeated, and his legs to be all the while rubbed strongly with wisps of hay, wetted in warm water, to make a revulsion. His food should be bran and white bread, and he should be walked from time to time in some temperate place. If these methods do not succeed, let an ounce of venice treacle be dissolved in a quart of some cordial waters, and given him; and, after this, let the fol­lowing glyster be given warm: take venice treacle and salpoly crestum, of each two oun­ces; dissolve them in two quarts of a decocti­on of mallows and camomile flowers; add a quarter of a pint of oil of rice. This re­peated two or three times after bleeding, and the other methods, will often cure the worst stages of this disease.

WIND-GALL are bladders full of corrupt jelly, which, when let out, is thick, and of [Page 294] the colour of the yolk of an egg. They vary in size, but are more usually small than large. Their place is about the fetlock joint, and are often so painful, especially in the sum­mer season, when the weather is hot, and the ground dry and hard, that they make the creature frequently stumble, or fall absolutely down. The wind galls that are situated near the sinews, are much the most painful of all, and soonest make the horse lame. The ge­neral cause of wind-galls is extreme work, or violent exercise in very hot weather, and those horses which have long joints are most subject to wind-galls.

The method of cure is to open the swell­ing about the length of a bean, and to press out the jelly: when this is done, apply a mixture of the oil of bays and the white of an egg, covering it with tow. Another me­thod is, after the jelly is all squeezed out, to wrap round the part a woolen cloth, then applying a hot iron; this is to be rubbed over till all the moisture is carried away; it is then to be daubed all over with pitch, mastick, and resin boiled together, laying tow in plen­ty over all.

The roweling of horses is a method of cure frequently had recourse to in inward [Page 295] strains, as well as those about the shoulders and hips, as also for hard swellings not easily to be resolved. I shall therefore give proper directions for rowelling. The operation is thus: a little slit being made through the skin, about a hand's breadth below the part aggrieved, big enough to put a turkey's quill in. The skin is raised from the flesh, the end of the quill put in, and the skin blown from the flesh upwards, and all over the shoulder. Then the hole being stopped with the finger, the place blown is beaten with a small stick, and the wind spread with the hand all over, then let go. This done, horse hair, or red sarsenet, half the thickness of the little finger, is put in a roweling needle, seven or eight inches long; the needle is put into the hole, and drawn through again six or seven inches higher; then the needle is drawn out, and the two ends of the rowel tied together, anointing it every day, as well as before the putting it in, with fresh butter and hogs grease and drawing it backwards and forwards in the skin, to make the putrid matter discharge itself more plentifully.

Horse balls is a cordial medicine, admini­stered in the form of balls, of great virtue for feeding and strengthening sound, as well as healing and raising unsound horses—the pre­paration [Page 296] is as follows: take anniseeds, cartha­mus, elicampane, cimmon seed, and tama­risk, of each an equal quantity, wrought into a stiff paste, and thence formed into balls— They are cleansing and emollient, efficacious in colds, surfeits, and hard labour, and especi­ally useful where any of the chief viscera are decayed: nothing raising a lean creature so soon, being partly food, and partly phy­sic.

Chewing balls, are those which the horse is to keep champing, or masticating in his mouth, a considerable time, without swallow­ing. These are chiefly used for a lost appe­tite, a thing very incidental to horses. The preparation for these balls is this: take li­ver of antimony, and of assafoetida, of each one pound; wood of the bay-tree, and juni­per wood, each half a pound, pellitory of Spain, two ounces: let all these be powder­ed together, then add as much fine grape verjuice as is necessary to make the whole in­to a paste. This is to be formed into balls of about an ounce and half in weight, which are to be dried in the sun.

These are the chewing balls, and are to be used one at a time in the following man­ner: the ball is to be wrapped up in a linen [Page 297] rag, and a thread is to be fastened to this, in such manner that it may be tied to the bit of the bridle, and kept in the mouth: when the bridle is taken off, the horse will imme­diately eat, and, when one ball is consumed, another is to be tied up, and put in its place, till the intent is answered.

DISEASES CATTLE are subject to, with the METHOD of CURE.

For a cow that strains in calving, when her calf haulm, udder, or bag will come down and swell, as much as a blown bladder. Take new milk and strew thereon lin-seed bruised to powder, put it up with your hand, and let her hinder part stand higher for two or three days, than her fore-part.

For a cow, who, by lying on the earth and two soon drinking cold water after calving, her calf-haulm swells, and lies over the neck of the bladder, stopping the urine that she cannot stale, or stand on her feet. Take two sacks, and put them under her body, fasten ropes to the ends, and put them over the beam of the barn, and draw her up, that she cannot touch the ground with her [Page 298] feet; then let a woman anoint her hand with hogs lard, and work the calf's haulm from the bladder, that the water may have a pas­sage, give her warm bedding, warm drinks, and warm cloths.

For a cow that cannot glean—Take ger­mander and pennyoyal, a large handful of each, half an ounce of ginger, and one drachm of saffron, boiled in three pints of beer; strain it, and when cooled, give it her to drink.

For a cow that pisses blood—Take oak, shave off the outer bark, and boil it in spring water till it be red; also comfrey, shepherd's purse, plantain, sage, green hemp or nettles, of each a good handful, and boil them with the bark; strain it, and put a handful of salt in­to the water; also, some allum, bole armoniac and chalk. If the beast is weak, give only a quart luke-warm; but if strong, more; once given often serves, but twice will surely cure.

For the black or red water in cows; a dis­temper next to the pissing of blood—Take a piece of iron, heat it hot in the fire, and put it into two quarts of milk; after let the milk cool, and give it the beast blood warm, and it [Page 299] will bind up the bloody issue, after two or three times giving.

For the blain in cows—When first taken, they will stare, and foam with their tongues out of their mouths; then immediately prick her in the nose, or bleed her in the neck, which will keep her alive twenty-four hours; then take a handful of salt in about a pint of water, and give it her, then directly ram a whole egg down her throat. Sometimes they have it behind, under their tail, when a bli­ster will appear; this is cured by running a hand down her fundament close fingered, and brought wide out; which breaks the blain within; if not discovered presently, it kills them in half an hour sometimes.

To cure swellings, or snarled bags of cows. —Take rue, and adder's-tongue, stamp them together, and squeeze out the juice; this mix with a pound of fresh-butter from the churn, without salt, and make it into an ointment; of which anoint the part affected.

The rot in sheep is the greatest misfortune belonging to them. It is caused by too much moisture, by water and snows, which by their weight and dissolution, mix and wash the grass in with the earth, and so cause a froth [Page 300] or scum, which the sheep, through hunger and novelty, greedily devour, to their destruc­tion; it is also occasioned, in the spring or summer, by a putrefaction in the air or grass, especially in the valleys and marshes, and is known, oftentimes by the cobwebs on the ground, and hedges, which hold a wet, or moisture, and are of a poisonous nature. These cause a corruption in the blood, which breed plaises in the liver and head: this plaise is a live worm, about the breadth of one's finger-nail, and feeds and preys on these parts.

I have opened sheep that have died with the rot, and found the liver all consumed by these worms.

I had a weather sheep took with a giddi­ness, which increased so that it could not stand: I immediately knocked off that horn that lay next the ground, and there appeared a small bladder, like that of a fish, which I took out, and put a little wool in the place, dipped in tar, and sewed it up, and the sheep did well afterwards.

Rotten sheep will, in the beginning of the rot, fatten sooner than sound ones; and the way to know if they are sound, is to feel the [Page 301] cod of the weather, and between the legs of the ewe; if they are moist and wet they are sound: but if there is a dry wax or scurf, they are rotten. Also if the innermost part of the eye has streaks of red, it is a sign of soundness. Also if the gums are red, they are sound; for the gums and mouth of a rot­ten sheep are always white.

When the cause of distempers are known, remedies are more easily prescribed. I have before shewn that the cause of the rot is oc­casioned by too much moisture, and their devouring those cobwebs that appear early in the morning.

If the sheep was not turned into those pla­ces till nine or ten o'clock, the sun by that time will have exaled or dried up this moi­sture which contains this poisonous quality, so that the sheep will not receive any injury; and as a preventative, give them frequently some good hay, oats, or other grain, and salt two or three times a week. If you find the rot has begun, remove them if you can con­veniently to some high dry ground, that will often knit and recover them.

To prevent and cure a rotten sheep, that is not too far gone.—Take bay salt, and stamp [Page 302] it well, and after the sheep has fed a day or two on clean, dry oats, put some of it among them, and after that a greater quantity, till such time as they dislike it; then give them clean oats a day or two, and, after that, serve them with the salt as before: this course being followed, until their eyes have recovered their natural colour, they will be perfectly cu­red.

Another receipt which I seldom found to fail, is the regulus of antimony sold at the chymists or apothecaries. This regulus of antimony is a universal remedy for most dis­seases in men and beasts; it is a chemical pre­paration, made with crude antimony, nitre, and tartar, and should be corrected with spice and sugar. I have before mentioned it for the cure of the farcin or farcy in horses. Take this regulus of antimony, and steep it in beer, with a little of the spice called grains of paradise, and a little sugar; give it two or three times, with a day or two's intermission between each time. To a sheep, about two or three ounces at a time. This must be done in time, before the liver is too much knotted, and that may be partly known, by killing one, by which a judgment may be made of the rest.

[Page 303]Another receipt to prevent the rot in sheep. Take a peck of malt and mash it, the same as you brew it into beer, and make about ten gallons of liquor: then boil in this liquor, a good quantity of herbs, such as shepherds-purse, comfrey, sage, plantain, penny-royal, wormwood and bloodwort, of each a good quantity, and boil them in the said liquor very well; then strain them and put a little yeast therein; and after that put a peck of salt, and tun, and put it up in a vessel. Then give it your sheep in the spring or fall in wet weather; seven or eight spoonfuls apiece once every week. If the weather is dry, you need not give it them so often. If you give them now and then a lick of tar mixed with herb-de-grace chopped, it will cleanse the bowels of much corruption, and be healthful to the blood.

For the skit or loosness in sheep—Take salt, allum and chalk, and give it in small drink or water, and it will knit and help them presently.

By frequently seeing my sheep in the pen collect together in a circular manner, with their heads or noses close to one another, made me make observations to know what could be the reason. I have seen large flies about the heads [Page 304] of the sheep, and their attention or directi­on seemed to be at the nose of the sheep, which was the cause of the sheep huddling so close together to prevent them. This fe­male fly, when she has been impregnated by the male, knows that the nose of a sheep is the only place for her to deposit her eggs, in order to their coming to good. The fron­tal sinuses above the nose in sheep are the places where these worms live and attain their full growth. These sinuses are always full of a soft white matter, which furnishes these worms with a proper nourishment, and are sufficiently large for their habitation; and when they have here acquired their de­stined growth, and come to the state in which they are fit to undergo their changes for the fly-state, they leave their old habitation, and falling to the earth, bury themselves there; when these are hatched into flies.

The head of a sheep makes a good dish: but these live worms found in the head, (which is mistaken by many for maggots) has brought that part of the sheep into disrepute. I hap­pily found a remedy which prevented the fly from laying her eggs; which was mixing flour of brimstone with salt, and giving it fre­quently to the sheep to lick. The fumes of the brimstone ascending into that part of the [Page 305] head made it noxious to the fly. My sheep afterwards fattened much sooner; for the worms plagued them much by tickling the part, which might be seen by the sheeps un­easiness, and frequently shaking their heads.

To cure the scab or itch, all maggots, and worm in the claw. Let the sheep blood in the eye veins. Take tar and hogs lard of each a like quantity, mix them well together with some flour of brimstone and the juice of cherville; bring it to a salve, and with the same (after you have bared, cleansed, and made all the sore places raw) anoint all the griev­ed places.

To cure broken bones, or bones out of joint. After you have placed the member right (which you may do by the example of the sound member) bathe the grieved place well with butter and beer; then make a sear-cloth of patch-grease and yellow wax, and warm­ing it very hot, lap it about the member, and if need require, splinter it; and in case the member be broken, renew it not till fifteen days be past, otherwise once in three days.

To cure griefs in the mouth, and looseness of teeth. Let the sheep blood in the gums, then take of earth, sage, and salt of each an equal [Page 306] quantity, beat them well together, and with the same rub the mouth of the sheep very well, but especially where it is grieved.

To rear weak lambs, and cure lambs that are yeaned sick. Take up the lamb, and breathe into the mouth thereof. Then put it to its mother's tits; if the ewe has no milk, or the lamb has not strength to suck, feed it with mare's milk and a little water mixed to­gether made lukewarm, and in any case du­ring the sickness, or weakness, keep it very warm; for that is the greatest nourishment that can be given, and agrees the best.

TO MAKE CHEESE.

The English method is as follows. To let the runnet be prepared by soaking the calve's bag in cold water and salting it enough to keep it sweet—To the milk, first made blood warm, add enough of this to turn the milk into a curd in half an hour. Which quantity will soon be found by experience; then heat it as hot as you can well bear your hand in it; and having strained the whey well from it, break or chop the curd to pieces; and to every five pounds of cheese put a tea­spoonful [Page 307] of refined salt petre, and a large spoonful of common salt. Experience will soon teach you how much milk or curd will produce five pounds of cheese. It must now be put into the press, which you may have of any size from ten pounds to eighty: the cheese must be turned within an hour after it is first put in, and kept in the press two days. Turn it twice the first day, and once the last. They should while drying be kept in a dark room, or some other place where the flies can­not come; they should be turned on the dry­ing shelf once every day. If any crack come in them when drying, let them be filled with paste, made of butter and flour, to keep the flies from coming at them, if any should get into the room.

A new method to make BUTTER from St. Foine Grass.

In the first place the land where you intend for sowing of this grass must be prepared for its reception, by bringing it into a very fine tilth, and cleaning it well from all sorts of weeds: for weeds will soon choak and kill the young plants. This grass will grow on the driest land you have: wet lands, as I have before observed, on the cultivation of this [Page 308] valuable grass, will rot the roots and kill it.

The time required for preparing the land, and before it comes to its proper perfection, will be three years; for it must not be cut the first year. This will give you time to erect your dairy and collect a stock. For the pro­per cultivation of it, I refer the reader to my description of that grass.

To know the quantity of land sufficient for your stock. Observe the worst acre of twenty, which quantity of land is most suit­able for this purpose, improved by this grass, will very well maintain four cows from the first of May to the first of December, and afford, besides a sufficient store of hay, to make good part of their subsistence the other four months. Nothing is so sweet, nothing so innocent, as this St. Foine; but above all, it is observed to increase milk, in quantity and quality, beyond any grass yet known in the whole world; and it is for this reason that I advise you to keep cows upon it, and make you a dairy. A small plantation of thirty acres, improved by this grass, will be suffici­ent for a hundred cows.

[Page 309]These cows should be fresh, or new milch ones. The cows will keep fresh for twelve months, when they should be sold, and fresh ones bought in their room;—this may be done with very little loss, if any. I have frequently sold them for more than what I have bought a fresh one for, as they have been fat and fit for the butcher; you will find it will be to your advantage to have no bulls.

For one hundred cows, you must erect two sheds rising sufficiently in the middle to carry off the water; the height in the middle may be twelve feet, and the sides seven feet, and the breadth thirty feet; each of the sheds should be one hundred and twenty-five feet long; and under the highest part, directly in the middle, must be a partition, which will support the ridge of the roof; on either side of the partition, let there be fixed a rack like those in stables, which is to run the whole length of the shed, and must be pla­ced as high as a cow can reach her fodder from. The shed must next be divided into stalls of five feet broad; the length of these stalls must be exactly fitted to that of a cow, that a cross bar being placed at the outer end, may keep the beast from running back­ward.

[Page 310]Thus each shed will hold fifty cows, five and twenty on each side of the partition; to each of these sheds you must appoint a man whose business will be to clear the place, and carry off the dung; as also to mow the St. Foine every day, and give it to the cows in the racks before mentioned. This man be­ginning at one end of his proportion of ground, and going gradually on to the other; the first place will always be fit to mow again by that time he has gone through the whole.

Your cows will be thus fed at discretion, with neither too much nor too little, and they will not be so much pestured with the scorching heats, or the stinging flies, which in open pastures, often makes them whisk about, and trample down more grass than they eat.

Your dairys must be erected in the centre of these sheds, that it may have a commu­nication at the end of each shed, or cow house.

The dairy must be the same breadth of the cow houses, and thirty feet long, and ten feet high, which is to be divided the cross-way by a partition, which will make two separate [Page 311] dairy's, whose dimensions will be thirty by fifteen feet, and must be paved with brick, stone or tiles: each dairy will require two dai­ry maids.

All along both sides of the partition, at about a foot above the ground, let there be fixed, close to the wall, a strong pipe of lead, a little less than an inch diameter; both which pipes, being somewhat raised exactly in the middle of the shed, must have a gen­tle and almost an invissible descent from that raising to the dairies, through the wall of which their nether ends are to be brought, and there wrought into one another, that whatever descends through them, into either of the dairies, may have issue but at one mouth. This mouth of the pipes, must be made very small, and neatly fitted into the hollow end of a strong wooden axle-tree; which, whilst it is turning swiftly round the mouth of the pipe, may by no means strain by the motion, but receive, into its own hol­low, the milk which descends through the leaden pipes, without spilling any, and pas­ses so far through a wheel, or vessel like a barrel, only much larger in its circumference. The axle-tree which this vessel is to turn upon, is bored very full of round holes, through which it delivers the milk into the [Page 312] vessel, as fast as it receives it from the pipe.

The vessel must be capable of containing▪ at least three times the quantity of milk, which it is designed to receive; and there must be six wings, or thin pieces of wood, glued on edgeways to the wooden axle-tree, whose length and breadth, must be so contrived, as to leave a free space of six inches at either end of the axle-tree, and a foot between their edges lengthways, and the smooth inside of the vessel; in the most convenient part of which, must be contrived a door, to open and shut down upon occasion, as closely as if there was none. This door will perform its work very neatly, if you line the inside and edges with some kind of cloth, which is commonly used in the pressing of cheese.

The other solid end of the axle-tree must extend itself above five feet longer; and the whole length may be supported by square wooden posts, and turn in their tops, which are to be made hollow, and kept greased for that purpose. This end of the axle-tree is to be fastened into a wheel, exactly like those which are used in many places for roasting of meat. The diameter of this last wheel must be within six inches of the height of the da­iry, [Page 313] and two large dogs, being put into it at a time, will turn it with extraordinary swift­ness; which will bring the butter in a short time.

The dogs will be easily taught, and will at last take delight in the exercise. I have seen a large buck, brought to the practice of this labour, and it was wonderful to see the force he would run round, for an hour or two together. This wheel must be hollow, pro­perly inclosed, with a door for the dogs to go in and come out, and it must be made as light as it possibly can, for it to hold toge­ther.

I have but one thing more to say, and shall finish this direction; pretty near that side of every stall in your shed, to which the maid must come to milk the cow that belongs to it, let a hole, as small as will serve the occa­sion, be contrived by your plumber, in the uppermost part of the leaden pipe, to shut and open with a little screw, which screw, for fear of looosing it, may be fastened by a lit­tle iron chain to the body of the pipe.

I have endeavoured in the description of all this, to make my meaning as plain as pos­sible; [Page 314] If you do not comprehend it at first, you will after two or three times reading, and considering it.

The author having more room than he first imagined, is willing to introduce some­thing useful, and being of opinion that many foreign shrubs and plants, might be easily im­ported into this country, and that the intro­duction of which, would be attended with very great profits to the planter; and the ad­vantage that may be derived to the common­wealth from their introduction, increase and culture, must appear sufficiently obvious, when we consider the enormous expence we are at, in purchasing foreign wines, drugs, dye stuffs, &c. The many advantages we have more than any other country, having such a diversity of climate, of soil, and of si­tuation, leaves not a doubt, but they may be cultivated here, to as great an advantage, as they are in their own native soil, and cli­mate.

I regret in not having room to treat on all of them, that is useful; but as that would swell my treatise far beyond its limits, I must defer the remainder, to my next edition; contenting myself with a few of those that [Page 315] rank first; therefore shall first begin with the vine.

VINEYARD.

The best situation for a vine-yard is on the declivity of a hill lying to the South: and the soil most suitable, is the hottest gravel, sand, or dry rocky ground, provided it be well wa­tered and shaded. To mend a soil that wants those qualities, it is good to throw in the rubbish of old buildings, well mixed with twice as much earth, and sifted about the roots of the vines. The vines most suitable for the midling or colder climates are the white Muscadine, the Burgundy, the Claret, the Parsly, the Muscadine, the white and red Frontigniac, and the Arbois, or French sweet water grapes. The southern climates will produce all the rest as well as those.

The vine is propagated by slips, layers, or cuttings. If you propagate them by cuttings, let such be chosen as are strong, and well ri­pened shoots, of the last year's growth, and should be cut in the fall of the year, from an old vine, just below the place where they were produced, taking a knot of the two years [Page 316] wood, which should be pruned smooth. The upper part of the shoot must be cut off, so as to leave the cutting about sixteen inches long. If for exportation the lower parts of these cuttings must be put in mould in a tub and should be kept in some part of the ship till their arrival where the air could be ad­mitted to them. If cut for a new plantation, in the same place these cuttings are to be plac­ed, with their lower part in the ground in a dry place, laying some litter about their roots to prevent them from drying. In this place they should remain to the begin­ning of April, which is the time to plant them. They are then to be taken up and wiped clean, and their lower parts to stand in water six or eight hours. Then having prepared your ground to receive them. They are to be planted in lines running North and South, five or six feet a part; only two vines in each hole. You must have spare ones in your nursery, to make good them that miss; those you have planted must be kept clean from weeds. The fall following, if the cuttings have produced strong shoots, they should be pruned down to two eyes. In the spring following the ground is carefully to be dug up about the shoots, and the stalks to be earthed up to the first eye. During the sum­mer all the lateral shoots must be rubbed off [Page 317] as they appear, and only the two from the two eyes, which were left must be encourag­ed; these as they grow, must be supported, with stakes and laths in the manner of an espalier; and in the middle of July these must be shortened by nipping off their tops, and this will greatly strengthen the shoots. In the following fall these should be pruned, leaving them each three eyes, if they are strong, but if they are weakly, only two. The next summer there will be two shoots from each shoot of last year's wood; but if there should be two from one eye, which is sometimes the case, then the weaker is to be rubbed off. At midsumer the ends of the shoots are to be picked off, as before; all the weak lateral shoots, are to be displaced, as in the preceding summer; and the whole management is to be the same.

If, notwithstanding due pruning, they do not seem inclinable to bear large bunches, the ground must be helped with a dressing from the compost heap, with an equal quan­tity of drift or other sand. Thus managed, a vineyard in five or six years will produce a good store of grapes.

A vine-yard at Bath, in Great-Britain, containing about six acres of ground, planted [Page 318] with white muscadine and black cluster grapes, by such management as before men­tioned, has produced or yielded sixty hogs­heads of wine at a vintage; as good wine, and as fine flavored as any ever import­ed.

As to the management of grown vines, it is to be observed, that these rarely produce any bearing shoots, from wood that is more than a year old, the great care must therefore be, always to have plenty of this wood in every part of the tree.

The bearing shoots for the following year, should be left at the pruning with four eyes each. The under one of these does not bear, and consequently there are only three which do. Many leave more eyes on the shoots, that they may have the more fruit, which is the consequence; but then the fruit is much poorer; and this is so well known in the wine countries, that there are laws to direct, that no more than such a number of eyes are to be left on each shoot, for the grapes would else be of a poor juice, and destroy the repu­tation of the wine.

Each of the three eyes left, will produce two or three branches; so that each shoot [Page 319] will produce six of nine bunches, which is as much as it can bring to any perfec­tion.

These shoots must be laid in at about eighteen inches asunder on the espalier; for if they are closer, when the side shoots are produced, there will be no room to train them in against the espalier: and the largeness of the leaves of the vine, requires also that the shoots should be at a proportionable di­stance.

The best season for pruning vines is in October. The cut is always to be made just above the eye, and sloped backwards from it, that if it bleed, the juice may not run upon the bud; and where there is an opportunity of cutting down some young shoots to two eyes, to produce vigorous shoots for the next year's bearing, it should always be done.

In May, when the vines are shooting, they should be looked over, and all the shoots from the old wood rubbed off, and also the weak­er, whenever there are two produced from one eye.—During the month of May, the branches must be fastened to the espali­ers, with withes or bass, as they shoot; and to­wards the latter end of the month, the ends [Page 320] of the bearing branches should be nipped off, which will greatly strengthen the fruit. Those, however, which are to bear the next year, should not be topped before the begin­ning of July.

WINE.

The difference of flavour, taste, colour, and body, in wines, is as much owing to the different manner and time of pressing, ga­thering, &c. the grape, as to any difference of the grape itself.

In Hungary, whence tockay and some of the richest and highest flavored wines come, they are extremely curious in these respects. For their prime and most delicate wines, the grape is suffered to continue upon the vine, till it is half dried by the heat of the sun; and if the sun's heat should not prove sufficient, they are dried by the gentle heat of a furnace, and then picked one by one from the stalks. The juice of this grape, when pressed out, is of a fine flavour, and sweet as sugar; this, after due fermentation, is kept for a year, and then racked from the lees, when it proves a [Page 321] generous, oily, rich wine, and is sold at a ve­ry high rate.

The Hungarians prepare a second sort of wine, by collecting together the better kind of grapes, carefully picking the grapes from the stalks, and then pressing out the juice.— This is extremely sweet, and is made richer by infusing in it after it has fermented some days a sufficient quantity of half-dried grapes. This wine is very sweet, oily, and of a grate­ful taste, and retains these qualities for a long time. There is a third sort made from the pure juice of the same kind of grape, without any addition. This is a more brisk and live­ly wine, and far less sweet.

They likewise prepare a fourth sort, from grapes of different goodness mixed together; this, though not so generous, is nevertheless an excellent wine.—These Hungarian wines are remarkable for preserving their sweetness, and for the delicacy of their taste, and smell; they likewise do not grow easily vapid, and may be kept in perfection for ma­ny years.

RAISINS.

Raisins are the fruit of the vine suffered to remain on the tree till perfectly ripened, and then dried, either in the sun, or by the addi­tional heat of the oven. Grapes of every kind, preserved in this manner, are by au­thors called pa [...]ulae, and accordingly distin­guished in several kinds, according to the spe­cies of grape.

What we have at present, differ, as they are better or worse dried, and are called rai­sins under different additional denomina­tions.

The difference between raisins dried in the sun, and those dried in ovens, is very consi­derable and obvious. The former are sweet and pleasant, the others have a whitishness, and a latent acidity, with the sweetness that renders them much less agreeable.

The raisins of the sun, and what is called jar raisins, from their being imported in ear­then jars, are all of the former kind.

[Page 323]The common raisins are the fruit of seve­ral species of grape, which are better or worse, according as they have been more or less carefully cured, by drying them in ovens.

The common way of drying grapes for raisins is to tie two or three bunches of them firmly together while yet on the vine, and dip them into a hot lixivium of wood-ashes, with a little oil of olive in it, this disposes them to shrink and wrinkle, and after they are left on the vine three or four days, sepa­rated on stalks in a horizontal situation, and then dried in the sun at leisure, after cut from the tree.

FIGS.

The fig-tree, ficas vulgaris, or ficus sativa, in botany, is one of the cryptogamia of Li­naes, and the abores flore fructuque aggrega­to of Ray. These trees are propagated from the seeds: the method is to sow the seeds in the nursery at one foot distance in the rows, and four feet between. When planted out, if in warm countries, they are planted as standards; but in colder climates, they are [Page 324] generally planted against walls or espaliers. Its flowers are contained within the very fruit itself.

The espaliers will be best for the middling and colder parts of this country; but to the southward, standards.

In Germany, although so cold a climate, they are cultivated to a great advantage. Their method is, in the fall of the year to untie the fig-tree from the espalier and lay them down, covering them from the frost with straw or litter, which prevents their shoots from being injured by the frost; and this covering is taken away gradually in the spring, and not wholly removed, until all the danger of frost is over; by which manage­ment they generally have a very great crop of figs.

In Italy and the other warm countries, the first crop of figs is little regarded, being few in number; for it is the second crop of figs, which are produced from the shoots of the same year, which is the principal crop there.

It is singular that the wounding of the fruit of the fig by insects is a great means of its ripening well. In some of the islands of [Page 325] the Levant, they collect the fruit of the wild fig in June or July, at which time the worms, produced in them by the eggs of in­sects, begin to change into flies. They hang these fruits on the branches of the domestic fig-tree; and the flies, as they come out of them, naturally settle upon the growing figs about them, making punctures or wounds in the fruit, which causes them to ripen in much greater numbers and perfection than they otherwise would. But these figs are baked, before they are packed up for use, in order to destroy the eggs deposited in them by the flies, which would otherwise hatch into worms and spoil them. The best season for pruning of fig-trees is in autumn, because, at that time the branches are not so full of sap; so they wiil not bleed so much, as when they are pru­ned in the spring, and, at this season the bran­ches should be divested of all the atumnal figs; and, the sooner this is done when the leaves begin to fall off, the better will the young shoots resist the cold of the winter.

There are some seasons so cold and moist that the young shoots of the fig-tree will not harden, but are soft and full of juice; when this happens, there is little hopes of a crop of figs the succeeding year; for the first frost in the fall will kill the upper part of these shoots for a considerable length downwards: when­ever [Page 326] this happens it is the best way to cut off all the decayed parts of the shoots, which will prevent the infection, from destroying all the lower part of the branches; and by this me­thod I have seen a moderate crop of figs put out from the lower part of the shoots, where if the shoots had not been injured, there would have been no fruit produced; because it is chiefly from the four or five uppermost joints of the shoots that the fruit comes out; and it is for this reason, that as many of the short lateral branches should be preserved as possible: those being the most productive of fruit; for where the long straight shoots are fastened up, there will be no fruit, but at their extremities; so that all the lower parts of the trees will be naked, if there is not a particu­lar regard had to supply young shoots in eve­ry part of the tree.

The trees which are laid down from the espa­liers, should not be fastened up again, till the beginning of April, for the reasons before gi­ven: during the summer season these trees will require no pruning, but the branches are often blown down by winds; therefore, when­ever this happens, they should immediately be fastened up again, otherwise they will be in danger of breaking; for the leaves of these trees being very large and stiff, the wind has [Page 327] great power on them: so that where the bran­ches are not well secured, they are frequently torn down

Those trees which are planted against es­paliers, may be protected from the injury of frost in the spring, by placing reeds on each side of the espalier, which may be taken down every day, and put up again at night; but this need not be practised in warm weather, but only at such times as there are cold winds, and frosty mornings; and, although there is some trouble and expence attending this management, yet the plentiful crops of figs, which may be this way obtained, will suffici­ently recompence for both.

The best way of making this covering is, to fasten the reeds with rope yarn, in such a manner, as that it may be rolled up like a mat, so that the whole may be with facility be put up, or taken down; and if these reeds are carefully rolled up, after the season for using them is over, and put up in a dry place, they will last several years.

There is another method, by fastening as many of the branches together as can be conveniently brought into a bundle, and winding some hay or straw bands round [Page 328] them, which in the spring may be gradually taken off, so as not to expose the shoots all at once to the open air; and if there is some such light covering, laid round the stems, and upon the surface of the ground, about their roots, it will more effectually secure them from the dangers of frost; but when this is practised, great care should be taken, that no mice, or rats, harbour in this covering; for these will eat off the bark from their shoots, and kill them.

The fig is cured in much the same man­ner as the grape into raisins. They must first be dried in the sun, and then put in the oven, to kill the insect, that breeds in them.

ALMONDS.

The almond tree, called amygdalus, in bo­tany, is a beautiful tree which produces the almonds; the fruit is pleasant as well as medi­cinal; it is contained in a hard stone full of little cells, which is inclosed in a tough cot­tony skin. The tree which produces this fruit, nearly resembles the peach, both in leaves and blossoms. It grows spontaneous­ly, [Page 329] only in the warmer countries, as Spain, and particularly Barbary, flowering in the spring, and the fruit is ripe in August.

Almonds are chiefly of two kinds, sweet and bitter.—The species are: 1. Amygdalus sativa, fructu majore. C. B. P. the common large almond. 2. Amygdalus dulcis, putamine mollion. C. B. P. the sweet almond with ten­der shells. 3. Amygdalus amara. C. B. P. the bitter almond. 4. Amygdalus sativa, flore albo. The white flowering almond.

They are propagated by inoculating a bud of these trees into a plumb, almond, or peach stock, in the month of July. (The manner of this operation you will find under the article Inoculating, page 236.) The next spring, when the bud shoots, you may train them up either for standards, or suffer them to grow for half standards; though the best me­thod is to bud them to the height the stems are intended to be; and the second year, af­ter budding, they may be removed to the places where they are to remain.

The best season for transplanting of them (if for dry ground) is in October, as soon as the leaves begin to decay: but for a wet soil, March or beginning of April is much prefer­able; and observe always to bud upon plumb [Page 330] stocks, for wet ground; and almonds or peaches for dry. The almond with white flowers, is more difficult to increase than any of the other, and will not take upon a plumb-stock, so must be budded on either peach or almond.

The common large almond produces al­most every year large quantities: there­fore will yield the greatest profit to the plan­ter.

The almond is cured the same as wal­nuts, first dried and then separated from the cottony skin.

LIQUORICE.

Liquorice, or siquoritia, glycyrrhiza, and radix dulcis, is a sweet root of considerable use in medicine. The plant is one of the di­adelphia decandria of Linnaeus, and of the her­bae flore papilionaco sew, leguminosoe of Mr. Ray. It grows wild in many parts of France, Spain, Italy and Germany, and is cul­tivated in England in great abundance, and to much profit: and by the good order they keep the soil in, produces better roots, longer, evener and more succulent than any from any [Page 331] other part of the world: but the rest of Eu­rope as well as America, is in a great part furnished by what grows about Bayonne and Saragossa in Spain, made up into rolls and cakes, covered with bay leaves, and is in general cal­led Spanish juice. A great deal of it is adulte­rated with a mixture of sand and other filth. If it is good it will be firm but not tough, hard, and when broke, of a fine, shining surface, such as perfectly melts in the mouth, and does not taste of burning, nor leaves any harsh or gritty particles between the teeth.

The cultivation of this plant is as follows: —The ground designed for it must be well dug and dunged the year before, that the dung may be thoroughly rotted in it▪ and just before it is planted the earth is to be dug three spades deep, and laid very light. The plants to be set must be taken from the sides or heads of the old roots, and each must have a very good bud or eye, or otherwise they are subject to miscarry; they should also be about ten inches long, and perfectly sound.

The season for planting them is as early in the spring as the weather will admit, and this must be done in the following manner: the rows must be marked by a line drawn across [Page 332] the bed at two feet distance; and the plants must be set in these rows, by making a hole of their full depth and something more, and the eye of the root may be an inch below the surface; they must also be set two feet di­stance from each other in the rows. When this is done, the ground may be sown over with onions or turnips, which not rooting deep, will do the liquorice roots no injury for the first year.

In the fall, when the stalks of the liquorice are dead, a little very rotten dung should be spread over the surface of the ground. Three years after the time of planting, the liquorice will be fit to take up for use; and this should be done just when the stalks are dead off: for, if taken up sooner, the roots are very apt to shrink greatly in their weight.—There is one necessary caution, that is, the ground must be kept hoed, and free from weeds.

The manner of preparing the juice in Spain is this: they take up the roots in the month of July, they clean them perfectly as soon as taken out of the earth, and then hang them up in the air till nearly dry; after this they cut them into thin slices, and boil them in water till the decoction is very strong; they then press it hard out to obtain all the juice [Page 333] they can from the root. They set this de­coction by to settle a little, and when it has deposited its coarsest parts, they pour it off into vessels, in which they evaporate it over a fire strong at first, but milder afterwards, till it becomes of the consistence of a thick extract; they then let the fire go out, and, when the extract is so cool that they can han­dle it, they take out large parcels at a time, and working them well in the hands, they roll them out into long cylindric masses, which they cut out into such lengths as they please, rolling them over a parcel of half dri­ed bay leaves, which pick up enough of them for a covering, which are in that condition laid in the sun till perfectly dried; there is great nicety required, at the end of the eva­poration to get the extract to a proper con­sistence without letting it burn.

MADDER.

Madder is a small red root used in medi­cine and dying.—The plant which produ­ces the madder root is of the number of the tetrandia monogynia of Lynnaeus, and one of the herbae stillatae of Mr. Ray.

[Page 334]It grows to two feet high, its stalks are square and rough; its leaves are oblong and narrow, and stand four in a joint in the man­ner of a star. Its flowers grows in clusters at the upper parts of the stalks, are very small and of a pale yellowish green colour; these are followed by a fruit consisting of two seeds. It has been described by all the botanical writers under the names of rubia stava, and rubia tinctorum.

Madder is cultivated in vast quantitities in several parts of Holland; the Dutch supply all Europe with it, and make a vast advan­tage of the trade in it; it is very wonderful no other nation has attempted the cultivating of it, as it would succeed in almost any coun­try, particularly in this, and much ground might be employed in this way, to ten times the advantage it is at present.

A flat loamy soil suits it best.—The me­thod of cultivating this useful plant, as prac­tised by the Dutch, is as follows: In the fall of the year, they plow the land where they intend to plant madder in the spring, and lay it in high ridges, that the frost may mel­low it.

[Page 335]In march they harrow it down and plow it again; and at this season they work it ve­ry deep, laying it up in ridges eighteen inch­es asunder, and about a foot high; then about the beginning of April, when the madder will begin to shoot out of the ground, they open the earth about their old roots, and take off all the side shoots, which extend themselves ho­rizontal, just under the surface of the ground, preserving as much root to them as pos­ble; these they transplant immediately up­on the tops of the new ridges, at about a foot apart, observing always to do this, when there are some showers, because then the plants will take root in a few days, and will require no water.

When the plants are growing, they care­fully keep the ground hoed, to prevent the weeds from coming up between them; for if they are smothered with weeds, especially when young, it will either destroy or weaken them so much, that they seldom do well after. In these ridges they let the plants remain two seasons, during which time they keep the ground very clean; and in the fall, when the tops of the plants are decayed, they take up the roots and dry them for sale.

[Page 336]The experiments I have made on the cul­ture of madder in England, convinces me there is no necessity for planting it on ridges, except the land is very wet, as is the case in general in Holland, where their land is often floated in winter. In dry land the best me­thod is to plow between the ridges, therefore should be planted at a greater distance, than is practised by the Dutch. The rows should be four feet between, and the plants eighteen inches asunder in the rows, as they extend themselves pretty far under ground; for where they are planted too near, their roots will not have room to grow. For I find, that if all the horizontal roots are destroyed from time to time, as they are produced, it will cause the large downright roots to be much bigger, in which the goodness of this com­modity chiefly consists; for, if the upper roots are suffered to remain, they will draw off the principal nourishment from the down­right roots, as I have experienced; for I plan­ted a few roots upon the same soil, and situ­ation, which were of equal strength, and rooted equally as well: half of these I hoed round, and cut off the horizontal roots, and the other half I permitted the horizontal roots to remain on; and when I took them all up, those which I had hoed about, and kept clear from horizontal roots, were almost as large [Page 337] again as the other, and the roots were double the weight; which plainly proves the neces­sity of cutting off those superfluous roots, so that where this plant is cultivated in quanti­ty, it will be an excellent method to use the hoe-plow I have before described: for with this instrument a large quantity of ground may be kept clean at a small expence: and as this will stir the ground much deeper than a common hoe, it will cut the superficial roots and thereby improve the principal roots.

The crop of madder should be shifted into fresh land; for the ground which has had but one crop, will not be fit to receive ano­ther in less than four years; during which time, any other annual crop may be cultivated on the land.

The manner in Holland, of drying and preparing these roots for use, is as follows. They pare off the outside rind of the roots, which is dried by itself, and is called mull madder. Then they pare off another fleshy part of the root, which is made into another madder, and is called number O: but the in­side or heart of the root, is called crop mad­der. The first sort is worth about twenty shillings per hundred weight, the second sort [Page 338] about forty shillings, and the third sort five pounds. This method I believe they do not now practice: but the whole is dried and ground together, which answers the dyers purpose full as well.

These roots must be dried on a kiln, be­fore they are ground to powder. What is for medicinal use, comes in the whole root, which is only dryed, without any prepa­ration.

By my experiments which I made, I ima­gine that one acre of good madder when fit to take up for use, will be worth upwards of one hundred pounds. So that it will well pay for any method of culture; but if per­formed by the plow, will be no great expence, the principal charge being, in the first pre­paring of the land, and the planting.

RHUBARB.

Rhubarb, is a thick root, of an oblong fi­gure, large at the head, and tapering pretty suddenly, as it extends in length. It is some­times single, but more usually divided into two or three parts at the lower end; it is from four to six inches in length, and three or four [Page 339] in diameter at the top. It is of a tolerable smooth and even surface, and externally of a faint yellow colour, with a large admixture of brown; it is moderately heavy, but not hard: when fresh cut, it is found to be of a mar­bled and variegated appearance; its colours are a pale, but bright yellow, and a faint red­dish; the yellow is the ground colour, and the red is disposed in short irregular veins, much in the manner of the darker colour in the common nutmeg.

It is of a somewhat lax and spongy texture; it has an agreeable, and somewhat aromatic smell, and a bitterish, astringent, and subacid taste.

The plant which produces the true rhu­barb, is of the ennardria, tryginia of Linnaeus, and the Rhabarbarum folio oblongo crispo, undluato, flabellis sparis, of Juffieu, and thela­pathum bardanae folio undulato glabro, of Mr. Rand.

The root of the native rhubarb plant is long, thick and perennial; its bark, while growing, is of a brownish red colour, but un­der this the substance of the root is of the true colour of dried rhubarb, only deeper.

[Page 340]A number of large leaves are first produced from the root; they are of a fine green, ele­gantly undulated at the edges, of an oblong figure broadest at the base, and somewhat au­riculated; they stand on very thick and fleshy pedicles, moderately long, convex in their under part, and flat on the upper; these di­vide each into five large and prominent ribs, running with many divisions through the whole leaf; in the midst of these leaves rises a stalk of an angular compressed figure, strea­ted and rising to about three feet high, which from the middle to the top, is furnished with a cluster of little flowers, surrounding it at certain distances; they are very small and white, and are succeeded each by a single seed of a triangular figure. It flowers in June, and ripens the seed in July and August. It is produced in great plenty on the confines of China and Tartary, and in many parts of Tartary itself: the mountains of Tibet abound with it, and a very considerable part of what is sent to Europe and America grows there. This plant will grow best in high, dry, warm land; it will stand the severest colds unhurt.

The cultivation of this plant is the same as the madder before described, only they re­quire a greater distance between the rows.

[Page 341]The Chinese are very careful in their man­ner of drying it; they take up the root only in winter, or early in the spring before the leaves begin to appear; they then cut it into small pieces as they think proper▪ and lay it on a table in a shady place, turning it once or twice a day, for two or three days; after this they string the pieces on a cord at a di­stance from one another, and then hang them up in a shady place, where they may dry lei­surely. It is by this management the rhu­barb is rendered so firm and solid as we find it; for, if it were hung up to dry at once in a warm airy place, it would become light and spongy; likewise if the roots were to be taken up in summer, they would be light and of lit­tle value, and would not have the reddish marbling: which is one of the greatest cha­racters of its goodness.

The rhubarb plants, are now growing in the public gardens of Paris and Chelsea, where it thrives extremely well; and I have not the least doubt, but it will do the same here, and be a very profitable crop.

TURMERIC.

Turmeric is a small root of an oblong fi­gure, usually met with in pieces from half an [Page 342] inch to two inches in length, and at the utmost surface the thickness of a man's little finger; its surface is uneven, and rises into knobs in many places, and the longer pieces are sel­dom very straight; it is very heavy and hard to break; it is not easily cut through with a knife; but when cut, leaves a glossy sur­face.

Its colour, externally, is a pale whitish grey, with some faint tinge, of yellowness, and when broken, is of a fine yellow within; this colour is bright and pale, and without ad­mixture when the root is fresh; but in keep­ing, it by degrees becomes reddish, and at length is much like saffron in the cake. Thrown into water, it speedily gives it a fine yellow tinge; and, chewed in the mouth, it gives the spittle the same colour. It is easily powdered in the mortar, and, according to its different age, makes a yellow, an orange co­lour, or a reddish powder. It has a kind of aromatic smell, with something of the odor of ginger in it—The taste is acrid and disagreea­ble, and has a considerable bitterness.

The plant which produces it, is of the num­ber of the monandria monogynia, according to the Lynnaen system, and of the herboe bul­bosis assines of Mr. Ray. It is described in the [Page 343] Hortus malabaricus, under the name of the manjalla kua, and by Herman under that of kuba.

The leaves are a span long, and three or four inches broad, of a fine green colour, and pointed at the end. The flowers grow on a peculiar stalk of eight, ten, or more inches high, and of the thickness of a goose quill; They are collected in a kind of squamous cone, and of an oblong figure, resembling those of the cannacorus, but vastly smaller, and are of a pale redish colour; these are succeeded by tricapsular seed vessels, containing a quantity of small roundish seed, from which it may be propagated, or by the roots which are peren­nial; if from the seeds, it is two years before it comes to perfection.

The seed must be sown early in the spring, and the plants produced from the seed, are to be planted out in the fall, in rows from six to nine inches distance; with sufficient room be­tween the rows, for the hoe-plow.

The roots are to be dug up for use, soon after the flowers are fallen, and dried in the sun.

[Page 344]It is a native of the East-Indies, and re­quires high, dry, warm land. It is generally imported from Java and Malabar, and in many other parts they cultivate it, where they use a great deal of it in their sauces and food.

It is of great service in dying, and in ma­ny other arts. The glovers use it to colour their leather, and the turners to give an agree­able yellow to several of their works made in the whiter woods.

SAFFRON.

Saffron, is made from the flower of the cro­cos. It is not the entire flower of the plant that produces it, but only some of its inter­nal parts. It is met with in the shops in flat and thin cakes; into which it has been form­ed by pressing, and which consist of many long and narrow filaments, that are smal­ler in their lower part, where they are of a pale yellow colour; in their upper part they are broader and indented at their edges, and of a very strong deep orange colour approach­ing to redness. They are somewhat tough, moderately heavy, very easily cut, of an acrid [Page 345] penetrating, but not an unpleasant smell, somewhat affecting the head, and of a bitter­ish, and hot, but highly cordial taste. Thrown into water, they almost instantane­ously give it a strong yellow or reddish colour, according to the quantity used. These fila­ments are the cristated capillaments, into which the pistol of the flower divides at its head: they are of a deep reddish orange co­lour, while growing, and there are only three of them in each flower.

The crocus, or plant which produces it, is one of the triandria monogynia of Lynnaeus, and one of the herbae bulbosa radice praedi­tae of Mr. Ray. The best way of propaga­ting is by the bulbs, of which it annually produces new ones. These are to be planted out in trenches at four inches distance, and they seldom fail. They only produce leaves the first year; but in September, or October of the year following, they flower.

The saffron is gathered as soon as the flow­ers open; but the best crop, is always from the old bulbs; of which the largest, plump­est, and fattest roots, are to be chosen, throw­ing by the longest pointed ones, which are called spickets, or spickards: for the round [Page 346] flat roots, always produces the best flowers.

The land where it is intended to be culti­vated, should be in an open, level country, the soil not poor, nor a very stiff clay, but a temperate dry mould, of a hazle colour, or of a loamy nature. The ground being made choice of, about the latter end of March, or beginning of April (according to the season) it must be carefully plowed, the furrows be­ing drawn much closer together, and deeper, if the soil will allow it, than is done for any sort of grain.—About five weeeks after, or during any time in the month of May, lay between twenty and thirty loads of short rotten dung, or manure from the compost heap upon each acre; and having spread it with great care, plow it in as before. About midsummer, plow a third time, and between every sixteen feet and half, or pole in breadth, leave a broad furrow or trench, which serves both as a boundary to the several parcels, and to throw the weeds in at the proper sea­son.

The next general part of the culture of sa­fron, is planting or setting the roots: the best instrument to be used for which is a narrow spade, commonly termed a spit-shovel. The [Page 347] time for planting is in July, a little sooner or later, according as the weather answers. The method is this: one man with his spit-shovel raises between three or four inches of earth, and throws it before him, about six or more inches: two persons, (women or boys will do) following with heads, place them in the farthest edge of the trench he makes, at four inches distance from each other, or thereabouts. As soon as the dig­ger or spitter has gone once the breadth of the ridge, he is to begin again at the other side, and digging, as before, covers the root last set, and makes the same room for the setters to place a new row, at the same di­stance from the first, as they are from one another. Thus they are to go on till a whole ridge is planted; and the only nicety, in digging is, to leave some part of the first stra­tum of earth untouched, to lie under the roots, and, in setting, to place the roots directly upon their bottom. There should be some regard had to the size of the roots, placing the largest at a greater distance than the smal­ler ones.

These roots are to continue in the ground three years; the first year the crop will be the least. About the midsummer after the third crop is gathered, the roots must all be [Page 348] taken up, and transplanted into fresh ground, prepared as before mentioned.

The most expeditious method is to plow them up with a small plow that has a narrow earth-board: and people to follow and ga­ther the heads as they are turned up. They are next to be carried to the house in sacks, and there cleaned: this labour consists in cleaning the roots thoroughly from earth, separating the young suckers or bulbs from the old ones, and from the remains of old roots, old involucra and excrescences; and thus they become fit to be planted in new ground immediately, or to be kept for some time without danger of spoiling. One acre when broke up, will have a sufficient quan­tity of roots to plant four. The young roots or bulbs must be planted by themselves.

The quantity of roots to be planted on an acre is generally about 128 bushels, which ac­cording to the distances left between them, as before assigned, and supposing all to be an inch in diameter one with another, ought to amount to 392,040 in number.

From the time that the roots are planted, till about the beginning of September, there is no more labour about them; but as they [Page 349] then begin to spire, and are ready to show themselves above ground (which is known by digging a few out of the earth) the ground must be carefully pared with a sharp hoe. The running hoe before described, will be best, and the weeds, &c. raked into the fur­rows, otherwise they would hinder the growth of the plants. In sometime after, the saffron flowers will appear, which are gather­ed as well before as after they are full blown, and the most proper time for this is early in the morning, when the whole flowers are to be gathered, and thrown handful by handful into a basket; having then carried home all you have got, immediately spread them up­on a large table, and fall to picking out the filamenta stylis, or chives and together with them a pretty long proportion of the stylus itself, or string to which they are joined; the rest of the flower may be thrown away as use­less. The next morning return into the field again, whether it be wet or dry weather, and so on daily, till the whole crop be gathered.

The chives being all picked out of the flowers, the next labour about them is to dry them on the kiln. The kiln may be built on a thick plank (that it may be removed from place to place) supported by four short legs, the outside of eight pieces of wood, about [Page 350] inches thick, in form of a quadrangular frame: about twelve inches square at the bottom, on the inside, and twenty inches a top; which is likewise equal to the perpendicular height of it. On the foreside must be a hole about eight square, and four inches above the plank, through which the fire is to be put in. Over all the rest lay laths pretty thick, close to one another and nailed to the frame already mentioned; and then must be plaistered over on both sides, as also the planks at bottom very thick to serve for an hearth. Over the mouth or widest part, put an hair-cloth, network, or iron wire, fixed to the sides of the kiln; and likewise to two rollers, or movea­ble pieces of wood, which must be turned by wedges or screws, in order to stretch them.

The kiln is to be placed in a light part of the house; and you are to begin by laying five or six sheets of white paper on the hair cloth or net work, &c. upon which you must spread the wet saffron, betweeen two and three inches thick; this is to be covered with other sheets of paper, and over these lay a coarse blanket five or six times doubled; or instead thereof a canvas pillow filled with straw; and, after the fire has been lighted [Page 351] for some time, the whole is covered with a board, having a large weight on it.

At first you must give it a pretty strong heat, to make the chives sweat, but must be careful you do not scorch them, for that will spoil all that is in the kiln. When it has been thus dried about an hour, take off the board, blanket and upper papers, and take the saf­fron off from that which lies next it; raising at the same time, the edges of the cake with a knife; then, laying on the paper again, slide in another board between the hair cloth, &c. and under papers, and turn both papers and saffron upside down; afterwards cover­ing them, as above.

The same heat is to be continued for an hour longer; then look at the cake again, free it from the paper, and turn it; then co­ver it, and lay on the weight as before. If nothing happens amiss, during these two first hours, the danger will be over, for there is nothing more to do, but to keep a gentle fire, and to turn the cakes every half hour, till thoroughly dry; for the doing of which as it ought, there are required full twenty four hours.

[Page 352]The fire may be made of any kind of fuel, but that which smokes the least is best; and charcoal, for that reason, is preferred to any other.

In England, saffron is cultivated in large fields, and is no where raised with so much success. Their crops frequently paying them sixty pounds per acre. What is con­sumed here comes chiefly from England. Which by the proper cultivation they give it, is allowed to be greatly superior to any other. It is a root that will grow and thrive in any climate and almost any soil; why then, when the cultivation is properly known, may not a sufficient quantity be raised here for our own consumption, if not for exportation.

These roots or bulbs are very cheap in England: how easily they might be import­ed by the spring ships; when they would arrive in proper time for cultivation.

IPECACUANHA.

There are two kinds of ipecacuanha, dis­tinguished by their colour, and brought from different places but both possessing the same [Page 353] virtues, though in a different degree; the one of these is grey, and is brought from Peru; the other is brown, and brought from the Brasils. The grey or Peruvian ipecacuanha, is a small and irregular contorted and twisted root; it is of the thickness of a small goose-quill, and is brought here in pieces of one, two, three, or more inches in length; but these never straight, but variously turned, and wreathed in several directions. It is of a rough surface, and that in a very particular manner, being raised into a sort of annular ridges, at small distances from each other, running quite round the root, and rising considerable about the rest of its surface. It is of a dense and firm texture, considerable hard, though not tough, but breaking on at­tempting to bend it: it is moderately heavy, and does not cut easily through with a knife; it is of a dusky greyish colour, on the surface, and when broken, appears of a clearer and paler grey, and discovers a tough and firm nerve, occupying its centre, and always run­ning its whole length; this nerve or fibre is very small and slender, of a somewhat pa­ler colour than the rest, and is with much more difficulty reduced to powder; it is less resinous, and of less virtue than the cortical part: the whole root is of a very peculiar smell, somewhat pungent, but not disagree­able [Page 354] in taste: it is acrid, and somewhat bit­terish, and upon the whole very disagree­able.

The brown or Brasilian ipecacuanha, is a root much resembling the former in all its characters, but it is, if any thing, more twist­ed and convoluted: its annual ridges are higher raised than in that, and it is a smaller as well as shorter root; very few pieces of it much exceeding a crow-quill in thickness, or an inch and an half in length; it is of a deep dusky brown, or blackish, on the outside, and white, when broken: it is less acrid, and has more of the bitter to the taste than the grey kind, and has less smell.

Ipecacuanha, though one of the most valu­able drugs the materia medica affords us, was not only unknown to the ancients, but even to the modern world, till the middle of last century. Piso and Mar [...]grave were the first who brought it from South America to Eu­rope; it was celebrated at that time as a cure for disenteries, and got into use for a few years, but again sunk into oblivion, and it was many years before it got into the repu­tation it now possesses.

[Page 355]The French were the first people in Eu­rope who attempted to introduce it, and they succeeded very ill with it at first, which was owing to their giving it in too large doses. Helvetius, was the man who first gave it suc­cessfully among them, and the French king soon after purchased the secret of him at a large price, and communicated it to the world.

The plant which produces them is of the number of the herboe bacciferae or berry bearing plants of Mr. Ray Plukenet and Morrison have called it a perclymenum, and Linnaeus has named it ouragoga. It rises to six, eight, or ten inches high, sometimes to more than a foot; the stalks are tender and weak, and have no leaves except near the top, where there stand three or four, seldom more than five; and above these grow a few mona­petalous flowers, divided into five segments at the edges, which are succeeded by as ma­ny roundish umbilicated berries, each con­taining three hard seeds. The root naturally extends to a great length, creeping horizontal­ly under the surface of the ground; the stalk seldom stands erect, and the leaves are ob­long, swelling in the middle, and small at both ends; they are about two inches long, and an inch and an half nearly in breadth, [Page 356] sometimes larger; they are rough to the touch, and somewhat paler on the under side than on the upper.

The method of propagating it, is from the seed, which must be sown in a light rich earth, and when two years old, transplanted into rows at six inches apart, and four feet between the rows, to admit of the hoe plow to keep them clean from weeds.

The time for planting of them is in the fall of the year. And the second fall after they are planted, as well as every succeeeding fall, they are to be dug between with a sharp spade cutting off the horizontal roots, which are to be gathered up, cleaned and dried, which will be the true ipecacuanha sold in the shops.

OPIUM.

Opium, in pharmacy is an inspissated juice, partly of the resinous, and partly of the gum­my kind. It is brought to us in cakes or masses, usually of a roundish figure, flatted and covered with poppy leaves. These are of uncertain sizes usually about an inch thick, [Page 357] and their weight from eight ounces to a pound.

Opium is very heavy, of a dense texture, not perfectly dry, but more or less soft, and, commonly, easily receiving an impression from the finger; it is tough and hard to break, its colour a brownish yellow, so very dark and dusky that in the mass at first sight it appears black, and of a faint, dead, un­pleasant smell, bitter to the taste, and very a­crid. It is inflammable, yet in great part solu­ble in water: it comes from Natolia, from Egypt, and from the East Indies.

The plant which affords opium is one of the polyandria monogynia of Linnaeus, and one of the herbae flore tetrapetalo anomalo of Ray; and is described by all the botanical writers under the name of the white garden poppy, the papaver hortense semine albo, pa­paver sativum dioscoridis, and papaver album plinii.

The fields of Asia Minor are in many pla­ces sown with the white poppy as ours are with corn. When the heads grow towards maturity, but are yet soft, green, and full of juice, they make incissions in them with an instrument, which is a kind of a knife with [Page 358] five edges; this being struck into the head, makes five long cuts in it, from which the opium flows, and is the next day scraped off with an edgeless knife, and is put up in a vessel, fastened to the girdle for that pur­pose; at the time the opium is collected, the opposite side of the poppy head is wounded by the same instrument used at first, and the opium is collected next day in the same man­ner.

They distinguish the produce of the first wounds from those of the second, and with great reason, the first being greatly superior to the second. They call the first flowing of the heads gobaar; it has much more vir­tue than the rest, and is sold at a much grea­ter price: Its colour is at first white, but af­terwards yellowish; and when long kept, of a dusky brown. The opium produced from the second wounds is darker coloured, and approaches to blackness; it has a weaker smell and taste than the former; after this they make a third, by bruising their heads and ex­pressing their juice; but this last is reckoned but of little value.

After they have collected the opium, they moisten it with a small quantity of water, or of honey, and work it a long time upon a [Page 359] flat, hard smooth board, with a thick and strong instrument of the same wood, till it becomes of the consistence of pitch: Finally, they work it up with their hands, and form it into cakes, or rolls, for sale.

Opium being now so generally used in medicine, must cause a great demand for it: Of course it must fetch a good price, there­fore it will be an object worthy the agricultu­rist's attention.

The poppy is propagated from the seed; one hundred heads will produce seed enough to sow an acre; the cultivation of it is exced­ingly easy, as it will grow in almost any soil or climate; and I am of opinion if the heads were collected together when they are full of juice, (just before they come into flower) and the juice pressed out and managed as before described, that the opium would be as good as that collected from the incisions, as it would contain the same virtues.

This method will save a great deal of trou­ble and expence.

Prepared opium or laudanum, is a tinc­ture of opium made by dissolving the opium [Page 360] in spirits of wine, some other spirits, or water having different ingedients added to it, ac­cording to the use it is intended for.