A grammatical institute, of the English language, comprising, an easy, concise, and systematic method of education, designed for the use of English schools in America. : In three parts. : Part II. Containing, a plain and comprehensive grammar, grounded on the true principles and idioms of the language; with an analytical dissertation, in which the various uses of the auxiliary signs are unfolded and explained: and an essay towards investigating the rules of English verse. / By Noah Webster, Jun. Esq. ; [One line in Latin from Cicero] — Grammatical institute of the English language. Pt. 2

A grammatical institute, of the English language, comprising, an easy, concise, and systematic method of education, designed for the use of English schools in America. : In three parts. : Part II. Containing, a plain and comprehensive grammar, grounded on the true principles and idioms of the language; with an analytical dissertation, in which the various uses of the auxiliary signs are unfolded and explained: and an essay towards investigating the rules of English verse. / By Noah Webster, Jun. Esq. ; [One line in Latin from Cicero] — Grammatical institute of the English language. Pt. 2

Table of contents

Title page

PREFACE▪ To the Second Part.

OF GRAMMAR.

Of WORDS.

ARTICLE.

NOUN.

NUMBER.

CASE.

GENDER.

PRONOUN.

ADJECTIVE.

VERB.

MODE.

TENSE.

AUXILIARY SIGNS OR HELPING VERBS.

DO.

BE.

HAVE.

SHALL.

WILL.

MAY.

CAN.

SHOULD.

WOULD.

MIGHT.

COULD.

MUST.

§

INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.

WILL.

SHALL.

WOULD.

SHOULD.

INFINITIVE MODE.

INDICATIVE MODE.

IMPERATIVE MODE.

POTENTIAL MODE.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

INFINITIVE MODE.

INDICATIVE MODE.

IMPERATIVE MODE.

POTENTIAL MODE.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

INFINITIVE MODE.

INDICATIVE MODE.

IMPERATIVE MODE.

POTENTIAL MODE.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

INFINITIVE MODE.

INDICATIVE MODE.

IMPERATIVE MODE.

POTENTIAL MODE.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

IRREGULAR VERBS.

INFINITIVE MODE.

INDICATIVE MODE.

IMPERATIVE MODE.

POTENTIAL MODE.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

ADVERBS.

PREPOSITION.

CONJUNCTION.

INTERJECTION.

SENTENCES.

RULE I.

EXAMPLES.

EXPLANATION.

REMARK I.

REMARK 2.

REMARK 3.

FALSE CONSTRUCTION.

Solemn style.

familiar style.

RULE II.

EXAMPLES.

EXPLANATION.

REMARK.

FALSE CONSTRUCTION.

RULE III.

EXAMPLES.

EXPLANATION.

FALSE CONSTRUCTION.

RULE IV.

EXAMPLES.

EXPLANATION.

REMARK 1.

EXCEPTIONS.

REMARK 2.

REMARK 3.

REMARK 4.

REMARKS 5.

FALSE CONSTRUCTION.

RULE V.

EXAMPLES.

EXPLANATION.

REMARK.

FALSE CONSTRUCTION.

RULE VI.

EXAMPLES.

EXPLANATION.

REMARK.

RULE VII.

EXAMPLES.

EXPLANATION.

FALSE CONSTRUCTION.

RULE VIII.

EXAMPLES.

EXPLANATION.

REMARK 1.

REMARK 2.

FALSE CONSTRUCTION.

RULE IX.

EXAMPLES.

EXPLANATION.

REMARK 1.

REMARK 2.

RULE X.

EXAMPLES.

EXPLANATION.

RULE XI.

EXAMPLES.

E•PLANATION.

REMARK 1.

REMARK 2.

REMARK 3.

RULE XII.

EXAMPLES.

EXPLANATION.

REMARK.

FALSE CONSTRUCTION.

RULE XIII.

EXAMPLEs.

EXPLANATION.

REMARK 1.

REMARK 2.

REMARK 3.

RULE XIV.

EXAMPLES.

EXPLANATION.

REMARK 1.

REMARK 2.

REMARK 3

RULE XV.

EXAMPLES.

EXPLANATION.

FALSE CONSTRUCTION.

RULE XVI.

REMARK 1.

REMARK 2.

REMARK 3.

RULE XVII.

EXPLANATION.

REMARK 1.

REMARK 2.

REMARK 3.

AN EXERCISE.

EXAMPLE 1.

EXAMPLE 2.

§

ELLIPSIS.

TRANSPOSITION.

POETRY.

Inverted Order.

Natural Order.

2

The natural Order, supplying the Ellipsis.

ARRANGEMENT.

1

2

3

4

5

6

REDUNDANCY of WORDS.

DERIVATION and COMPOSITION of WORDS.

Saxon Modes.

Latin Modes.

Prefixes.

Greek Modes.

French Modes.

PROSODY or An attempt to investigate the rules of English Verse; with some preliminary observations on Accent and Emphasis.

PUNCTUATION. Abridged from Dr. Lowth.

§

§

[Page]

[Page]

A Grammatical Institute, OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, COMPRISING, An easy, concise, and systematic Method of EDUCATION, Designed for the Use of English Schools IN AMERICA.

IN THREE PARTS. PART II. CONTAINING, A plain and comprehensive Grammar, grounded on the true Principles and Idioms of the Language; with an analytical Dissertation, in which various Uses of the Auxiliary Signs are unfolded and explained: And an Essay towards investigating the Rules of English Verse.

BY NOAH WEBSTER, Jun. Esq.

Usus est Norma Loquendi.

CICERO.

HARTFORD: PRINTED BY HUDSON & GOODWIN, FOR THE AUTHOR, M, DCC, LXXXIV. Under Protection of the Statute.

PREFACE▪ To the Second Part.

[Page]

THE design of this Part of the Institute, is to frame a Grammar of our own language upon its true principles, and calculate it for the benefit of common English schools. No Grammar, that has hitherto appeared, seems well adapted to answer this particular purpose. Mr. Dilworth's, which has had the most general circulation in America, is not constructed upon the principles of the English language; it is, to use the words of an eminent scholar and critic, "A mere Latin Grammar, very indifferently translated." As to those articles in which all languages agree, such as the general definition of nouns, adjectives, &c. he is usually right; but wherever our language is built upon principles peculiar to itself, he is invariably wrong. We are apt to be surprised, that men who made the languages their principal study, and during their whole lives, were employed in teaching youth, should [...] discover that the Grammar of one language would not answer for another; but our wonder will cease when we reflect, that the English nation a [...] large have, till very lately, entertained the idea that our language was incapable of being reduced to a sy [...] of rules; and that even now many men of much classical learning warmly contend that the only way of acquiring, a grammatical knowledge of the English Tongue, is first to learn a Latin Grammar, That such a stupid opinion should ever have prevailed in the English nation—that it should still have advocates—nay that it should still be carried into practice, can be resolved into no cause [...] the amazing influence of habit upon the human mind.

[Page]Our language has now arrived to a great degree of purity: and many writers of the last and present age have, both in elegance and sublimity of style, equaled, if not surpassed the Roman authors of the Augustan age. To frame such a Grammar as to instruct our own youth, as well as foreigners, in this purity of style, is the business of a Grammarian— a business that appears to be not yet accomplished.

Dr. Lowth was well acquainted with the origin and genius of the language; and his Short Introduction to English Grammar, which is an original performance, cannot be studied with too much attention. But his style and method, are not suited to the capacities of youth; his treatise was expressly designed for a private and domestic use, and is exceedingly well calculated for this particular purpose, as well as for schools of a higher class. But with respect to the Imperative Mode, the Passive Verb and some other matters of less moment, he seems to have fallen into obvious mistakes; and in the in [...]exion of verbs he is exceedingly defective.

Mr. B [...]hanan, a later and much celebrated Grammarian, has given the world a Regular English Syntax ▪ he has improved upon Dr. Lowth's method and made many judicious remarks upon the construction and arrangement of periods: But in the particulars above mentioned, he is liable to the same exceptions as his predecessor.

D [...] Ash has corrected some errors and supplied some defects of these Authors; but has omitted other articles of equal importance.

In the short treatise here presented to the public, I have endeavoured to throw the principles of our language into a style and method suited to the most ordinary capacities. I have generally adhered to the systems of the respectable authorities above mentioned: Whenever I have deviated, it was with reluctance, but with the fullest persuasion that I was [Page] warranted by the nature and idioms of the language.

In that new and complicated subject, the illustration of our helping verbs o [...] auxiliary signs, I was [...]bliged to struggle with a multitude of embarrassments almost insuperable. And after my most laborious efforts to define their several meanings and explain their various combinations with accuracy and perspicuity, I must confess the execution of the design is scarcely satisfactory even to myself. I was under a necessity of introducing a variety of distinctions and terms unknown to former Grammars, which may possibly offend those who are firmly attached to the rules and forms of antiquity. But something of this kind is certainly wanted: Our auxiliary signs enable us to express the circumstances of time and mode, of power, liberty, necessity, obligation, promise, determination and inclination, with greater clearness and precision, than can be done in any other language with which we are acquainted. But we have no Grammar that unfolds this intricate subject; and though we are enabled to learn our own language by the ear, yet foreigners seldom or never acquire such a knowledge of our verbs as to use them with tolerable propriety. I have attended to their investigation with uncommon assiduity and in my researches, have perhaps found more difficulties than I am able to remove. I flatter myself, however, that upon strict examination, it will be judged that I have introduced no distinction without a difference, and that the propriety of any deviation from the received rules of former Grammars, is supported by the established principles of the language.

The prosody of our language has been neglected or mistaken as much as any part of Grammar. That master-key to the pronunciation of English, the syllabic accent, has been very little [...]nderstood. Mr. Sheridan is the first who has been sensible of [Page] its importance, and he is perhaps better acquainted with its utility in prose than in verse. An attempt to investigate the rules of numerous composition and illustrate them by examples from the best authorities, seemed necessary to complete this Part of the Institute.

In all the rules, definitions and illustrations, accuracy and perspicuity have been my principal study; and I cannot but think that this will be sufficient to justify the length of the Dissertation on the Auxiliaries, as well as several repetitions in the examples of false construction and inelegant arrangement.

OF GRAMMAR.*

[Page]

What is Grammar? GRAMMAR is the art of speaking and writing our thoughts with propriety.

What is the subject of Grammar? Grammar treats of Letters, Syllables, Words and Sentences.

What is a Letter?A Letter is a mark of a simple found, of which there are twenty six in English. We have also several simple sounds expressed by double Letters.

What is a Syllable? A Syllable is one letter, or a union of so many letters as can be pronounced at one breath. A vowel may make a syllable of itself; but consonant [...] [...] out vowels, cannot make a syllable; except the half-vowels, which may make an imperfect syllable of themselves.

The English vowels expressed by single characters are a, e, i, o, u, y, w†. The sounds of oo and au are also vowels.

[Page]The consonants are b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, x, z, ch, sh, th, and zh, or s in delusion and [...] in song.

The half vowels are f, l, m, n, r, s, v, z, th, sh, [...]h and ng.

Notes

*

Grammar consists of four parts; viz. Orthography, Prosody, analogy and Syntax. Orthography teaches to spell and write words with proper letters. Prosody teaches a true pronunciation of words. Analogy or Etymology teaches the derivation and declension of words. Syntax teaches the proper arrangement of words in Sentences. Orthography and Prosody in general, are the subject of the first part of this Institute. Prosody, applied to verse; Analogy and Syntax are the subjects of this second Part or Grammar.

↵

†

W makes no syllable of [...] assist [...]n f [...]ming diphthongs. The powers of the Le [...] [...] be [...]amined [...] the second edition of the First [...] of the Institu [...].

↵

Of WORDS.

What are Words? Words are articulate sounds used by common consent as signs of ideas or notions.

Written words are composed of letters to which custom has affixed certain sounds.

How many sorts of words are there? Three, primitive, derivative, and compound.

What is a primitive word? A primitive or simple word is such as is not derived and can not be separated into parts without destroying the word; as, man, hope, good, bless, agree.

What is a derivative word? A derivative is a primitive word, with the addition of one or more syllables; as, man-ly, hope-less, good-ness, bless-ing, agree-able.

What is a compound word? A compound word is formed of two or more simple words; as, country-man, gold-smith, ink-horn; or of a simple word and a preposition; as, over-come, with-draw, dis-engage.

How must derivative words be spelled? [...] general the primitive word must be preserved en [...]; as, turn-ed, nation-al, book-ish, learn-ing; but [...]he following exceptions must be observed.

1. When the primitive word ends with a vowel and the syllable that is added, begins with a vowel, the first vowel must be dropped; as in the following.

Primitive. | Derivative. | Prim. | Deriv.
fame | fam-ous | dance | danc-ing
move | mov-ed | trifle | trifl-ing
[...] | [...]-ing | desire | desir-ing

[Page]But e must not be dropped after c and g before able, for this would render c and g hard; as, serviceable, if e be dropped, will be sounded servikabl [...].

If the syllable added begin with a consonant, then the vowel of the primitive must be retained; as,

Prim. | Deriv. | Prim. | Deriv.
name | name-less | like | like-ness
love | love-ly | grace | grace-ful
safe | safe-ty | confine | confine-ment

2. When the primitive ends in y, it is changed into i in the derivative; as, envy, envi-ous, holy, holiness. But y is retained before i; as in de [...]-ing, envy-ing.

3. When a word of one or two syllables ends [...] single consonant and the accent lies on the last syllable, the consonant is doubled in the derivative; [...] put, putting, pen, penned, prefer, preferred.

How many are the parts of speech? Nine, viz. the Article, Noun, Pronoun, Ad [...]ective, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, [...] terjection.

ARTICLE.

What is an Article? An article is a word placed before a noun to show how far its signification extends.

How many are the English Articles? Two, a and the. A is placed before consonants and before the vowels y and w; as, a year, a week: But for the ease of pronuciation, it becomes an, before a, e, i, o, u, and before a silent h; as, an art, an egg, an inch, an ounce, an umbrella, an hour.

How is the article a used? The article a or an, is used to point out one single thing of a kind; as, a tree, a book; but leaves us uncertain which one of the whole is r [...]ant [...] A [...] therefore called the indefinite article.

[Page] How is the article the used? The is used to point out one thing or a number of things, which are supposed to be known; as, the Commander in Chief, the Church, the twelve Apostles. The is therefore called the definite article.

Is the article a ever used before plural Nouns? Never, except before the adjectives few, many, dozen, hundred, thousand, and million. We say with propriety, a few men, a great many trees, a dozen books, a hundred towns, a thousand soldiers, a million dollars; tho' we must not say, a men, a trees, &c.

But the is used before both singular and plural nouns.

Is the [...]ver used before the adverbs, more, most, less, lest, better, best? Sometimes it is, in order to mark the degree or quantity more precisely. Example; the more I see [...], the better I like it; I like this the lest or the best of [...]ny.

NOUN.

What is a noun? [...] noun or Substantive is the name of any thing [...] exists, and conveys an idea without the help of any other word; a [...], book, pen, power, mind *

How is a noun divided? Nouns are either proper or common.

What is a proper noun? A proper noun is the name of an individual, when there is but one thing of that kind; as, George, Philadelphia, Missisippi.

Note, All names of persons, kingdoms, cities, towns, and rivers, are proper nouns and ought to be written with a capital letter.

[Page] Are the articles a and the used before proper nouns? Never, except by a figure; as, "Our General was a Fabius;" and a traitor is called "an Arnold;" or when there are two persons of the same name; as, "the two Howes;" or when a common noun is understood; as, "the Hudson," that is, "the river Hudson." The reason is, because without articles the names are as certain and determinate as they can be.

Will proper nouns admit of the plural number? Never, except when there are two persons of the same name; as, "the two Howes;" and in this case, they seem to become common nouns. But we can not say "the two Bostons," because there is but one.

What is a common noun? A common noun is the name of a sort or species of things; as, animal, horse, fish, fowl. Animal is a name common to all things that have life; horse is a name common to a sort of animals; fish, to another, and fowl, to another. Each of these therefore is a common noun.

Notes

*

Every thing that can be perceived by the five senses, viz. hearing, seeing, feeling, tasting, smelling, is a noun. Also every thing that conveys an idea or notion to the mind, is a noun, as, will, delight, virtue, holiness▪

↵

NUMBER.

How many numbers are there? Two, the Singular and Plural. The singular number speaks of one thing; as, hat; the plu [...] of more than one; as, hats.

How is the plural number formed? It is formed from the singular, by adding s or es, as, tree, trees, fox, foxes. When the word ends in ch, sh, ss, or x, the plural is made by adding es; as,

Singular. | Plural. | Sing. | Plu.
church | churches | glass | glasses
brush | brushes | box | boxes

Some nouns ending in s or fe, for the ease of pronunciation, make the plural by changing f into v; as,

[Page]

Sing. | Plu. | Sing. | Plu.
life | lives | half | halves
knife | knives | staff | staves
wife | wives | loaf | loaves
leaf | leaves | sheaf | sheaves
calf | calves | shelf | shelves
self | selves | wolf | wolves

The following nouns are irregular in the plural; viz.

Sing. | Plu. | Sing. | Plu.
man | men | die | dice
woman | women | louse | lice
brother | brothers or brethren | mouse | mice
|  | goose | geese
penny | pence | phenomenon | phenomena
child | children | seraph | seraphim
tooth | teeth | cherub | cherubim
foot | feet |  |

Have all nouns the singular number? The following nouns, from the nature of the things they express, are used only in the plural number; viz.

Aborigines

aloes

alms

amends

annals

archives

ashes

assets

bowels

bellows

breeches

calends

compasses

cresses

embers

entrails

fetters

gallows

goods

lungs

news *

pincers

scissors

snuffers

shears

thanks

tongs

trowsers

wages

What nouns have no plural number? Names of virtues and vices, as pride, sloth, gratitude, industry, &c. names of herbs, as, grass, wheat, rye, &c.

N. B. Sheep, deer, hose, fern, are the same in both numbers.

Notes

*

News is always plural and yet we always join to it a verb in the singular number; as, What is the news? &c. This is certainly an impropriety, however authorised by custom.

↵

CASE.

[Page]

What is meant by case? It means a different ending of a word to express a different relation.

Have English nouns any cases? They have properly two cases or different endings; the first is the name of the person or thing— the second is made by adding an s, separated from the word by an apostrophe; thus "John's book." This denotes possession and may be called the possessive case *

When nouns end in es or ss, how is the possessive formed? By adding an apostrophe, without s; as, "for goodness' sake;" "on eagles' wings;" "Socrates' wisdom."

Note, This phrase, "the King of Great-Britain's soldiers," though admitted by Dr. Lowth, seems to be ungrammatical. Every phrase that cannot be resolved or analyzed by the rules of Grammar and the established idioms of the language, ought to be rejected as a corruption. This seems to be the case with the foregoing phrase†.

Notes

*

When a noun stands as the agent to a verb, I shall call it the nominative word. When it follows a verb or preposition, I shall call it the objective word.

EXAMPLES.

Nom. words. | Verbs. | Objective words. | Obj. words, After prepositions.
John | eats | apples. | to Jo [...]
she | loves | virtue. | with them
he | esteems | a friend | by honour
we | live. |  | from vice
they | remain. |  | in summer
they | see | us. | during win [...]er
we | see | them. | against me

A pronoun before a verb may with propriety be called the nominative case; but it is immaterial.

↵

†

The following sentence has a phrase of the same [...] "Tiberius proposed a new edict, which should decree [...] the King of Pergamus's treasure should be divided among the [...]est of the citizens, who were to have a share in the distrib [...]on of public lands, &c."

Ozell's translation of Vertot's Revolutions. Vol. 2. pag· [...] Lond. Ed. 1770.

↵

GENDER.

[Page]

How many genders have nouns? Two, masculine and feminine. All males are masculine; all females are feminine; and things without life are of no gender. These, for the sake of distinction, may be called neuter.

N. B. Neuter cannot properly be called a gender—it is rather a destitution of all gender; and in this sense only I shall use it.

How are these different genders expressed? Sometimes by different words; as,

Masculine. | Feminine. | Mas. | Fem.
Father | mother | bridegroom | bride
husband | wife | bachelor | maid
brother | sister | boy | girl
son | daughter | buck | doe
nephew | niece | bull | cow
man | woman | drake | duck
uncle | aunt | gander | goose

Sometimes by the words male, female, man, maid, prefixed to the common noun; as, a male-child, a female gamester, a man-servant, a maid-servant.

But the regular ending of nouns feminine is in ess; as in these that follow.

Mas. | Fem. | Mas. | Fem.
Abbot | abbess | peer | peeress
actor | actress | priest | priestess
adulterer | adulteress | prince | princess
ambassador | ambassadress | poet | poetess
baron | baroness | prophet | prophetess
benefactor | benefactress | shepherd | shepherdess
count | countess | sorcerer | sorceress
deacon | deaconess | tutor | tutoress
duke | duchess | traitor | traitress
elector | electress | tyger | tygress
emperor | empress | songster | songstress
governor | governess | seamster | seamstress
heir | heiress | viscount | viscountess
jew | jewess |  |
lion | liones;s |  | Some make ix in the feminine.
marquis | marchioness | administrator | administratrix
master | mistress | executor | executrix
patron | patroness | testator | testatrix
protector | protectress | hero makes | heroine or heroess

Are not things without life sometimes spoken of as male or female? Very frequently. We say of the Sun, "he cheers the earth with the mild influence of his rays:" Of the Moon, "she sheds her silver beams:" Of a ship, "she is a swift sailor." And this figurative way of expression, especially in poetry, is highly ornamental.

PRONOUN.

What is a pronoun? A pronoun is a word standing for a noun.

How many things belong to a pronoun? Four, viz. person, number, gender, and case. Pronouns, like nouns, have two numbers, the singular and plural; and are of all genders, masculine, feminine and neuter.

How many persons are there? There are three persons who may be the subjects of a discourse; first the person speaking, who calls himself I, secondly, the person spoken to, who is called thou * ▪ thirdly, the person spoken of, who is called, if a male, he; if a female, she; if a thing without life, it. The first and second persons, being always [Page] supposed present, and consequently their sex known, have no distinction of gender: Both men and women say I and thou. But the third person, being often absent, and the sex unknown, it is necessary that its gender should be distinguished by different words; thus mas. he; fem. she; neut. it; As the subjects of discourse are many, therefore these persons have the plural number; as,

Singular. | Plural.
I,¹ thou,² he, she³ or it. | we,¹ ye or² you, they.³

How many cases have pronouns? Pronouns have three cases, the nominative, possessive and objective.

The three personal pronouns are thus declined or varied to express number and case.

First Person. | Second Person.
| Sing. | Plu. |  | Sing. | Plu.
Nominative, | I | we | Nom. | thou | ye or you
Possessive, | mine | ours | Poss. | thine | yours
Objective, | me | us | Obj. | thee | you

Third Person.
|  | Sing. |  | Plu.
| Mas. | Fem. | Neut. |
Nom. | he | she | it | they
Poss. | his | hers | its | theirs
Obj. | him | her | it | them

The personal pronouns have the nature of substantives and as such stand by themselves. The others, being joined to nouns, like adjectives, may be called pronominal adjectives; such as thy, my, her, our, your, their. This, that *, other, any, some, one, none, may be called definite pronouns, because they limit or define the extent of the noun to which they [Page] are joined. The three first are varied to express number.

Sing. | Plu.
this | these
that | those
other | others

But they have no variation of case.

What part of speech are who, which and that?

Who, which * and that are called relative pronouns, because they refer to some noun going before, called therefore the antecedent; as, "there was a man, who saw the action;" where who is a relative and man is its antecedent. Who is varied thus, nom. who, poss. whose, obj. whom.

Who, which and what, when they ask questions, are called interrogatives.

What, is a peculiar word, including both the relative and antecedent; as, this is what I took; that is, that which I took.

What are each, every and either called? Each, every and either, are called distributive pronouns because they denote a number taken separately; as, "here are five boys, each of whom is studious;" where each refers to every individual taken separately from the others.

What is the use of own and self? Own and self are added to some pronominal adjectives to express opposition or emphasis; as, "I did it myself." "It is my own." But, self, which makes selves in the plural, like a noun, is often employed as such.

[Page]Note 1, When a person does an action upon himself; that is, when the same person is both the agent and the object, the word that follows the verb in the objective case, may be called a reciprocal pronoun; as, "he loves himself." This pronoun is always formed with the termination self; as, herself, themselves, &c.

Note 2, All nouns and pronouns are of the third person, except I and thou, we and you or ye.

Notes

*

Thou is used only in the sacred or solemn style, as in the scriptures, in addresses to the Deity, and in some of the graver kinds of profane writings. The same is to be observed of ye in the plural. But in familiar d [...]scourse and writings we now use you, which is always plural and ought always to be joined to a plural verb, tho' it be applied to an individual. Thus, you was, is as improper a [...], you a [...], you best. We ought to say, y [...]u were.

↵

*

This and these refer to something present; that and th [...]se to something absent.

↵

*

Who is applied to persons only, and which to things. Formerly which was applied to persons also, tho' very improperly. Thus we read in the sacred writings, "There was a certain rich man, which had a steward." "Ye are they, which justify yourselves." It ought to be who in these and in all other places where the antecedent is a person.

↵

ADJECTIVE.

What is an adjective? An adjective is a word added to a noun to express its quality; as, a good house, a wise man, a virtuous woman: Here good, wise, and virtuous are adjectives added to the nouns, house, man, woman, to express their qualities. Therefore adjectives alone cannot make sense, but must always refer to some noun, expressed or understood *.

Have adjectives any variation? They are not varied to express number, gender or [...]ase. But as qualities may be of very different degrees, these are expressed by three different endings, which are called degrees of comparison, viz. the positive, comparative, and superlative.

How are the comparative and superlative degrees formed?

By r or er, st or est added to the positive: Thus,

Positive. | Comparative. | Superlative.
wise | wiser | wisest
mild | milder | mildest
great | greater | greatest

Or by the adverbs more and most, less and lest, placed before the positive; as

wise | more wise | most wise
wise | less wise | lest wise

All monosyllables may be compared by er and est and many dissyllables; as.

happy | happier | happiest
polite | politer | politest

[Page]All adjectives may be compared by more and most; and most adjectives of more than one syllable and all of more than two, must be compared by more and most, less and lest.

Irregular Adjectives.

Pos. | Comp. | Sup.
good | better | best
bad | worse | worst
fore | former | first
little | less | lest
many or much | more | most
near | nearer | nearest or next
old | older or elder | oldest or eldest
late | later or latter | latest or last

Notes

*

That [...], omitted in the sentence, but necessary in the sense.

↵

VERB.

What is a verb? A verb is a part of speech that signifies being or doing.

How many kinds of verbs are there? Two, transitive and intransitive*. A transitive verb implies some action that passes over from the [Page] agent to the object; as, he loves virtue. Here the action of loving passes from the agent he to the object virtue.

[Page] What is an intransitive verb? An intransitive verb implies action or being which is all confined to the agent or nominative word; therefore an object can follow the verb; as, I remain —he liv [...]s—it dies —we run.

How do we know a transitive verb from an intransitive? If a verb will admit an object after it, it is transitive; as, "I admire fidelity." "I abhor treachery." If a verb will not admit an object after it, it is intransitive; as, "I remain him" "I cease vice." The impropriety of these last expressions, shows that the verbs remain and cease, are intransitive.

Verbs intransitive admit objective words after them of the same signification; as, "to live a life of [...]." "to dream a dream, &c."

[...] verbs are to be considered, the persons, number [...], modes and tenses.

How many persons are there? Three, in each number, I, thou, and he, she or it in the singular number; we, ye or you, and they in the plural. These are the agents or nominative words to verbs.

How many numbers are there? Two, the singular, and plural, as in nouns.

The modes and tenses are explained in the dissertation.

What are participles? Participles are words derived of verbs, and have the nature of verbs, adjectives or nouns. They always end in ing, d, t, n or ght ▪ as from the verbs, move, dwell, write, teach, are derived the participles, moving, moved, dwelt, written, taught *.

[Page] How do the English form the different modes, tenses and persons of the verbs? Principally by the help of several small words which are called, from their use, auxiliaries, that is, helpers.

The proper uses of the English auxiliaries being so intricate and embarrassing, especially to foreigners, and so little understood even by those to whom the language is vernacular, I shall attempt a critical investigation of the subject in the following DISSERTATION.

MODE.

Mode is the manner of representing a being or action.

The Modes are five; the Infinitive, Indicative, Imperative, Potential and Subjunctive. The infinitive expresses an action or being indefinitely, without regard to number or person; as, to see, to learn.

The indicative declares some action absolutuly or asks a question in order to obtain a declaration; as, I see, do I see?

The imperative commands and exhorts; as, see, do thou see.

The potential declares the liberty, power, necessity, inclination and obligation of the agents, which are expressed [Page] by the signs, may, can, must, would, should, &c.

The subjunctive represents an action under some condition or limitation, or else doubtful; and is always preceded by a verb or some conjunction; as, if, though, unless, whether, &c.

TENSE.

Tense is the time of an action or being.

Time is, strictly speaking, divided only into present, past, and future. But as we have occasion to point out the time of action with more precision, we are obliged to use other artificial tenses both simple and compound. I shall therefore divide the tenses as usual into present, imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, and future, with the compound perfect and future.

The present tense represents an action as now performing; as, I write.

The imperfect expresses an action that is past; as, I wrote.

The perfect represents an action as past and completed; as, I have written.

The pluperfect represents an action as past, prior to some period of time specified in the sentence; as, "I had written, when he came in."

The future represents an action as yet to come; as, I shall write.

We use a tense compounded of the perfect and future, which I call the compound future: this denotes that at some time specified, an action will be past; as, "when you have supped, I shall have finished my business."

The expression, I may have written, seems, to be a compound of the present and perfect, in the potential mode. It expresses a present possibility that an action has been done in some past time: This I call the compound perfect.

But there is another important distinction of tenses, peculiar to the English Language, viz. into indefinite and definite.

[Page]The indefinite tenses represent an action as present, past or future, in a vague indeterminate manner; the definite, ascertain some particular time or circumstances of action.

The definite tenses are formed by the verb to be and the participle in ing; as, I am writing. The difference in the use of these tenses, requires particular explanation.

Present Indefinite.

I love. I write.

These expressions, though evidently in the present tense, do not denote any particular exercise of body or mind now performing or existing—they convey general and vague ideas. Indeed in many instances there is very little reference to time or action; for, he writes a good hand, is often used to signify merely skill in writing.

Definite.

I am loving. I am writing.

These signify that I am now in the actual exercise of the passion of love, or performing the action of writing.

Imperfect indefinite*.

I loved. I wrote.

Here is no particular time pointed out; the phrases may refer to yesterday or last year; but both seem to imply a completion of the actions; for we may say, "I loved him yesterday, though I despise him to day."

Definite.

I was loving. I was writing.

We use this tense to point out the precise period when an action was performing, and it commonly has reference to some other event mentioned as taking place at the same time; as, "I was writing when you came in."

[Page]Perfect indefinite.

I have loved. I have written.

This tense shows the action to be completed; but leaves it indeterminate as to the point of time.

Definite.

I have been loving. I have been writing.

We use this tense to express an action we have just finished; as, "I have just been drinking;" or the length of time we have been employed; as, "I have been writing these two days;" or when a comparison is made in point of time, between different employments; as, "I have been writing, while you have been playing" In all which instances, the tense is as definite as possible.

Pluperfect indefinite.

I had loved. I had written.

This tense shows that an action was prior to some other event and complete at the time of the event; but does not determine at what distance of time.

Definite.

I had been loving. I had been writing.

This is used, when an action has just been performing, prior to some event; as, "when you came in, I had just been telling my friend."

Future indefinite.

I shall love. I shall write.

This signifies merely that an event will take place in some future time; as, "I shall write a letter to morrow."

[Page]Definite.

I shall be loving. I shall be writing.

This is used when we foretell that an action will be performed at the same period with another action or event; as, "I shall be writing when you will be asleep."

Compound future indefinite.

I shall have loved. I shall have written.

This tense has been explained already; and the definite form, I shall have been writing, is rarely used; though by no means improper; as, "by the time you arrive, I shall have been writing an hour

AUXILIARY SIGNS OR HELPING VERBS.

The English auxiliary signs are, do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, should, would, might, could, and must, with their variations.

DO.

Do which makes did in the past time, is used either as a transitive verb, or as an auxiliary. As a transitive verb, it signifies to perform, and is varied in all modes and tenses, with the help of the auxiliary signs and its participle done; as, I have done, I might have done, &c. But as an auxiliary, it is used only in the present and imperfect tenses, to answer the following purposes:

1. To express emphasis; as, "Perdition catch my soul, but I do love thee."

2. To save the repetition of another verb; as, "you write better than I do: that is, than I write."

3. To ask questions; as, do I write? or express command; as, do you write.

In all other cases, it seems to be inelegant and obsolete.

BE.

Be is either a principal verb or an auxiliary. When a principal verb, it is intransitive, signifying [Page] merely being or existence, and is varied in all modes and tenses with the auxiliaries and its participle been; as, I have been, I could have been, &c. As an auxiliary, it is merely a sign of time, and assists in forming the various modes and tenses of our principal verbs, as will be hereafter explained.

HAVE.

Have is both a principal verb and an auxiliary. When a principal verb, it is transitive and signifies to hold or possess. It is used in all modes and tenses with the other auxiliaries; as, I have, I shall have, I had had; in which last expression, the first had is an auxiliary, and merely a sign of the pluperfect tense, and the last, a transitive verb, denoting possession.

As an auxiliary, it is merely a sign of time.

SHALL.

Shall is always a sign of the future tense.

In the first person, both singular and plural▪ shall simply foretells an event; as, "I or we shall go tomorrow."

But in the second and third persons, it promises; as, "you shall have your money to-morrow;" or, it implies determination or threatning in the speaker; as, "he shall go, or I will punish him."

The several significations of shall are also variously affected by the manner in which it is uttered. In the first person without emphasis, it foretells; but when uttered with emphasis, it expresses a much greater degree of certainty; as, "I shall be there, you may depend on it." In the second and third persons, without emphasis, it barely promises; as, "he shall be paid:" but with emphasis, it promises with determination; as, "he shall have his money at all events;" or it has the force of a threatning or command; as, "you shall behave better; the boys shall study, or I will punish them."

[Page]

WILL.

This is also a sign of the future tense; but for the most part, is directly the reverse of shall; that is, it has the same force or meaning as shall, but in different persons. In the first person, it promises; as, "I will write:" In the second and third, it simply foretells; as, "you will or he will go to Philadelphia." An emphasis, in the first person, adds force to a promise and amounts to a determination in the person promising; as, "I will come, upon my honour; I will go, at all events." An emphasis in the second and third persons foretells an event with greater assurance.

MAY.

May expresses possibility or liberty, and properly belongs to the present tense of the potential mode. It denotes possibility; as, "I may go perhaps, but it is uncertain;" or it denotes liberty; as, "Master tells me that I may go;" and it is always absolute or unconditional.

CAN.

Can expresses power solely; as, "I can go, if I please." It belongs to the present tense of the potential mode, and is always absolute or unconditional.

SHOULD.

Should has various uses. It belongs to all tenses indifferently, and signifies obligation, event or determination. In the first person, should, without emphasis, expresses event conditionally; as, "I should go, if it did not rain." With emphasis, it expresses obligation; as, "my friend is in distress, and I should help him." In the second and third persons it expresses obligation without emphasis; as, "you saw your freind in distress and should have relieved him." He saw, &c. But with emphasis, it expresses the resolution of the speaker; as, "had I been there, he should have gone at all events;" implying a right in the speaker to command him. But [Page] should especially in the first person plural, is often used to express obligation without emphasis.

WOULD.

Would in the first person, without emphasis, is used to express a promise or intention conditionally; as, "I would go, if I had a horse." With emphasis, it imports a resolution of the speaker, which upon certain conditions, he was determined to carry into effect; as, "I would have gone, had I been in your place." In the second and third persons, without emphasis, it denotes intention or inclination or even event conditionally; as, "you would purchase, if you were able." With emphasis, it carries an idea of the settled purpose or determination of the person spoken of; as, "he would rule, if he could;" in which case could is also emphatical.

Would in the second and third persons is also used to denote the certainty of an event which depended on the will of another person, who, unless some circumstances had prevented, would surely have carried his purpose into effect; as, "you would have gone, if I had had the care of you." "He, would behave better, if his master were present."

In this phrase "I would advise my friend to accept of the offer," there is no condition expressed, but the sense evidently implies one. If I mean to give my advice absolutely, I express myself thus, "I advise or do advise him;" but "I would advise," implies a condition that "if I were a proper person," or "if my advice were asked," then, &c. But would has, in many cases, usurped the place of do and is used to express a positive declaration; I think improperly; as when a person is asked if he will drink a glass of wine and he replies, "I would not chuse any." He means absolutely, "he does not chuse any" and absurdly uses a conditional form of expression.

[Page]

MIGHT.

Might is derived from may, but differs from it in this; may is an unconditional declaration of possibility or liberty; might expresses the same possibility or liberty under a condition, which defeats the effect; as, "I might go, if my master would permit." It is used in both the present and past tenses. In the present tense it is always conditional; as in the foregoing example. In the past tense, it is either absolute or conditional: Absolute; as, "I might have gone then, but had no inclination;" conditional; as, "I might have gone, if business had not detained me."

COULD.

The same observations apply to could, which is derived from can and expresses the power of doing an action. In the present tense it is always conditional; in the past tense, either absolute or conditional.

MUST.

This auxiliary denotes necessity. It has no variation, but is used in almost all tenses of the potential mode.

Some Grammarians, if not all, have used might, could, would, and should, as signs of the imperfect tense only of the subjunctive mode and made little or no difference between the subjunctive and potential. In both these particulars they appear to me to be inaccurate. The foregoing auxiliary signs are more frequently used in the present tense than in the imperfect. In the present tense they are always conditional—in the past tense either absolute or conditional, according to the nature of the sentence. "I might go, if I had a horse" is present time and conditional; "I might not go yesterday, but may go to day," are absolute declarations; the first in the past time and the last in the present.

In the subjunctive mode they are also used as signs of the imperfect tense; as, "I told him that I could [Page] go; you said that I might go, &c." As to a distinction between the potential and subjunctive modes, it appears to me as real and important, as any distinction in Grammar. Whenever there is a declaration that something is or is not so, it is called the indicative mode. When there is a declaration, not that an action is done or not, but that there is a power, liberty &c. of doing it, it is called with propriety the potential mode. These modes are independent of all others and may stand alone, except the conditional tenses of the potential, which have a necessary connexion with some other mode, which is usually the subjunctive. But the subjunctive mode, is always dependent either on some conjunction or some preceding verb The dependence of the modes upon each other may be thus explained.

§

1. The absolute tenses of the potential mode may stand alone; but when they have any connexion with another mode, they are preceded or followed by an absolute declaration in the indicative mode, or a doubtful tense of the subjunctive.

Examples

Potential. | Indicative.
I can write | but I will not.
| Subjunctive.
I can write | if I please, or if I have a pen.

2. The conditional tenses of the potential, always imply a subjunctive, though it is very often omitted. But if they are preceded or followed by any verb, it must be by a conditional tense of the potential, or hypothetical tense of the subjunctive.

Examples.

Potential. | Subjunctive.
I could write | if I had a pen, or if I pleased.
I could write | if I would.

These are invariable rules; as will appear by uniting [Page] the absolute tenses with the conditional. Thus "I can write, but I would not;" "I can write, if I pleased;" "I could write, if I please," are evident improprieties. It is true we say, "I could write, but I will not," but here is a condition implied; viz. "I could write if I pleased; but I will not."

It must be further observed that when I speak of the conditional tenses of the potential, I do not mean that the condition is contained in this mode; for, might, would, could, and should, are all absolute, unless they are rendered conditional by some phrase in the subjunctive mode, either expressed or understood.

INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.

The general rule for forming an interrogative phrase in English, is, to place the nominative word after the auxiliary; and if there be two auxiliary signs, the nominative follows the first; as, Do I write? Have I been writing? In this situation, several of the auxiliaries acquire different meanings which demand explanation.

WILL.

Will cannot with propriety be used in asking questions in the first person; The expressions, Will I write? Will we write? are absurd and ungrammatical.

Will you write? refers to the will or determination of the person addressed and is followed by a promise, I will.

Will he write? refers to the will or determination of the third person, with which the person addressed is supposed to be acquainted, as appears by the answer, he will.

The same remarks apply to the second and third persons plural.

SHALL.

Shall asks questions in any person.

Shall I write? refers to the will of another and is followed by a declaration in the nature of a command, you shall.

[Page] Shall you write? refers to the intention or determination of the person addressed and is answered by, I shall.

Shall he write? refers to the will of the person addressed and supposes he has a right to command the person spoken of; it is therefore followed by an answer expressing the determination of the person addressed, he shall.

WOULD.

Would never asks questions in the first person. It is sometimes used by way of echo, when we repeat a question asked by another; as, "would you purchase that lot of goods?" The person not distinctly hearing the question, repeats it, would I? But this is an affront both to grammar and to good manners.

Would you write? is both present and past time; but most commonly present, it refers to the inclination of the person addressed, provided he were in the place of the person speaking, or in some other particular circumstances, and is answered by a conditional promise, I would; that is, "if you were in my situation, would you sell your house?" The answer is, "if I were in your situation, I would, or would not sell my house.

Would he write? refers to the inclination of a third person, upon condition he were in certain circumstances. It supposes the person enquired of, knows what the inclination of the person spoken of, would be under those circumstances; and his answer, grounded upon that supposition, is expressive of the event of that disposition, he would.

SHOULD.

Should I write? This enquires whether it is my duty to write, either positively or conditionally; and is answered by you should, which, without emphasis, always expresses obligation.

Should you write? The meaning of should here depends upon the manner in which it is uttered. [Page] Without emphasis it enquires concerning an event merely and is answered by I should, which declares what my conduct would be under certain circumstances. But with emphasis it either expresses a stronger assurance of an event, or a person's obligation; in which case, the answer is also emphatical.

Should he write? without emphasis, refers merely to the obligation of the person, and the answer is declaratory of that obligation, he should. But with emphasis, it refers to the determination of another person, which is expressed by an emphatical answer, he should.

The other auxiliaries, in the interrogative form, have no particular uses that require explanation.

Before I proceed to inflect a regular verb, with the auxiliaries, it is necessary to exhibit the several uses and differences of these difficult signs, shall, will, should, and would, by a comparative view of them in different persons.

Future tense. Singular.

Foretelling. | Promise and determination.
I shall | will | learn.
thou wilt | shalt
he will | shall

Plural.

we shall | will | learn.
ye or you will | shall
they will | shall

Present tense.

An event mentioned under a condition, without emphasis.

Sing. |  | Plu. |
I should | learn. | we should | learn.
thou wouldst | ye or you would
he would | they would

A determination under a condition expressed by emphasis.

[Page]

Sing. |  | Plu. |
I would | learn. | we would | learn.
thou shouldst | ye or you should
he should | they should

Obligation.

With emphasis. |  | With emphasis. |
I should | learn. | we should | learn.
without emphasis. | without emphasis.
thou shouldst | ye or you should
he should | they should

Note. It is difficult to determine, in all cases, to which tense these words belong; whether to the present, past, or future. The time can be ascertained only by the sense of the phrase where they occur.

The inflection of a regular English verb and the several combinations of auxiliaries, in all modes and tenses, may be exhibited and explained in the following

EXAMPLE.

INFINITIVE MODE.

Present Tense. | Indefinite, | to learn.
| Definite, | to be learning.
Perfect. | Indefinite, | to have learned.
| Definite, | to have been learning.
Participles. | learning, | learned.

INDICATIVE MODE.

Present Tense. Indefinite.

| Singular. |  | Plural. |
1 | I learn or do learn. | 1 | we | learn or do learn.
2 | thou learnest or dost learn. | 2 sol. | ye
3 sol*. | he learneth or doth learn. | 2 fam. | you
3 fam. | he learns or does learn. | 3 | they

[Page]Definite.

I am | learning. | we | are learning.
thou art | you *
he is | they

Imperfect Tense. Indefinite.

I learned or did learn. | we | learned or did learn.
thou learnedst or didst learn. | you
he learned or did learn | they

Definite.

I was | learning. | we | were learning.
thou wast | you
he was | they

Perfect Tense. Indefinite.

| I have | learned. | we | have learned.
| thou hast | you
sol. | he hath | they
fam | he has |

Definite.

| I have | been learning. | we | have been learning.
| thou hast | you
sol. | he hath | they
fam. | he has |

Pluperfect Tense. Indefinite.

I had | learned. | we | had learned.
thou hadst | you
he had | they

Definite.

I had | been learning. | we | had been learning.
thou hadst | you
he had | they

Future Tense. Indefinite.

foretell. | prom. & determ.
I shall, | will | learn.
thou wilt, | shalt
he will, | shall

foretell. | prom. & determ▪
we shall, | will | learn.
you will, | shall
they will, | shall

[Page]Definite.

Sing. |  | Plu. |
I shall, will | be learning. | we shall, will | be learning.
thou wilt, shalt | you will, shall
he will, shall | they will, shall

Future Tense. Compound.

I shall, | have learned. | we shall, | have learned.
thou wilt, shalt | you will, shall
he will shall | they will, shall

N. B. Some Grammarians, particularly Mr. Buchanan, have placed this tense in the subjunctive mode; but with what propriety, I cannot conceive. It is as positive, unconditional a declaration, as any expression in the language; and appears to belong to the indicative mode, as much as the future simple or any other tense.

IMPERATIVE MODE.

This mode has no distinction of tenses and no person but the second; the person to whom an address is made, being the only subject of command.

Singular. | Plural.
Learn or learn thou or do thou learn. | Learn or learn you or do you learn.

Definite form.

Be learning or be thou learning or do thou be learning.
Be learning or be you learning or do you be learning.

The definite form of this mode is seldom used, except in verbs that signify bodily motion or employment; as, "be going immediately;" or when a person is commanded to do something while another thing is performing; as, "be studying, while I am hearing your brother."

POTENTIAL MODE.

The tenses of this mode are divided into present, imperfect, perfect and future; and into absolute and conditional.

[Page]Present Tense. Absolute. Indefinite.

This declares an absolute liberty, power or necessity of doing an action.

Singular.

Liberty. | I may, thou mayst, he may | learn.
Power. | I can, thou canst, he can
Necessity. | I must, thou must, he must

Plural.

| may | learn.
we, you, they | can
| must

Definite.

I may be learning, &c. It is needless to set down the definite tenses at large; the student may form them, by substituting be learning in the place of learn in the present and future; and been learning in the place of have learned in the past tenses.

Present Tense. Conditional. Indefinite.

This expresses liberty, power, obligation, promise, event, &c. under some condition or limitation, which prevents the effect.

Liberty. | I might, thou mightest, he might | learn▪
Power. | I could, thou couldst, he could
Oblig. &c. | I should, thou shouldst, he should
Prom. &c. | I would, thou wouldst, he would

| might | learn.
| could
we, you, they | should
| would

The condition is not always expressed; but is always implied, and it may precede or follow the potential mode; as, "if I had books, I might learn," or "I might learn, if I had books."

This conditional form is also used absolutely as an imperfect tense, especially in negative and interrogative sentences; as, "I might not go yesterday;" "I could not go," "would he go?" &c. Sometimes in affirmative sentences; as, "Those Islanders, [Page] by being less exposed to foreign intercourse, could more easily preserve their laws and their virtues."

Essay on the characters of women.

But we more commonly use the following form for time past.

Perfect Tense. Absolute or conditional. Indefinite.

I might, thou mightest, he might

I could, thou couldst, he could

I should, thou shouldst, he should

I would, thou wouldst, he would

I must, thou must, he must

have learned.

we, you, they
might
have learned.

could

should

would

These expressions, when unattended with a condition, in the subjunctive mode, are absolute declarations; as, "I could have gone to Hartford yesterday;" that is, I had it in my power. But, "I could have gone, if I had had a horse;" is purely conditional.

Some writers upon this subject, have introduced this form of expression, "I might have had learned," as a pluperfect of the potential mode; a phrase that does not belong to the language, and I presume, is found in a few Grammars only: There being no possible case in which the same word can be used as an auxiliary twice in the same phrase.

Perfect Tense. Definite.

The definite form of the foregoing tense, is, "I might have been learning," &c.

Perfect Tense. Compound. Indefinite.

I may | have learned. | we | may have learned.
thou mayest | you
he may | they

Definite.

I may have been learning, &c.

This tense denotes a present possibility that something has been done in time past. It is an unconditional declarati [...]n.

[Page]Future Tense. Indefinite.

This is varied like the present tense absolute, and is distinguished only by some subsequent word, denoting futurity, or by the evident meaning of the phrase.

I may

I can

I must

learn to-morrow, next week, &c.

Definite.

I may

I can

I must

be learning, to-morrow, &c.

The conditional form of the present is also used as a future, especially would and should. "I would go, or I should go to-morrow, if I had a horse," are evidently future and by no means ungrammatical. But whether might can with propriety be used as future, seems rather doubtful.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

This mode is used to express something of a doubtful, contingent, or indeterminate nature. It is always preceded by some other verb on which it has dependence; or by some conjunction, implying condition, supposition, &c. as, if, unless, though, whether, lest or except. Its tenses seem to require a curious distinction which I have never seen sufficiently illustrated. Whenever we speak of a matter of certainty, we use the indicative mode after any of the foregoing conjunctions. For example, "though Arnold was an American by birth, yet he betrayed his country." Here is no doubt with respect to the fact; we therefore use the indicative mode was, after though. But when there is any doubt or condition with respect to the fact, we use the subjunctive mode; as, "though he slay me yet will I put my trust in him." Job xiii.15. Here is a condition implied; it would therefore be improper to use the indicative, "though he slays me, &c. But in this [Page] mode we use another tense, which has not been noticed; and which implies the supposition of a fact directly the reverse of what is mentioned. That is, an affirmative sentence amounts to a full declaration in the negative; and a negative sentence implies a declaration or confession of the affirmative. Thus, "if I were in Charlestown," supposes I am not in Charlestown; but, "if I were not in Hartford," implies a full certainty that I am in Hartford. This tense which, in principal verbs, is the same as the imperfect of the indicative mode, I shall denominate hypothetical; the other, the doubtful tense.

When we speak of a fact certain in our own minds or granted by all parties, we use the indicative; as, "if I am writing, it is not your concern."

When we speak of a doubtful matter, we use the subjunctive mode; "if I be writing*."

When we speak of a fact which we allow is not so, but if it were, we want to inform what the consequence would be, we use the imperfect tense of the indicative mode; as, "if I were writing;" or rather, "if I wrote as well as you do, I should think myself an excellent penman." This phrase thus used, becomes present time and belongs to the subjunctive mode. This perhaps will hardly be admitted; and yet it is a [...] much used as any in the language. The phrases, I [...]ld go, if it did not rain;" "I would walk, if I were not lame;" "I would ride, if I had a horse;" "if he attended to his studies, he would make a figure, in the literary world;" are as frequent as any in the language; [Page] they are evidently present time and deserve a separate place in Grammar. It is needless to enquire how this came to be the case or to object to its propriety. Custom is sovereign in the use of language; and when universal invariable custom has introduced and established any form of expression, we may possibly doubt its analogy to the rules of other languages, but ought not to scruple its propriety in our own.

Present Tense. Doubtful. Indefinite.

| I | learn or do learn. | we | learn or do learn.
If, &c. | thou | you
| he | they

Definite.

| I | be learning. | we | be learning.
If, &c. | thou | you
| he | they

This tense is preceded or followed by a positive declaration in the indicative or potential modes; as, "if I learn I shall, or may, or can be a scholar."

Present Tense. Hypothetical. Indefinite.

| I learned or did learn. | we | learned or did learn.
If, &c. | thou learnedst or didst learn. | you
| he learned or did learn. | they

Definite.

| I were | learning. | we | were learning.
If, &c. | thou wert | you
| he were | they

This tense is preceded or followed by the conditional form of the potential; as, "if I learned as fast as he does, I should be as great a scholar."

This same form of expression, which is used as a hypothetical tense in present time, is also used as the imperfect tense doubtful. For example, "if I learned wit when young, I shall be prudent in old age." This is evidently past time and implies uncertainty. That it is a distinct form of expression from the present hypothetical, is evident from this consideration, that it is attended with an absolute declaration; [Page] whereas the hypothetical is always attended with a conditional declaration. Thus, "if I learned as fast as you do, I should be a scholar," is hypothetical; but "if I learned when young, I shall be wise in old age," is doubtful. The first is attended with a conditional sign, should; the last with a positive declaration, shall.

The same distinction of doubtful and hypothetical, runs through all the several modes of expressing power, liberty, obligation, &c. The auxiliaries may, can, must, form the doubtful tenses; and might, would, could, and should, the hypothetical. These may be called, by way of distinction, the auxiliary tenses of the subjunctive mode.

EXAMPLE.

Present Tense. Doubtful. Indefinite.

| I may, thou mayest, he may | learn.
If, &c. | I can, thou canst, he can
| I must, thou must, he must

| may | learn.
we, you, they | can
| must

These imply a doubt whether there be a liberty, power, or necessity of doing an action; and this tense is always followed by an absolute declaration in the indicative mode; as, "if I can learn the science of geography, I will."

The definite form is, "if I can be learning," &c.

Present Tense. Hypothetical. Indefinite.

| I migh [...], thou mightest, he might | learn.
| I could, thou couldst, he could
If, &c. | I should, thou shouldst, he should
| I would, thou wouldst, he would

| might | learn.
| could
we, you, they | should
| would

These, in affirmative sentences, imply a supposition [Page] that there is no liberty, power, inclination, or obligation, to do an action. But in the negative form, they imply a supposition that there is liberty, &c. of doing an action. This tense is followed by the conditional form of the potential mode; as, "if I might learn, I would."

Note, Should and would, in this form, refer to event and inclination rather than to obligation and perhaps belong more properly to the future tense.

The same distinction and the same remarks apply to the past time.

Perfect Tense. Doubtful. Indefinite.

| I have | learned. | we | have learned.
If, &c. | thou hast | you
fol. | he hath | they
fam. | he has |

Definite.

| I have | been learning. | we | have been learning.
If, &c. | thou hast | you
fol. | he hath | they
fam. | he has |

These imply an uncertainty whether I have learned or been learning or not; and are followed by absolute declarations; as, "if I have learned, or been learning, I have done my duty and shall be the wiser man."

Perfect Tense. Hypothetical. Indefinite.

| I had | learned. | we | had learned.
If, &c. | thou hadst | you
| he had | they

Definite.

| I had | been learning. | we | had been learning.
If, &c. | thou hadst | you
| he had | they

This tense, in the affirmative form, supposes that I have not learned and in the negative form, supposes that I have learned. It is always followed by the [Page] conditional tenses of the potential mode; as, "if I had learned wit when young, I should be more prudent." "If I had not read Virgil when young, I would read him now." The first is affirmative and supposes that I did not learn wit when I was young; the last is negative and supposes I did read Virgil when I was young.

This same tense, when followed by a positive declaration, is used as a pluperfect; as, "though he had learned to read, yet he was no penman." But this implies a certainty or concession of the fact, and seems rather the indicative mode.

The foregoing past tense refers to a fact merely; but when there is a reference to the liberty, power, inclination, necessity or obligation, to do an action, it is expressed by the past tense of the potential mode, subjoined to a conjunction.

Perfect Tense. Indefinite.

| I might, thou mightest, he might | have learned.
| I could, thou couldst, he could
If, &c. | I should, thou shouldst, he should
| I would, thou wouldst, he would
| I must, thou must, he must

| might | have learned.
| could
we, you, they | should
| would
| must

Definite.

If, &c. I might have been learning, &c.

This is the same tense as the foregoing; but the question is not whether I learned or not; but whether I had liberty, &c. to learn. This tense is followed by a declaration in the past tense of the potential mode; as, "if I could have gone, I should."

Note, Should and would, in this tense, without emphasis denote merely event and inclination, in all the three persons. With emphasis, should [Page] denotes obligation and would a fixed intention or determination.

The same remarks will perhaps apply to the following.

Future Tense. Indefinite.

| I should or would | learn.
If, &c. | thou shouldst or wouldst
| he should or would

we

you

they

should or would learn.

Definite.

If, &c. I should or would be learning, &c.

Future Tense. Compound. Indefinite.

| I should | have learned. | we | should have learned.
If, &c. | thou shouldst | you
| he should | they

Definite

If, &c. I should have been learning, &c.

This tense signifies, that upon condition, at a certain future time, an action shall be past, &c.

Both futures are followed by conditional forms of expression.

Note, The conjunction is very often omitted and the nominative placed after the verb or auxiliary; as, "were I present," instead of, "if I were present;" "had I been learned," instead of, "if I had been learned." This is a common mode of expression and by no means in elegant.

In the inflection of the foregoing regular verb, the several combinations of auxiliaries have been delineated, and their uses explained. But it has been remarked before, that be, do and have are often principal verbs; the first intransitive and the two last, transitive; for which reason it is necessary to decline them at large, in all modes and tenses.

The English not having any passive verb, make use of the verb be, joined with the participle in ed, [Page]en, t, or ght, derived of transitive verbs, or what has been called the passive participle; which form of expression precisely answers to the Latin and Greek passive verb. Let the learner therefore be informed that by adding this participle of any transitive verb, to the following inflection of be, he has the English form of Latin passive verbs.

INFINITIVE MODE.

Present, | to be. | Participles.
Past, | to have been. | being, been.

INDICATIVE MODE.

Present.

I am | taught, moved, &c. | we | are.
thou art | you
he is | they

Imperfect.

I was | we | were.
thou wast | you
he was | they

Perfect.

I have | been. | we | have been.
thou hast | you
he has | they

Pluperfect.

I had | been. | we | had been.
thou hadst | you
he had | they

Future.

foretell. | prom. &c.
I shall, | will, | be.
thou wilt, | shalt
he will, | shall

foretell. | prom. &c.
we shall, | will | be.
you will, | shall
they will, | shall

Compound.

I shall | have been. | we shall | have been.
thou wilt, shalt | you will, shall
he will, shall | they will, shall

Note, Shall, in the second and third persons of this tense, is used only when subjoined to some [Page] conjunction; as, "by the time that you shall have been there an hour," &c. and it denotes event merely.

IMPERATIVE MODE.

Be or be thou or do thou be.

Be or be you or do you be.

POTENTIAL MODE.

Present. Absolute.

I may, thou mayest, he may

I can, thou canst, he can

I must, thou must, he must

be.

| may | be.
we, you, they | can
| must

Conditional.

I might, &c. | be. |  | might | be.
I could, &c. |  | could
I should, &c. | we, you, they | should
I would, &c. |  | would

Note, It were, is often used for, it would be, in this tense, and that by our best writers.

The foregoing is used as an imperfect tense, especially in negative and interrogative sentences; as, "I might or could not be." "Could he be? &c.

Perfect. Both Absolute and Conditional.

I might, &c. | have been. |  | might | have been.
I could, &c. |  | could
I should, &c. | we, you, they | should
I would, &c. |  | would

This tense, when absolute, is followed by a positive declaration; as, "I might have been there, but I had no inclination for it." When conditional, it is followed or preceded by a condition; as, "I might have been there, if I had been well."

Perfect. Compound.

I may | have been | we | may have been.
thou mayest | you
he may | they

[Page]Future.

This is no otherwise distinguished from the present absolute, than by some subsequent words; as, "I may be next week," &c.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

Present. Doubtful.

| I | be. | we | be.
If, &c. | thou | you
| he | they

Hypothetical.

| I were | we | were.
If, &c. | thou wert | you
| he were | they

Imperfect. The same as the foregoing.

Perfect. Doubtful.

| I have | been. | we | have been.
If, &c. | thou hast | you
| he has | they

Hypothetical.

| I had | been. | we | had been.
If, &c. | thou hadst | you
| he had | they

Future.

| I should or would | be. | we | should or would be.
If, &c. | thou shouldst or wouldst | you
| he should or would | they

Future Compound.

| I should | have been. | we | should have been.
If, &c. | thou shouldst | you
| he should | they

Note, The doubtful forms of power, liberty, &c. are expressed by the present tense absolute of the potential mode; as, "if I may, can," &c. and the hypothetical forms, by the conditional tenses of the same mode; as, "if I might," &c.

It may be further remarked, that the definite tenses of verbs are all formed by adding the participle in ing, to the foregoing verb in all its variations.

[Page]The indicative form of the future is also very often used with a preceding conjunction; as, "if I shall," &c.

INFINITIVE MODE.

Present Tense. | Indefinite, | to do.
| Definite, | to be doing.
Perfect Tense. | Indefinite, | to have done.
| Definite, | to have been doing.

INDICATIVE MODE.

Present.

Indefinite. Definite.

| I do | we | do. | I am doing, &c.
| thou dost | you
fol. | he doth | they
fam. | he does |

Imperfect.

Indefinite. Definite.

I did | we | did. | I was doing, &c.
thou didst | you
he did | they

Perfect.

Indefinite. Definite.

| I have | done. | we | have done. | I have been doing, &c.
| thou hast | you
fol. | he hath | they
fam. | he has |

Pluperfect.

Indefinite. Definite.

I had | done. | we | had done. | I had been doing, &c.
thou hadst | you
he had | they

Future.

foretell. | prom. &c.
I shall, | will | do.
thou wilt, | shalt
he will, | shall

foretell. | prom. &c. | we shall, | will, | do.
you will, | shall
they will, | shall

[Page]Compound.

foretell. | prom. &c.
I shall |  | have done.
thou wilt, | shalt
he will, | shall

foretell. | prom. &c.
we shall |  | have done.
you will | shall
they will | shall

IMPERATIVE MODE.

Do or do thou

Do or do you.

or do thou do.

or do you do.

POTENTIAL MODE.

Present. Absolute.

I may, thou mayest, he may

I can, thou canst, he can

I must, thou must, he must

do.

| may | do.
we, you, they | can
| must

Conditional.

I might, &c. | do. |  | might | do.
I could, &c. |  | could
I should, &c. | we, you, they | should
I would, &c. |  | would

The foregoing is used as an imperfect tense especially in negative and interrogative sentences; as, "I could not do it then." "Could he do it?"

Perfect. Absolute or Conditional.

I might, &c. | have done. |  | might | have done.
I could, &c |  | could
I should, &c. | we, you, they | should
I would, &c. |  | would

Perfect. Compound.

I may | have done. | we | may have done.
thou mayest | you
he may | they

Future.

The same as the present absolute, and known only by some words denoting futurity; as, "I may do it next week, &c.

N. B. The definite tenses are formed, as in the [Page] example of a regular verb, by substituting be doing in the place of do in the present and future and been done in the place of done in the past.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

Present. Doubtful.

| I | do. | we | do.
If, &c. | thou | you
| he | they

Hypothetical.

| I did | we | did.
If, &c. | thou didst | you
| he did | they

Imperfect.

If, &c. I did, &c. like the foregoing.

Perfect Tense. Doubtful.

| I have | done. | we | have done.
If, &c. | thou hast | you
| he has | they

Hypothetical.

| I had | done. | we | had done.
If, &c. | thou hadst | you
| he had | they

Future.

| I should, or would | do. | we | should or would do.
If, &c. | thou shouldst, or wouldst | you
| he should, or would | they

The doubtful forms of power, liberty, &c. are expressed by the absolute tenses of the potential mode, subjoined to some conjunction; as, "if I may do." The hypothetical forms are expressed by the conditional tenses of the same mode subjoined to some conjunction; as, "if I might or could do."

INFINITIVE MODE.

Present,

to have.

Past,

to have had.

Participles,

having, had.

[Page]

INDICATIVE MODE.

Present.

I have | we | have.
thou hast | you
he has | they

Note, The definite form of this verb is seldom used. The only instance that occurs to me at present, is when it is followed immediately by a noun and passive participle; as, "he is having his cloaths mended." But this is by no means elegant, for which reason I shall omit the definite tenses in the inflection of this verb.

Imperfect.

I had | we | had.
thou hadst | you
he had | they

Perfect.

I have | had. | we | have had.
thou hast | you
he has | they

Pluperfect.

I had | had. | we | had had.
thou hadst | you
he had | they

Future.

foretell. | prom. &c.
I shall, | will | have.
thou wilt, | shalt
he will, | shall

foretell. | prom. &c.
we shall, | will | have.
you will, | shall
they will, | shall

Future Compound.

I shall |  | have had. | we shall | have had.
thou wilt, | shalt | you will, | shall
he will, | shall | they will, | shall

IMPERATIVE MODE.

Have or have thou

Have or have you

or do thou have.

or do you have.

[Page]

POTENTIAL MODE.

Present. Absolute.

I may, &c. | have. |  | may | have.
I can, &c. | we, you, they | can
I must, &c. |  | must

Conditional.

I might, &c. | have. |  | might | have.
I could, &c. |  | could
I should, &c. | we, you, they | should
I would, &c. |  | would

In interrogative and negative sentences, the foregoing is used as an imperfect tense; and sometimes in affirmative sentences.

Perfect. Absolute or Conditional.

I might, &c. | have had. |  | might | have had.
I could, &c. |  | could
I should, &c. | we, you, they | should
I would, &c. |  | would

Perfect. Compound.

I may | have had. | we | may have had.
thou mayest | you
he may | they

Future.

I may have, to-morrow, &c.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

Present. Doubtful.

| I | have. | we | have.
If, &c. | thou | you
| he | they

Hypothetical.

| I had | we | had.
If, &c. | thou hadst | you
| he had. | they

The foregoing is also used as the imperfect Tense.

Perfect. Doubtful.

| I have | had. | we | have had.
If, &c. | thou hast | you
sol. | he hath | they
[...]m. | he has |

[Page]Hypothetical.

| I had | had. | we | had had.
If, &c. | thou hadst | you
| he had | they

Future.

| I should or would | have. | we | should or would have.
If, &c. | thou shouldst or wouldst | you
| he should or would | they

The remarks made under the subjunctive of be and do, with respect to the doubtful and hypothetical forms of power, &c. apply to this verb.

In the foregoing analysis of verbs in the Subjunctive mode, I have explained them according to their usual sense, when preceded by the conjunction if. But when preceded by other conjunctions, the phrases vary their meaning according to the purport of the conjunction. The difference however is immaterial and will lead into no sensible errors.

With respect to the auxiliaries, it is to be further observed, that have is used only before the participles ending in ed, t, or n. Be is used before all participles. All the other auxiliaries are used only before the verb in its original form; and the past time will admit no preceding auxiliary. For example.

Present. | Past. | Participles.
do. | did. | done†, doing.
may do. |  |
can do. |  |
must do. |  |
might do. |  |
could do. |  | have done.
shall do. |  | be done.
will do. |  | be doing.
should do. |  |
would do. |  |

Here it is observable that may, can, &c. are employed before the present tense do or the verb in its [Page] original form. The past time did admits no auxiliary. The participle done is used after have and be, but be only is used with doing.

When an auxiliary is joined to a verb, the auxiliary only is varied; as, "I shall do, thou shalt do," &c.

When two or more auxiliaries are joined to a verb, the first auxiliary only is varied; as, "I have been learned, thou hast been learned," &c.

Intransitive verbs will very seldom admit of the passive form; in some instances they will—and when this is the case, the participle, joined with the auxiliary be, becomes a mere adjective, and the verb is intransitive; as, "I am fallen, I am grown," &c.

IRREGULAR VERBS.

All English verbs that make the past time and participle in ed, are accounted regular: All that vary from this rule may be called irregular. I shall rank the whole of our irregular verbs under three heads; first those that make the present tense, past and participle all alike; as,

Present. | Past. | Participle.
hurt | hurt | hurt

Of this kind are the following: beat, burst, cast, cost, cut, heat, hit, knit, let, put, read, rent, rid, set, shed, shred, shut, slit, split, spread, thrust, wet.

The addition of ed after d or t, would render the sound of the word disagreeable; as, hitted, putted, &c. for which reason it is omitted.

Note, Beat sometimes makes beaten in the participle, and heat, heated.

2. Those that make the past time and participle alike, but different from the present time; as the following,

Present.

Past & Part.

Awake

Awoke

abide

abode

be

been

behold

beheld

bend

bent

unbend

unbent

bereave

bereft

beseech

besought

[Page]bind

bound

bleed

bled

breed

bred

bring

brought

build

built or builded

buy

bought

catch

caught

creep

crept

deal

dealt

dig

dug

dream

dreamt

dwell

dwelt

feed

fed

feel

felt

fight

fought

find

found

flee

fled

fling

flung

freight

freighted*

geld

gelt or gelded

gild

gilt or gilded

gird

girt or girded

grind

ground

hang

hung or hanged

have

had

hear

heard

keep

kept

lay

laid

lead

led

leave

left

leap

leapt or leaped

lend

lent

lose

lost

make

made

mean

meant

meet

met

pay

paid

rend

rent

say

said

seek

sought

sell

sold

send

sent

shoot

shot

sleep

slept

sling

slung

smell

smelt

spend

spent

spin

spun

stand

stood

stick

stuck

sting

stung

sweep

swept

sweat

swet

teach

taught

tell

told

think

thought

weep

wept

wind

wound

work

wrought

wring

wrung

3. Those that have the present, past and participle all different; as the following,

Present Tense. | Past. | Participle.
BEAR | bore or bare | borne or born
begin | began | begun
bid | bade | bidden
bite | bit | bitten
blow | blew | blown
break | broke | broken
chept | chid | chidden
choose | chose | chosen
cleave | clove or clave | cloven or cleft
come | came | come
crow | crew | crowed
dare | durst | dared
die | died | dead
do | did | done
draw | drew | drawn
drink | drank | drunk
drive | drove | driven
eat | ate | eaten
fall | fell | fallen
fly | flew | flown
forsake | forsook | forsaken
freeze | froze | frozen
get | got | gotten
give | gave | given
go | went | gone
grow | grew | grown
hew | hewed | hewn
hide | hid | hidden
hold | held | holden
know | knew | known
lade | laded | laden
load | loaded | loaded or loaden
ly or lie | lay | lain
mow | mowed | mown
ride | rode | ridden
ring | rang | rung
rise | rose | risen
run | ran | run
see | saw | seen
saw | sawed | sawn
seeth | sod | sodden
shave | shaved | shaven
shake | shook | shaken
shear | sheared | shorn
strew | strewed | strewn
| also |
strow | strowed | strown
shew | shewed | shewn
| also |
show | showed | shown
shrink | shrank | shrunk
sing | sang | sung
sink | sank | sunk
sit | sat | sitten
slay | slew | slain
slide | slid | slidden
smite | smote | smitten
sow | sowed | sown
speak | spoke | spoken
spring | sprang | sprung
steal | stole | stolen
stink | stank | stunk
strike | struck | struck
spit | spat | spitten
strive | strove | striven
swear | swore | sworn
swell | swelled | swollen
swing | swang | swung
swim | swam | swum
take | took | taken
tear | tore | torn
thrive | throve | thriven
throw | threw | thrown
tread | trod | trodden
win | won | won
wear | wore | worn
weave | wove | woven
write | wrote | written
wax | waxed | waxen

For the rules of forming regular participles, both in ed and ing, see pages eighth and ninth.

Here let it be again observed that no auxiliaries can with propriety be joined with the past time. The expressions, I have wrote, I have bare, I have began, I have drove, &c. which are so much in vogue, are shocking improprieties: The childish phrases, you am, I is, &c. are not more repugnant to the rules of Grammar.

And yet men of the first reputation, will indulge fashionable errors, which they know have a tendency to embarrass a language built on the simplest principles, and eventually to destroy all rules of analogy. An ancient Roman would be startled to hear a Latin Grammarian use ille fuit amatus est ▪ a Frenchman, to hear, il a punit—and the most unlettered Englishman would laugh to hear another say, he has went, or it will be gave; and yet, I have wrote, have drove, &c. which are quite as improper, have become so familiar to our ears, that we can every hour hear them uttered by some of our best Grammarians without a smile of ridicule. I have written, have driven, &c. are as easy to be learned and employed as the past tense wrote and drove; and it is inexcusable to sacrifice propriety to any consideration whatever.

As no abuses of language are more frequent than those of joining our auxiliaries have and be, wi [...]h the past tense of our irregular verbs, I will set an example in all modes and tenses.

INFINITIVE MODE.

Present Tense. | Indefinite, | to write.
| Definite, | to be writing.
Past Tense. | Indefinite, | to have written.
| Definite, | to have been writing.
| Participles, | writing, written.

[Page]

INDICATIVE MODE.

Present.

Indefinite. Definite.

I write, thou writest, &c.

I am writing, thou art, &c▪

Imperfect.

Indefinite. Definite.

I wrote | we | wrote. | I was writing, thou wast, &c.
thou wrotest | you
he wrote | they

Perfect. Indefinite.

I have | written. | we | have written.
thou hast | you
he has | they

Definite.

I have

thou hast

he hath or has

been writing, &c.

Pluperfect.

Indefinite. Definite.

I had written, &c.

I had been writing, &c.

Future.

Indefinite. Definite.

I shall or will write, &c.

I shall or will be writing, &c.

Future Compound.

Indefinite. Definite.

I shall have written, &c.

I shall have been writing, &c.

IMPERATIVE MODE.

Write thou, &c.

POTENTIAL MODE.

Present. Absolute.

Indefinite. Definite.

I may, &c.
write.
I may, &c. be writing.

I can, &c.

I must, &c.

Conditional.

Indefinite. Definite.

I might, &c.
write.
I might, &c. be writing.

I could, &c.

I should, &c.

I would, &c.

[Page]Perfect. Absolute and Conditional.

Indefinite. Definite.

I might, &c.
have written.
I might, &c. have been writing.

I could, &c.

I should, &c.

I would, &c.

Perfect. Compound.

Indefinite. Definite.

I may have written, &c.

I may have been writing, &c.

Future. Indefinite.

I may write to-morrow, &c.

I can, &c.

Definite.

I may be writing to-morrow, &c.

I can, &c.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

Present. Doubtful.

Indefinite. Definite.

| I write |  | I be writing |
If, &c. | thou write &c. | If, &c. | thou be | &c.
| he write |  | he be |

Present. Hypothetical.

Indefinite. Definite.

| I wrote |  | I were writing▪
If, &c. | thou wrotest &c. | If, &c. | thou went
| he wrote |  | he were

Imperfect, the same as the foregoing.

Perfect. Doubtful.

Indefinite. Definite.

| I have | written. | I have been writing, &c.
If, &c. | thou hast
| he has

Hypothetical.

Indefinite. Definite.

| I had | written. | I had been writing, &c.
If, &c. | thou hadst
| he had

[Page]Future.

Indefinite. Definite.

If &c.
I should or would write, &c.
I should or would be writing, &c.

Compound.

Indefinite. Definite.

If, &c.
I should have written, &c.
I should have been writing, &c.

In this example it is observable that no auxiliary, in any tense, precedes the past time wrote; that the auxiliary have is always followed by the participle written, and that be is followed by either participle written or writing.

Notes

*

This is the most accurate and unexceptionable division of verbs; the common division into active, passive and neu [...]er is faulty. Many verbs commonly called active, imply no action at all, or of the mind only; as, to see, to desire, to feel; while some that are ranked under the term neuter, imply action merely; as, to run, to fly, &c. The division into transitive and intransitive, admits of no exception.

As to passive verbs, we have no such thing in the language. I cannot better express my ideas on this subject, than in the words of Dr. Ash, in a Grammar prefixed to his Dictionary. He observes that "Properly speaking, there is no passive verb in the English language; for though, I am loved, is commonly called a passive verb, yet love is no part of the verb, but a participle or adjective derived of the verb, love." "I am very sensible that the greatest man*, perhaps, that ever wrote on the subject, is of a different opinion. He says, "There are three kinds of verbs active, passive and neuter." And when he comes to the grammatical resolution of this sentence, "In whom I am well pleased;" he tells us that am is "The indicative mode, present time, and first person singular of the neuter verb to be; well an adverb; pleased the passive participle of the verb to please, making with the auxiliary verb am, a passive verb." The consideration of this, I must confess, could by no means induce me to suppress the above note. In parsing every word should be considered as a distinct part of speech; for though two or more words may be united to form a mode, a tense or a comparison; yet, it seems quite improper to unite two or more words to make a noun, a verb or an adjective, &c."

I am happy to find my own opinion supported by so respectable an authority as Dr. Ash; both with regard to the passive verb and the i [...]perative mode. Grammarians, conforming to the inflection of Latin verbs, without attending to the principles of our own language, have considered the verb let merely as an auxiliary sign and have used it to form the first and third Persons of the imperative mode. It may be doubted whether, in any case, the imperative admits of these persons; the second person only being the object of command or exhortation. But in most cases, let is certainly a principal verb, of the same import as permit or suffer, and used in the second person of the imperative mode. These expressions therefore, let me write, let him write, so far from being the first and third persons, are in fact the second person of the imperative. In some instances, they are merely advisory, but in many cases, they imply a command, directed to a second person.

If a person hold me fast and I say to him, let me go, I presume no one will contend that this is a command or exhortation directed to myself. In the first person plural, let us go, has the force of advice and exhortation to a number, among whom, the speaker includes himself, and this may possibly be called the first person of the imperative; but, let me, let him and let them, must be considered as the second person, implying the same as suffer or permit me, &c. The Romans used the first person of the subjunctive mode for the purpose of exhorting; not having any first person in the imperative. The French imperative has all persons, except the first of the singular. The English imperative has no person but the second; to supply the place of the first and third in other languages, we use the verb let, with a pronoun in the objective case and a verb in the infinitive.

↵

*

Dr. Lowth, followed by Buchanan.

↵

*

The division of participles into active, perfect and passive, [...] by no means accurate; and that into, present, perfect and passive, in wholly de [...]ive. Participles in in [...], or of the present tense, as they are usual [...]y denominated, are as often used in the past and future tenses, as in the present, as, I was writing or I shall be writing. Neither are they always active; for we can find very little activity in a person that is sleeping, a tree that is standing or a plant that is growing.

Thus particip [...]es in ed, t, n; as, loved, taught, &c. are used in all tenses indifferently▪ as, I am loved, I shall be taught; and in either an active or passive sense, I have taught or I am taught. In general they are mere adjectives or nouns and can not be said to belong to tense any more than kind or smooth: I choose therefore to call them [...]y one general name, participles, leaving it for the Instructor to determine, by the sense, wherever they occur, whether they be nouns, or adjectives, or retain the signification of the verbs from which they are derived

↵

*

This tense seems not so properly called the imperfect; fo [...] in this expression, I wrote a letter last week, the action is as perfectly past as in, I have written; but it is a matter of little consequence, provided we understand the tenses.

↵

*

Sol. stands for, solemn style; fam. for, familiar style.

↵

*

I shall make use of you only, in this example; [...] may be supplied by the instructor. In the third person singular, he only i [...] mentioned; she and it may be supplied by the instructor as occasion req [...]ires.

↵

*

At least this was formerly the case. I [...] seems to be now customary to use the i [...] [...]tive to express a doubt; and probably custom will in time get the better of the ancient rules of propriety and banish the doubtful tenses of the subjunctive mode from the language. We say, if he is, if you are, in cases of uncertainty, and you be, I be, in declaratory phrases. This is however an error and a real misfortune to the language, because it destroys a distinction that is essential and ought to be preserved.

↵

†

This was originally spelt doen.

↵

*

A regular verb.

↵

ADVERBS.

What is an adverb? An adverb is a word added to verbs, to adjectives and to other adverbs, to express some circumstance or modification of the action, quality or manner.

To a verb; as, "he reads properly, you run slowly;" here properly and slowly are adverbs, modifying the verbs, read and run.

To an adjective; as, "the boy is very studious;" here very is an adverb, pointing out the degree of studiousness.

To another adverb; as, "I heard very attentively;" here very attentively are adverbs; attentively shows the manner in which I heard, viz. with attention; and very expresses the degree of that attention.

Have adverbs any variation? A few only are varied, like adjectives, to express degrees of comparison; as, soon, sooner, soonest; often, oftener, oftenest▪ well, better, best.

Adverbs which are derived of adjectives, and respect the qualities of things, may all be compared by more and most; as, wisely, more wisely, most wisely.

Which are some of the adverbs most commonly used? Already, alway, by and by, else, ever, enough, far, hence, here, how, hither, indeed, much, no, not, [Page] never, now, often, perhaps, rather, seldom, then, thence, there, very, when, where, whether whilst, yes, yesterday.

All adjectives may be made adverbs, by adding ly: as, honest, honestly*.

Notes

*

We are apt to use adjectives instead of adverbs, as in the following expressions; "extreme cold; exceeding fine; indifferent well;" all which are very improper and ungrammatical. We ought to make the first an adverb by adding ly, thus, "extremely cold; exceedingly fine; indifferently well." So also we say, "he speaks proper," when we mean "he speaks properly."

↵

PREPOSITION.

What are prepositions? Prepositions are words set before nouns and pronouns to show their relation to other words.

How many sorts of prepositions are there? Two, separable and inseparable. The separable prepositions may stand alone; but the inseparable are used only in conjunction with other words.

Which are the separable prepositions?

Above | before | for | till or
about | behind | from | until
after | beneath | in or into | to
against | below | of, on or upon† | toward
among or | between | out or out of | under
amongst | betwixt | over | with
at§ | beyond | through | within
amidst | by | during | without

Which are the inseparable prepositions? A, be, con, dis, mis, per, pre, re, sub, un.

[Page] What is the use of prepositions in composition with other words? They commonly give a new meaning to the word, as is observable in the following:

Original words.

Compounded.

throw

over-throw

stand

under-stand

draw

with-draw

go

out-go

engage

dis-engage

take

mis-take

join

sub-join

unite

re-unite &c.

Notes

†

The preposition on by a habit of quick pronunciation is called a. Thus we say a bed, a board, a shore, a coming, a going, &c. which seem to be only corruptions of on bed, on board, on shore, on [...]ming, on going. Thus we say one o'clock for one on the clock.

↵

§

"Ye blind guides who strain at a gnat, and swallow a camel." Matt. xxiii. 24▪ This is an error of the translators. The original sense requires the preposition out to be used in this place; "who strain out a gnat." By employing a wrong particle, they have destroyed the meaning of the phrase.

↵

CONJUNCTION.

What is a conjunction? A word that joins sentences together, so as of two, to make one.

How many kinds of conjunctions are there? Two, copulative and disjunctive.

How is the copulative conjunction used? The copulative conjunction continues both the sentence and the sense by expressing an addition; as, "you and I and John rode to Philadelphia."

How is the disjunctive used? The disjunctive conjunction continues the sentence, But denotes an opposition in the sense; as, "you and I rode to Philadelphia, but John staid at home."

Which are the conjunctions?

And | as | neither | wherefore | though
also | if | yet | except | namely
either | indeed | that | unless | however
both | or | because | whether | notwithstanding
but | nor | therefore | since | nevertheless

INTERJECTION.

What is an interjection? It is word thrown in to express an affection of the mind or a sudden passion; as, grief, joy, wonder, &c. It has no connection with the sentence either by government or agreement. Ah! alas! oh! fie! pish! or any sounds expressing the feelings of the speaker, are interjections.

SENTENCES.

[Page]

What is a sentence? A sentence is a number of words, ranged in proper order and making complete sense.

What does the formation of sentences depend on? On agreement and government.

What is agreement? When one word stands connected with another word, in the same number, case, gender and person.

What is government? It is when one word causes another to be in some case or mode.

RULE I.

A verb must agree with its nominative word in number and person.

EXAMPLES.

In the solemn style: Thou readest; he readeth; y [...] read.

In the familiar style: I go; he goes; we go; you go.

EXPLANATION.

Thou is the second person singular number, and so is the verb, readest. He is the third person singular, and so is readeth. Ye is the second person plural number, and so is the verb read. And it may be observed in the familiar style, that each verb is in the same person as its nominative word.

REMARK I.

Although the nominative word commonly stands before the verb, as in the foregoing examples; yet it may follow an intransitive verb; as, "on a sudden appeared the Queen."

And when a question is asked or a command given, the nominative must follow the verb or auxiliary sign; as, did he go? were you there? go thou: awake you. But in giving commands, we generally omit the nominative; as, go, awake.

[Page]

REMARK 2.

When there, nor or neither, precedes the verb, in the beginning of a phrase, the nominative follows the verb or auxiliary; as, "there was a man;" "nor am I solicitous;" "neither hath this man sinned, nor his parents." John ix. 3.

REMARK 3.

When a neuter verb stands between two nominative words, the one in the singular, the other in the plural number, the verb more elegantly agrees with the first; as, "the sum is ten pounds;" "all things are dust."

FALSE CONSTRUCTION.

Solemn style.

Who is ¹ thou, O man, that presume ² on thy own wisdom? Thou ought ³ to know thou are ⁴ ignorant. He that confess ⁵ his sins and forsake ⁶ them, shall find mercy. A soft answer turns ⁷ away wrath. Anger rest ⁸ in the bosom of fools.

familiar style.

Philadelphia are ⁹ a large city; it stand ¹⁰ on the west side of the river Delaware and am ¹¹ the most regular city in America. It containeth ¹² a variety of different sects; these all speaks ¹³ their own language; and they worshipeth ¹⁴ as they please. I were ¹⁵ much delighted with it; I wishes ¹⁶ that you couldst ¹⁷ see it and observe its manners.

N. B. The nominative to a verb is found by asking a question, who or what? Example: "A clear conscience, which we ought carefully to preserve, in every station of life, and which will secure to us a perpetual source of inward tranquillity, will also be our principal guard against the abuses of malevolence.." Here the question occurs, what will be our guard? &c. the answer is, a clear conscience; [Page] which is therefore the nominative word to the verb be. The noun to which an adjective refers, is found in the same manner. Example: "A man in office, to whom some important trust is committed, ought to be exceedingly cautious in his behaviour." Ask the question, who ought to be cautious? the answer is, a man in office; man therefore is the noun, to which the adjective cautious refers.

RULE II.

Two or more nouns singular connected by a copulative conjunction, must have verbs, pronouns and nouns agreeing with them in the plural number.

EXAMPLES.

1. Envy and vanity are detestable vices.

2. Brutus and Cassius were brethren; they were friends to Roman liberty.

EXPLANATION.

1 Envy and vanity are both nouns in the singular number, but being joined by the copulative conjunction and, they require the verb are to be in the plural number.

2 Brutus and Cassius are both in the singular number, but being united by a copulative conjunction, they form a plural and require the verb were, the nouns brethren and friends and the pronoun they, to be in the plural number.

REMARK.

When nouns singular are united by a disjunctive conjunction, the verb, pronoun and noun following, must be in the singular number, as referring to one only; as, "either John or I was there;" "neither pride nor envy nor any other vicious passion disturbs my repose."

FALSE CONSTRUCTION.

Wisdom and learning is ¹ very necessary for men in high stations. Peace and security is ² the happiness of a community. Sobriety and humility leads ³ [Page] to honour. You and I is ⁴ very studious. You and he was ⁵ accounted good scholar ⁶. Prince Eugene and the Duke of Marlborough was ⁷ great Generals; he was scourge ⁸ to the house of Bourbon. Love, joy, good humour and friendship raises ⁹ correspondent feelings in every heart; it sweetens ¹⁰ all the pleasures of life: But hatred, ill-nature, jealousy, envy, insincerity and melancholy diffuses ¹¹ its ¹² baleful influence, and casts ¹³ a cloud over social felicity.

N. B. It must be remarked, that when different persons are mentioned, the verb must agree with the first in preference to both the others, and with the second in preference to the third. Thus all three persons united; as, you and I and he, make we, the first person plural.

You and I, make we.

You and he, make ye or you, the second person.

RULE III.

Nouns of multitude, though they are in the singular number, may have a verb and pronoun agreeing with them either in the singular or plural.

EXAMPLES.

The assembly is or are very numerous; they are much divided. "My people is or are foolish; they have nor known me." The company was or were noisy.

EXPLANATION.

Assembly is a noun of multitude, and may be united with is in the singular or with are in the plural number. The same is observable of people and company.

N. B. We should have strict regard to the meaning of these collective nouns, in determining whether the singular or plural number is most proper to be joined with them. And if the indefinite article a or an precede the noun, the verb must be [Page] singular; as, "a people is," "a company was," &c.

FALSE CONSTRUCTION.

His cattle is ¹ very large. Their constitution were ² subverted by ambition. The church were ³ not free from false professors. The island contain ⁴ many inhabitants.

N. B. Cattle, though in the singular number, conveys an idea of plurality, and therefore requires the verb to be plural, in all cases. But constitution, church and island are not nouns of multitude and require a singular verb; though good writers have used them as such, with a plural verb. "What reason have the church of Rome to talk of modesty in this case?" Tillotson vol. 1. ser. 49.

RULE IV.

An adjective must agree with its noun in number.

EXAMPLES.

This man, that boy, these men, those boys.

EXPLANATION.

Man is in the singular number and so is the adjective this. Boy is singular and so is that. Men and boys are plural and so are the adjectives these and those *.

REMARK 1.

Adjectives are commonly placed before the nouns to which they refer.

EXAMPLES.

Adj. | Nouns. | Adj. | Nouns.
Brave | men | warm | weather
virtuous | women | polite | behaviour
kind | friends | frugal | manners
wise | rulers | illustrious | general

[Page]

EXCEPTIONS.

I. When something depends on an adjective, it follows the noun; as,

Nouns. | Adjectives.
Articles | necessary for a family.
food | convenient for me.
method | suited to his capacity.

2. When the adjective is emphatical, it is placed after the noun; as,

Nouns. | Adjectives.
Alexander | the great.
Scipio | the younger.
Socrates | the wise.

3. Sometimes an intransitive verb is placed between the noun and adjective; as,

Nouns. | Verbs. | Adjectives.
The sun | is | pleasant.
the war | was | expensive.
virtue | is | amiable.

4. Sometimes the adjective stands before the verb or auxiliary; as,

Adjectives. | Verbs. | Nouns.
Happy | is | the man.
happy | shall | he be.

5. When several adjectives agree with one noun, they stand after it; as, a woman, modest, sensible and prudent.

REMARK 2.

Articles are commonly placed before adjectives; thus,

Art. | Adj. | Nouns.
A | wise | legislator.
a | great | scholar.
the | best | season.
the | sweetest | apples.

[Page]But they are placed after the adjectives all, such and many; thus,

Adj. | Art. | Nouns.
All | the | men.
such | a | man.
many | a | man.

And after any adjective, subjoined to the adverbs, so, as, how; thus,

Ad. | Adj. | Art. | Nouns.
So | great | a | hero.
as | fine | a | genius.
how | bright | a | sun.

REMARK 3.

When this and that, these and these stand opposed to each other, this and these refer to the last member of the sentence, that and those to the former.

"Self-love, the spring of action, moves the soul;

Reason's comparing balance rules the whole;

Man, but for that, no action could attend,

And but for this, were active to no end."

POPE.

That, in the third line, refers to self-love in the first; and this in the fourth, refers to reason in the second.

"Some place the bliss in action, some in ease;

Those call it pleasure and contentment these."

Those refers to men who place the bliss in action; these, to men who place the bliss in ease.

REMARK 4.

The distributive pronominal adjectives, each, every, either, must always have verbs agreeing with them in the singular number; for they refer to individuals separate from each other; as,

Each of us is—not each of us are.

every one was—not every one were.

either of the men is—not either of the men are.

REMARKS 5.

Adjectives frequently become nouns, take the plural form, and stand as a nominative or objective word; as, "evil be to them that evil think;" "the chief good." "the evils of life;" "the goods of fortune."

[Page] Evil and good are originally adjectives; but in these expressions, they stand for nouns.

When two nouns are joined by a hyphen, thus, sea-water, fire-shovel, glass-window, the first noun has the nature of an adjective.

FALSE CONSTRUCTION.

This ¹ scissors will not cut. That ² pens want mending. This ³ bellows are broken. That ⁴ books are torn. These ⁵ is a fine day. That ⁶ will make excellent scholars. Those ⁷ lad will be an honour to his friends. This ⁸ are the means of acquiring knowledge. This ⁹ ladies behave with modesty.

"To diversify these * kind of informations, the industry of the female world is not to be unobserved."

Spectator No. 428.

Note, The custom of joining numeral adjectives denoting plurality, to nouns of weight and measure in the singular form; as, thirty foot, ten s [...]re, &c. is as great an impropriety as any in the language.

RULE V.

The relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number, gender and person.

EXAMPLES.

1. This is the boy, who studies with diligence; he will make a scholar.

2. The girl, who sits by you, is very modest; she will be a very amiable woman.

3. The pen, which you gave me, is good; it writes very well.

EXPLANATION.

In the first example, boy the antecedent, is masculine gender; therefore who and he, the relative and pronoun, must be masculine.

In the second, girl the antecedent, is feminine; therefore the relative who and pronoun she are feminine.

[Page]In the third, pen the antecedent, is neuter or of neither gender; therefore the relative which and pronoun it must be used; these standing for things without life.

REMARK.

The antecedent is sometimes omitted; as, "give tribute to whom tribute is due;" that is, to the person to whom tribute is due.

The relative is often omitted; as, "the man I saw;" "the thing I want;" that is, "the man whom I saw;" "the thing which I want."

FALSE CONSTRUCTION.

He which ¹ is not contented with the goods of fortune, whom ² he now enjoys, must expect to be unhappy, even with greater possessions. He which ³ delights in villany, must be rewarded with the infamy whom ⁴ he deserves.

His sister, which ⁵ is much beloved by his ⁶ acquaintance, for its ⁷ virtue and good sense, is older than I am; he ⁸ sings and dances well, and his ⁹ good-breeding and sweetness of temper are the admiration of its ¹⁰ companions.

Virtue is his ¹¹ own reward. In this life she ¹² affords peace of mind to those which ¹³ possess him ¹⁴.

N. B. Who, is both masculine and feminine; referring to persons of both sexes: Which, is applied to things without life, and to brutes.

The relative pronouns are the same in both numbers.

Whose, the possessive of who, is of both genders, and in both numbers.

RULE VI.

If no nominative come between the relative and the verb, the relative is the nominative.

EXAMPLES.

This is the man, who taught rhetoric. The estates [Page] of those who have taken arms against their country, ought to be confiscated. We have a constitution, which secures our rights.

EXPLANATION.

In these expressions, there being no nominative between the relatives who and which and the verbs, taught, have and secures, therefore the relatives are the nominatives.

REMARK.

The verb to be has a nominative after it, as well as before it; as, "it was I;" "ye are they who justify yourselves." For this reason, this passage seems to be ungrammatical, "whom do men say that I am." Matth. xvi.13. It ought to be who, governed of am.

But in the infinitive mode, an objective case follows be; as, "I thought it to be him;" "you believe it to be me."

RULE VII.

But if a nominative come between the relative and the verb, the relative is governed of the following verb or some other word.

EXAMPLES.

This is the man whom I esteem, whose virtues merit distinction, and whom I am happy to oblige.

EXPLANATION.

There being the nominative I between the relative whom and the verb esteem, whom is in the objective case, governed of the transitive verb esteem. The n [...]t relative denoting possession, is put in the possessive case, whose; virtues being the nominative to merit. In the last member of the sentence, whom is governed of oblige; there being a nominative I between the relative and the verb am.

N. B. The compounds of who, follow the same rule. "Whoever I am;" "whomsoever you please to appoint."

[Page]

FALSE CONSTRUCTION.

The boys, who ¹ I admire, are those that study. The women, who ² I saw, were very handsome. The servant, who ³ you sent, is not returned. Who ⁴ should I meet the other day. Who ⁵ should I see but my old friend. The boy, whom ⁶ loves study, will be beloved by his instructor. The ladies, whom ⁷ possess modesty, are always respected.

RULE VIII.

Two nouns, signifying the same thing, must be in the same case and are said to be in apposition; as, "Paul the apostle;" "Alexander the conqueror."

But if they signify different things, and imply property, the first is put in the possessive case, by adding s separated from the word by an apostrophe.

EXAMPLES.

This is John's paper. We admire a man's courage and a lady's virtue.

EXPLANATION.

The words John's, man's, lady's, denote proper [...]y and are in the possessive case.

The same ideas may be thus expressed; "this is the paper of John. We admire the courage of a man▪ and the virtue of a lady."

REMARK 1.

In common discourse, the name of the thing possessed is generally omitted; as, St. Paul's; Mr. Addison's; that is, St. Paul's church; Mr. Addison's house.

REMARK 2.

The apostrophe ought always to be placed in the possessive case to distinguish it from the plural number. Thus, "see the lad's manners," is possessive; but, "the lads have no manners," is plural.

FALSE CONSTRUCTION.

See that boys ⁸ impudence; he disobeys his masters ⁹ [Page] orders. That girls ¹⁰ bonnet is awry. John his ¹¹ book is lost. This is George his ¹² paper. The kings ¹³ edict is published.

RULE IX.

Transitive verbs govern an objective case or word.

EXAMPLES.

1. I admire her. She saw him. The scripture directs us.

2. Religion honours its votaries. Shame follows vice.

EXPLANATION.

1. The verbs admire, saw, directs, are transitive and govern the pronouns her, him, us, in the objective case.

2. Honours and follows, being transitive verbs, are said to govern the words votaries and vice which express the objects of their influence.

REMARK 1.

Sometimes the personal pronouns and always the relatives, who, which, what, that, are placed before the verb that governs them.

Pro. and Rel. | Governed of the Verbs.
Whom | ye ignorantly | worship
him |  | declare I unto you▪
whom | do you | see?
which | will you | take?

REMARK 2.

Participles may govern the same cases as their verbs; as, "I am viewing a fine prospect;" "I have moved them." Here viewing and moved are participles, yet govern the words prospect and them.

N. B. As few or no errors are committed under this rule, it is needless to give examples of false construction.

RULE X.

The answer must be in the same case, as the question; it being always governed of the verb that [Page] asks the question, though the verb be not expressed.

EXAMPLES.

Questions. | Answers.
Who wrote this book? | George.
who is this? | he.
whom do you see? | them.
whom do you admire? | her.

EXPLANATION.

In the two first questions, who, the word that asks the question, is in the nominative; and so are the answers George and he. In the two last, whom is in the objective, and so are the answers them and her.

The propriety of this will better appear by expressing the questions and answers at large.

Questions. | Answers.
Who wrote this book? | George wrote it.
who is this? | it is he
whom do you see? | I see them.
whom do you admire? | I admire her.

RULE XI.

Prepositions govern an objective case or word.

EXAMPLES.

I write for him, Give the box to her. You will ride with them, or with us.

E [...]PLANATION.

For, to, and with, are prepositions and require the pronouns him, her, them and us to be in the objective case.

REMARK 1.

The preposition may be omitted with propriety; as, "give me the book;" that is, to me. "I will go next Monday;" that is, on next Monday.

REMARK 2.

Prepositions are improperly separated from the words which they govern; as,

Whom did you give it to?

[Page] whom did you come with?

him I will attend to.

Grammarians seem to allow of this mode of expression in conversation and familiar writings; but it is generally inelegant, and in the grave and sublime styles, is certainly inadmissible. But this is much more pardonable than another error that has crept into general use; which is to make prepositions govern a nominative case; thus,

Who did you give it to?

who do you speak to?

who is she married to?

who did you go for?

who did he come with?

These are questions in every person's mouth and yet they will be shocked to hear the preposition pronounced where it ought to stand; thus,

To who did you give it?

to who do you speak?

to who is she married?

for who did you go?

with who did he come?

Yet these last are as proper as the first, though not so familiar to the ear.

REMARK 3.

Formerly prepositions joined with adverbs, supplied the place of pronouns; thus,

Herewith | were used for | with this
wherewith | with which
thereto | to that
thereat | at that
thereby | by that
whereby | by which
whereunto | to which
whereof | of which
wherein | in which

But these are growing into disuse and will probably be soon banished from the language.

[Page]Note, Prepositions are sometimes prefixed to adverbs; as, to where, from where, over where, &c. This is only an elliptical form of expression; the word place or some word of the same import, being implied. For example; "The western limit of the United States extends along the middle of the river Missisippi, to where it intersects the thirty-first degree of north latitude;" that is, to the place where. But the phrase is by no means elegant.

Note further, that prepositions are often placed after verbs and become a part of them; being essential to the meaning. Thus, in the phrases, to fall on, to give over, to cast up (an account) the particles on, over, up, are essential to the verbs to which they are annexed, because on them depends the meaning of the phrases. This sort of verbs is purely Saxon and they seem to be growing into disuse; but they are often very significant and their place cannot always be supplied by any single word.

RULE XII.

Conjunctions connect like cases and modes.

EXAMPLES.

You and I were both present. He and she [...]it together. It was told to him and me. It is disagreeable to them and us.

EXPLANATION.

The pronoun you, being in the nominative case, I is required to be there too, because it is coupled to you by the conjunction and. The case is the same with he and she; him and me; them and us; except that the four last are in the objective case.

REMARK.

When a comparison is made between different persons or things, the word that follows than, is not governed of it, but of some verb or preposition implied; thus,

You are taller than I. | Are better understood, thus, | You are taller than I am.
he is older than she, | he is older than she is.
we are younger than they. | we are younger than they are.
you think him handsomer than me ▪ | you think him handsomer than you think me.
she sings as well as he. | she sings as well as he sings.
I write as well as you. | I write as well as you write.

The absurdity of the following expressions, which are common, is exposed by supplying the ellipsis▪

You are taller than me.

You are taller than me am.

he is older than her.

he is older than her is.

we are younger than them.

we are younger than them are.

she sings as well as him.

she sings as well as him sings.

I write as well as her.

I write as well as her writes.

you think him older than I.

you think him older than you think I.

FALSE CONSTRUCTION.

It was agreeable to him and I ¹, that we and them ² should study together. It was told to us and ye. ³ Will he go with you and I ⁴? Neither she nor him ⁵ was there. He taught both me and she ⁶. Either you or me ⁷ must go. Neither they nor us ⁸ were present. John and me ⁹ are not good scholars.

N. B. The relative who after than, is improper; it ought always to be whom, in the objective; as, "we have a General, than whom Europe cannot produce a greater character."

RULE XIII.

The infinitive mode follows a verb, a noun, or an adjective.

EXAMPLEs.

1. It follows a verb; as, let us learn to practise virtue.

2. A noun; as, you have a sine opportunity to learn.

3. An adjective; as, my friend is worthy to be trusted.

EXPLANATION.

In the first example, practise, is a verb in the infinitive mode, following the verb learn.

[Page]In the second, learn, is in the infinitive, following the noun opportunity.

In the third, be, is in the infinitive, following the adjective worthy.

REMARK 1.

The infinitive mode often has the nature of a noun and does the office of a nominative or objective word.

Of a nominative; as, | Of an objective; as,
To play is pleasant. | I love to play.
to study is useful. | I hate to quarrel.
to be virtuous is wise. | I desire to learn.

REMARK 2.

The infinitive mode is often made absolute or independent of the sentence; as, "to confess the truth I was in fault;" "but to proceed;" "to conclude," &c. This mode of expression may be resolved into the subjunctive; thus, "that I may confess the truth; that I may proceed; that I may conclude," &c.

REMARK 3.

It is a general rule in the language that to is a sign of the infinitive mode; but we have a few verbs that will admit of another verb after them in the infinitive without to, such as, bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel; as, "he has bid me do it," not bid me to do it. But the infinitive after see, hear, feel, seems to be a corruption; for to, in no instance can be used. "I saw him to go;" "I heard him to say;" "I felt my blood to chill," are all absurd. It seems therefore that we ought to use the participle in ing, "I saw him going," &c. and not a verb after see, hear and feel.

RULE XIV.

A participle, with a preposition preceding it, answers to the Latin gerund, and may govern an objective word or case.

[Page]

EXAMPLES.

By avoiding evil.

by doing good.

by seeking peace and

by pursuing it.

By shuning him.

in observing them.

for esteeming us.

by punishing them.

EXPLANATION.

The participles avoiding, doing, seeking, &c. govern the objective words evil, good, &c.

REMARK 1.

But a participle, with an article before it, generally has the nature of a noun and requires the preposition of after it.

By the avoiding of evil.

by the doing of good.

By the observing of which.

by the punishing of whom.

The following expressions seem to be not grammatical;

neither | By the avoiding which. | nor | By avoiding of which.
by the doing which. | by doing of which.
by the observing them. | by observing of them.

Either the before the participle and of after it, ought both to be used or both to be omitted.

But our best writers always have and still do use the article before the participle, without the preposition after it and in some instances it is not avoided without difficulty.

REMARK 2.

Participles often become mere adjectives, denoting a quality, and as such admit of comparison; thus,

Pos. | Com. | Super.
A learned | more learned | most learned man.
a loving | more loving | most loving father.
a feeling | more feeling | most feeling heart.

REMARK 3

A participle, with an adverb, may be placed independently of the sentence; as, "this, generally speaking, is a good rule."

Note, Instead of the participle in ed some writers, particularly the Poets, have used an adjective derived of a verb; as, devote, annihilate exhaust for devoted, annihilated, exhausted. But these are become obsolete.

[Page]

RULE XV.

A nominative case or word, joined with a participle, often stands independently of the sentence. This is called, the case absolute.

EXAMPLES.

The sun being risen, it will be warm. They all consenting ▪ the vote was passed. "Jesus conveyed himself away, a multitude being in that place."

EXPLANATION.

The words in Italics are not connected with the other part of the sentence, either by agreement or government; they are therefore in the case absolute, which, in English, is always the nominative.

FALSE CONSTRUCTION.

Him ¹ being sick, the physician was called.

Him ² being crazy, in was necessary to confine him.

Her ³ being dressed, she went to the assembly.

Them ⁴ being convened, they began business.

Us ⁵ knocking, the door was opened.

Note, This form of expression is a mere ellipsis; for the sun being risen is only a contraction of when or after the sun was risen.

RULE XVI.

An adverb must always stand near the word which it is designed to affect or modify.

1. It is placed before an adjective; as,

Adv.

Adj.

Very

wise.

extremely

cold.

rigidly

just.

2. It is usually placed after a verb; as,

Verbs.

Adv.

To write

correctly.

to sing

sweetly.

to behave

politely.

3. It is placed between an auxiliary and a verb or participle; as,

| Aux. | Adv | Verbs or Par [...].
She | was | elegantly | dressed.
she | was | greatly | admired.
I | have | often | seen.
he | has been | much | celebrated.
we | shall be | highly | pleased.
they | will | soon | observe.

REMARK 1.

We use many adverbs before a single verb; as, "I commonly eat at six o'clock;" and the adverb never is usually placed before both verbs and auxi [...]ries; as, "I never will be seen there." But [...] seems not so elegant; as, "I will never be seen there."

REMARK 2.

Two negatives destroy each other and amount to an affirmative; thus,

I do not know nothing about it. | Are the same in sense as, | I do know something about it.
I did not hear nothing. | I did hear something.
I did not hear not one word. | I did hear one word.
he may not get none. | he may get some.
you cannot see none. | you can see some.

REMARK 3.

No stands alone in an answer; as, Will you go? No. But if any other word be used, the negation is expressed by not; as, Will they go? They will not.

No is improperly used for not; as, "I will go, whether he will or no." Will go is understood in the last member of the sentence, and by supplying it, we may observe the impropriety; as, "I will go, whether he will or will no go." It ought to be [...]ot.

No is used as an adjective before nouns; as, no man, no house.

None is compounded of no one.

RULE XVII.

Conjunctions implying doubt or supposition govern the subjunctive mode.

[Page]EXAMPLES.

"Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him."

Job xiii.15.

"Whether it were I or they." &c.

1. Cor. xv.11.

"If thou be the son of God." &c.

Matth. iv.3.

"Unless he wash his flesh." &c.

Liv. xxii.6.

EXPLANATION.

The conjunctions, though, whether, if, unless, imply something doubtful or uncertain; therefore the verbs, slay, were, be, wash, are in the subjunctive mode.

REMARK 1.

But when there is no doubt or condition implied, the verb may be in the indicative mode; as, "though Arnold was an American, yet he betrayed his country." Here is no uncertainty, therefore was is in the indicative mode after the conjunction though.

REMARK 2.

The conjunction is sometimes omitted and the nominative follows the verb or auxiliary; as, "were I the person;" "had I been there;" "charm he ever so wisely*:" That is, "If I were the person;" "if I had been there;" "though he charm ever so wisely."

REMARK 3.

Some conjunctions have correspondent conjunctions, which ought to follow in the subsequent part of the sentence.

Although or though | must be followed by | yet or or.
whether | or.
either | or.
neither or nor | nor.
as | so or as.
so | as or that.

[Page]EXAMPLES.

Although our enemies were powerful, yet we defeated them.

Whether it were I, or they.

Either the one, or the other.

Neither the one, nor the other.

As with the people, so with the priest; as tall as I.

Their troops were not so brave as ours▪

Some writers have used or after neither instead of nor, and some Grammarians have asserted the propriety of it. But it must be observed that or is disjunctive and affirms something of two subjects: Nor is a copulative and denies both; as, "it is either rain or hail;" that is, it is one of them; "it is neither rain nor hail;" that is, it is neither of them. To say "it is neither rain or hail," denies the former and affirms the latter; which is an absurdity.

Notes

1.

art.

↵

2.

presumest.

↵

3.

oughtest.

↵

4.

art.

↵

5.

confesseth.

↵

6.

forsaketh.

↵

7.

turneth.

↵

8.

resteth.

↵

9.

is.

↵

10.

stand.

↵

11.

is.

↵

12.

contains.

↵

13.

speak.

↵

14.

worship.

↵

15.

was.

↵

16.

wish.

↵

17.

could.

↵

1.

are.

↵

2.

are.

↵

3.

lead.

↵

4.

are.

↵

5.

were.

↵

6.

scholars.

↵

7.

were.

↵

8.

they were scourges.

↵

9.

raise.

↵

10.

they sweeten.

↵

11.

diffuse.

↵

12.

their.

↵

13.

cast.

↵

1.

are.

↵

2.

was.

↵

3.

was.

↵

4.

contains.

↵

*

It will be well to remark that we have no adjectives in the language that are varied, except this and that All others, being the same in all genders and numbers, cannot help agreeing with their nouns; as, a good boy, or good boys, or good girls. Participles, in the nature of adjectives, fo [...]low the same rule.

↵

1.

These.

↵

2.

those.

↵

3.

these.

↵

4.

those.

↵

5.

this.

↵

6.

those.

↵

7.

that·

↵

8.

these.

↵

9.

these.

↵

*

This kind.

↵

1.

Who.

↵

2.

which.

↵

3.

who.

↵

4.

whi [...]

↵

5.

who.

↵

6.

her.

↵

7.

her.

↵

8.

she

↵

9.

her.

↵

10.

her.

↵

11.

its.

↵

12.

it.

↵

13.

who.

↵

14.

it.

↵

1.

whom.

↵

2.

whom.

↵

3.

whom.

↵

4.

whom.

↵

5.

whom.

↵

6.

who.

↵

7.

who.

↵

8.

boy's.

↵

9.

master's.

↵

10.

girl's

↵

11.

John's.

↵

12.

George's.

↵

13.

King's.

↵

1.

me.

↵

2.

they.

↵

3.

you.

↵

4.

me.

↵

5.

he.

↵

6.

her.

↵

7.

I.

↵

8.

we.

↵

9.

I.

↵

1.

He.

↵

2.

he.

↵

3.

she.

↵

4.

they.

↵

5.

we.

↵

*

"Charm he never so wisely," is an impropriety. The adverb never makes the sentence negative, contrary to the meaning of the phrase.

↵

AN EXERCISE.

The following examples will teach children to distinguish the parts of speech and enable them to understand their connection by agreement and government according to the foregoing rules*.

EXAMPLE 1.

"A woman who has merit, improved by a virtuous and refined education, retains, in her decline, an influence over the men, more flattering than even that of beauty: She is the delight of her friends, as formerly of her admirers."

"Admirable would be the effects of such refined education, contributing no less to public good than [Page] to private happiness. A man, who at present must degrade himself into a fop or a coxcomb, in order to please the women, would soon discover, that their favour is not to be gained, but by exerting every manly talent in public and private life, and the two sexes, instead of corrupting each other, would be rivals in the race of virtue. Mutual esteem would be to each a school of urbanity; and mutual desire of pleasing would give smoothness to their behaviour, delicacy to their sentiments and tenderness to their passions." Home's Hist. Man. Sketch 6.

The foregoing paragraph may be analyzed as follows:

A

Is the indefinite article.

woman

A common noun, in the singular number, and is the nominative word to the verb retains.

who

A relative pronoun, in the nominative case singular, referring to woman, its antecedent, the nominative word to the verb has, by rule 6.

has

A transitive verb, in the indicative mode, present tense indefinite, third person singular, agreeing with its nominative who, by rule 1.

merit,

A noun, in the singular number, the objective word after the transitive verb has, by rule 9.

improved

A participle, from the verb improve, having the nature of an adjective and referring to its noun merit, by rule 4.

by

A preposition.

a

The indefinite article.

virtuous

An adjective, derived from the noun virtue, referring to the noun education and expressing the nature of it, by rule 4.

[Page] and

A copulative conjunction, connecting the words virtuous and refined, by rule 12.

Note, There is an elipsis in this part of the sentence; the whole being expressed, it would stand thus, "improved by a virtuous education and improved by a refined education."

refined

A participle, in the nature of an adjective, from the verb refine, referring to education, by rule 4.

education,

A noun, in the singular number, governed of the preposition by, by rule 11.

retains,

A verb transitive, in the indicative mode, present tense indefinite, third person singular, agreeing with its nominative woman, by rule 1 [...].

in

A preposition.

her

A pronominal adjective, agreeing with its noun decline, by rule 4.

decline,

A noun, in the singular number, governed of the preposition in, by rule 11.

an

The indefinite article, standing for a, because the following word begins with a vowel.

influence

A noun, in the singular number, governed of the transitive verb retains, by rule 9.

over

A preposition.

the

The definite article.

men,

A noun, in the plural number, governe of over, by rule 11.

more

An adverb.

flattering

A participle, in the nature of an adjective, derived of the verb flatter, agreeing with the noun influence, by rule 4.

Note, Flattering with the help of the adverb more forms the comparative degree.

[Page] than

A conjunction.

even

An adverb.

that

A relative pronoun, supplying the place of influence, its antecedent, the nominative to the verb is understood.

of

A preposition.

beauty:

A noun, governed by the preposition of, by rule 11.

She

A personal pronoun, third person feminine gender, nominative to the verb is.

is

An intransitive verb, indicative mode, present tense, third person singular, agreeing with its nominative she, by rule 1.

the

The definite article.

delight

A noun, in the singular number, the nominative after is, by remark on rule 6.

of

A preposition.

her

A pronominal adjective, agreeing with friends, by rule 4.

friends,

A noun, in the plural number, governed by the preposition of, by rule 11.

as

A conjunction.

formerly

An adverb, derived of the adjective former.

of

As before.

her

As before.

admirers.

A noun, in the plural number, governed by the preposition of, by rule 11.

Admirable

An adjective, referring to effects, but placed before the verb be, by rule 4, exception 4.

would be

Would is an auxiliary, and be an intransitive verb, when united they form the present tense conditional of the potential mode, third person plural, agreeing with the nominative effects, which follows its verb by remark 1, on rule 1.

[Page] the

The indefinite article.

effects

A noun, in the plural number, nominative to the verb be, as before mentioned.

of

A preposition.

such

An adjective, referring to its noun education, by rule 4.

refined

A participle, in the nature of an adjective, agreeing with education, by rule 4.

education,

A noun, in the singular number, governed by of, by rule 11.

contributing

A participle, from the verb contribute, agreeing with education, by note on rule 4.

no

An adverb.

less

An adverb.

to

A preposition.

public

An adjective, agreeing with its noun good, by rule 4.

good

Originally an adjective, but standing for a noun, by remark 5, on rule 4, governed of the preposition to, by rule 11.

than

A conjunction.

to

As before.

private

An adjective, agreeing with its noun happiness, by rule 4.

happiness.

A noun, in the singular number, governed of the preposition to, by rule 11.

A

The indefinite article.

man,

A noun, in the singular number, the nominative word to discover.

who

A relative pronoun, nominative case to the verb degrade, by rule 6.

at present

Used adverbially; at is properly a preposition and present an adjective, and it is probable that the expression is a contraction of, at the present time; but as they are now used, at present supply the place of an adverb.

[Page] must

An auxiliary, importing necessity.

degrade

A transitive verb, which with must forms the present tense absolute of the potential mode, third person, singular number, agreeing with who, by rule 1.

himself

A reciprocal pronoun, in the objective case, governed of degrade, by rule 9.

into

A preposition.

a

As before.

fop

A noun, singular, governed of into, by rule 11,

or

A conjunction disjunctive.

a

As before.

coxcomb,

A noun, singular, connected with fop by the conjunction or; into being implied.

in

A preposition.

order

A noun, singular, governed of in, by rule 11.

to

A preposition.

please

A transitive verb, which with to preceding forms the infinitive mode, following the noun order, by rule 13, 2.

the

The indefinite article.

women,

A noun, plural, governed of please, by rule 9.

would

An auxiliary, expressing event conditionally.

soon

An adverb, between the auxiliary would and the verb discover, by rule 16, 3.

[...]iscover,

A transitive verb, with the auxiliary would forming the present tense conditional of the potential mode, third person singular, agreeing with its nominative man, by rule 1.

that

A conjunction.

their

A pronominal adjective, agreeing with favour, by rule 4.

favour

A noun, singular, nominative to is.

[Page] is

An intransitive verb, i [...] present tense, third [...] agreeing with favour, by [...]

not

An adverb.

to be

Infinitive mode of the intransit [...] be following is, by rule 13, 1.

gained,

A participle, from the verb to gain, agre [...]ing with favour, by rule 4.

but

An adverb, it is commonly a conjunction, but in this place is not used as such.

by

A preposition.

exerting

A participle, from the verb exert, retaining its government, and answering to the Latin gerund, by rule 14.

every

A distributive pronominal adjective, agreeing with talent, by rule 4.

manly

An adjective, agreeing with talent, by the same rule.

talent

A noun, singular, governed of the participle exerting, by remark 2, on rule 9.

in

A preposition.

public

An adjective, agreeing with life, by rule 4.

and

A copulative conjunction.

private

An adjective, agreeing with life, by rule 4.

life,

A noun, in the singular number, governed of in, by rule 11.

[...]nd

As before.

[...]e

The definite article.

[...]wo

An adjective, agreeing with sexes, by rule 4.

[...]exes,

A noun, plural, nominative to would be.

instead

An adverb.

of

A preposition.

corrupting

A participle, from the verb corrupt, retaining its government, by rule 14.

[...]

A distributive pronominal adjective▪ agreeing with other, by rule 4.

[Page] [...]

[...] [...]onominal adjective, standing for a [...]oun, by rema [...]k 4, on rule 4, governed of corrupting, by remark 2, on rule 9.

[...]

An auxiliary, as before.

[...]

An intransitive verb, with would, forming the present tense conditional of the potential mode, third person plural, agreeing with sexes, by rule 1.

rivals

A noun, in the nominative, plural, following be, by remark on rule 6.

in

A preposition.

the

As before.

race

A noun, singular, governed of in, by rule 11.

of

As before.

virtue.

A noun singular, governed by of, by rule 11.

Mutual

An adjective, agreeing with esteem, by rule 4.

esteem

A noun, singular, nominative to be.

would

An auxiliary, as before.

be

An intransitive verb, in the same mode and tense, as before, agreeing with its nominative esteem, by rule 1.

to

As before.

each

A distributive, as before, governed of to or rather agreeing with sex understood, by rule 4.

a

As before.

school

A noun, the nominative after be, by remark on rule 6.

of

As before.

urbanity;

A noun, singular, governed by the preposition of, by rule 11.

and

As before.

mutual

An adjective, agreeing with desire, by rule 4.

desire

A noun, singular, nominative to give.

of

As before.

[Page] pleasing

A participle▪ from the verb please, governed by of, by rule 14.

would

As before.

give

A transitive verb, joined with would, forming the present conditional tense of the potential mode, third person singular, agreeing with its nominative desire, by rule 1.

smoothness

A noun, from the adjective smooth, governed of the verb give, by rule 9.

to

As before.

their

A pronominal adjective, agreeing with its noun behaviour, by rule 4.

behaviour,

A noun, singular, governed of to by rule 11.

delicacy

A noun, singular, governed of give implied, by rule 9.

to

As before.

their

As before, agreeing with sentiments, by rule 4.

sentiments

A noun, plural, governed of to, by rule 11.

and

As before.

tenderness

A noun, singular, governed of give implied, by rule 9.

to

As before.

their

As before, agreeing with passions, by rule 4.

passions.

A noun, plural, governed of to, by rule 11.

Note, The last part of this sentence, is very elliptical, and will be better understood by being expressed at large; thus, "Mutual desire of pleasing would give smoothness to their behaviour and mutual desire of pleasing would give delicacy to their sentiments and mutual desire of pleasing would give tenderness to their passions."

[Page]

EXAMPLE 2.

"The argument indeed would be conclusive, were ten females born for one male."

Home's Hist. Man, Sketch 6.

PARSED.

The

The definite article.

argument

A noun, singular, nominative to be.

indeed

An adverb.

would

An auxiliary.

be

A verb intransitive, in the same mode and tense as in the last example, agreeing with its nominative word argument, by rule 1.

conclusive,

An adjective, agreeing with argument, by rule 4.

were

A verb intransitive, in the subjunctive mode, present tense hypothetical, third person plural, agreeing with females, by rule 1.

ten

An adjective, agreeing with females, by rule 4.

females

A noun, plural, nominative to were and placed after the verb, because the conjunction if is omitted, according to note on the subjunctive mode, page 46, and remark 2, on rule 17.

born

A participle from the verb bear, agreeing with females, by rule 4.

for

A preposition.

one

An adjective, agreeing with male, by rule 4.

male

A noun, singular, governed of for, by rule 11.

Notes

*

This is called parsing. In this children may be much assisted by Entick's or Perry's pocket Dictionary, which distinguish the parts of speech. This method of parsing the English language, which has been hitherto very little practised, is the only way to obtain a thorough knowledge of it; and without an acquaintance with the parts of speech, their variations and connection, according to the principles of the language and the construction of sentences, no person can have the le [...]t claim to the [...]le of Grammarian.

↵

§

§

The importance of studying our language grammatically, illustrated by the obvious errors which are found in the sacred writings and in the works of our best authors.

[Page]

EXAMPLES.

The number of the names together were about an hundred and twenty. Acts i.15.

The number of the months are with thee. Job xiv.5.

And Rebekah took goodly raiment of her eldest son Esau, which were with her in the house and put them upon Jacob her youngest son. Gen. xxvii.15.

In one hour so great riches is come to nought. Rev. xviii.17.

Great pains has been taken. Pope.

There is two or three of us. Shakespear.

Nor thou that flings me. Pa [...]nel.

I have considered what have been said. Tillotson.

Whoever the king favours. Shakespear.

Those who he thought true to his party. Clarendon.

Who should I meet the other night. Spectator No. 32.

Laying the suspicion upon somebody, I know not who. Swift.

[Page] Whom do men say that I am?

But whom say ye that I am? Matth. xvi 13 15.

So also Mark viii.27 29. Luke ix.18 20. Acts xiii.25.

And so was also James and John the sons of Zebedee which were partners with Simon. Luke v.10.

What reason have the church of Rome to talk of modesty in this case? Tillotson.

There is no constitution so tame and careless of their defence. Addison.

All the virtues of mankind are to be counted upon a few fingers; but his follies and vices are innumerable. Swift.

And, him destroyed. Milton.

Him only excepted. Tillotson.

To see so many to make so little conscience of so great a sin. Tillotson.

To see a young person to acquit himself gloriously. Ibid.

[Page]I hope, my Lord, I not offend.

She not denies it.

Which they themselves not feel. Dryden.

I have not wept this forty years. Dryden.

I fancy they are these kind. Addison.

I am not recommending these kind of sufferings. Sherlock.

Let each esteem other better than themselves. Phill. ii.3.

[Page]

CORRECTED.

The number of the names together was about an hundred and twenty. By rule 1.

The number of the months is with thee. By ibid.

And Rebekah took goodly raiment of her eldest son which was with her in the house, and put it upon Jacob her youngest son. By ibid and 5.

In one hour, so great riches are come to nought. By rule 1.

Great pains have been taken. By ibid.

There are two or three of us. By ibid.

Nor thou that flingest me. By ibid.

I have considered what has been said. By ibid.

Whomever the king favours. By rule 9.

Those whom he thought true to his party. By ibid.

Whom should I meet the other night. By ibid.

Laying the suspicion upon [...]mebody I know not whom. By ibid.

[Page] Who do men say that I am?

But who say ye that I am?

By remark on rule 6.

And so were also James and John the sons of Zebedee who were partners with Simon. By rule 2 and 5.

What reason has the church, &c. By rule 1.

For church is not a noun of multitude.

There is no constitution so tame and careless of its defence. By rule 5.

All the virtues of mankind are to be counted upon a few fingers; but their follies and vices are innumerable. By rule 5.

And, he destroyed. By rule 15.

He only excepted. By ibid.

That is, he being destroyed, he being excepted, in the case absolute.

To see so many make or making so little conscience of so great a sin.

To see a young person acquit, &c.

See remark 3, on rule 13.

[Page]I hope, my Lord, I not offend.

She denies it not.

Which they themselves feel not. All by rule 16.

I have not wept these forty years. By rule 4.

I fancy they are this kind. By rule 4.

I am not recommending this kind of sufferings. By ibid.

Let each esteem other better than himself. See remark on rule 4.

Either is improperly used for each in the following expressions.

The king of Israel and Jehosaphat sat either of them on his throne. 2. Chron. xviii.9.

Nadab and Abihu took either of them his censer. Lev. x.1.

And a line of twelve cubits did compass either of them about. 1. Kings vii.15.

They crucified two other with him, on either side one and Jesus in the midst. John xix.18.

And there were stays on either side. 1. Kings x.19.

Of either side of the river was there the tree of life. Rev. xxii·2.

In all these instances, each should be used in the place of either.

In the following expressions, adverbs are improperly used as adjectives.

§

We may cast in such seeds and principles as we judge most likely to take soonest and deepest root. Tillots;on.

Thine often infirmities. 1. Tim. v.23.

§

Soonest and often are adverbs and ought not to be placed before nouns like adjectives.

Quickest and frequent would be employed with more propriety.

[Page]

Other Improprieties.

I had rather.

He is a great ways off, or good ways off.

I had as goods go.

As it were.

I am done.

What is wanting?

Must needs*.

I have got to go.

Corrected.

I would rather.

He is at a great distance.

I may as well go.

I have done.

What is wanted?

Must necessarily or of necessity.

I must go.

*

"He added, that he promised himself that the Roman people must needs allow, that they had never received so many benefits before from one single citizen."

Vertot's Revolutions, Vol. 1, Page 148. Lond. Ed. 1770.

The expression is totally improper in any case and certainly too vulgar to find a place in a celebrated Roman history.

↵

ELLIPSIS.

Ellipsis is the elegant omission of a word or words in a sentence.

This figure, judiciously managed, renders language concise, without obscuring the sense.

EXAMPLES.

True Construction.

1. God will reward the righteous and God will punish the wicked.

2. Give your heart to your maker—give honour to your parents—and give your bosom to your friend.

3. Here is the virtue which I admire and which I will endeavour to imitate.

[Page] 4. Avoid company which company has a tendency to corrupt your manners.

5. This horse is the General's horse.

6. This horse is the General's horse.

7. Turn to the right hand.

8. He sailed in the ship Confederacy.

The answers to questions are very elliptical.

9. Q. Who went with you to Philadelphia?

A. John went with me to Philadelphia.

10. Q. Where were you educated.

A. I was educated at Boston.

The member of a sentence following than, as, or do, is usually suppressed.

11. You are younger than I am.

12. He sings and dances as well as you sing and dance.

13. You write better than I write.

[Page]An ellipsis in the beginning of a sentence is often admissible

True Construction. 14. I always have been faithful to my country and always will be faithful to my country.

In an enumeration of particulars, the conjunction and is elegantly suppressed, except before the last particular.

15. Love and joy and peace and endless felicity will be the portion of the righteous.

In enumerating qualities that belong to the same thing, the noun is joined to the last only.

16. She is a sober woman, a modest woman, a delicate woman and an agreeable woman.

Elliptical.

Nominative omitted.

God will reward the righteous and punish the wicked.

Verb omitted.

Give your heart to your maker—honour to your parents —and your bosom to your friend.

Relative omitted.

Here is the virtue I admire and will endeavour to imitate†.

[Page]

Antecedent omitted.

Avoid company which has a tendency to corrupt your manners▪

Noun omitted.

This horse is the General's.

This is the General's horse.

Turn to the right.

He sailed in the Confederacy.

John.

At Boston.

You are younger than I.

He sings and dances as well as you.

You write better than I do.

[Page]

Elliptical.

I always have and always will be faithful to my country.

Love, joy, peace and endless felicity will be the portion of the righteous.

She is a sober, modest, delicate and agreeable woman.

†

Authors are too apt to omit the relative; and in this example it would be better to omit the last only. The perspicuity of a sentence depends much on the proper use of relatives and pronouns.

↵

Many other instances of the ellipsis might be mentioned; but these are sufficient to give the learner some idea of this figure, the proper use of which assists us to express our sentiments with clearness without multiplying repetitions.

TRANSPOSITION.

Transposition or inversion, is the placing of words out of tneir natural order.

The order of words is either natural or artificial.

The natural order of words in a sentence is when they follow each other in the same manner as the conceptions of the mind.

Artificial order is when words are so arranged as to render the sentence harmonious and agreeable to the ear, without obscuring the sense▪

[Page]EXAMPLES in PROSE.

Natural Order.

"We hear daily complaints of depopulation, in every great State where the people are sunk into voluptuousness, by prosperity and opulence." Home's Sketches.

"The people are knowing and conversable in a country where several occupations must be carried on by the same person from want of hands: People are ignorant and unsociable in a populous country where manufactures flourish." Ibid.

Artificial Order.

In every great State, where the people, by prosperity and opulence, are sunk into voluptuousness, we hear daily complaints of depopulation.

"In a country where, from want of hands, several occupations must be carried on by the same person, the people are knowing and conversable: In a populous country where manufactures flourish, they are ignorant and unsociable."

In the foregoing examples, the artificial order of the words, is as perspicuous as the natural, and more elegant and harmonious. But when an inversion serves to embarrass a period, it ought to be avoided; for perspicuity ought not to be sacrificed to any other ornament.

The following example appears to me faulty in this respect.

§

"Now from these evils, the love of letters, with that liberal cast of thought which they are naturally calculated to give, would, I am persuaded, be one powerful preservative." Fordyce's Ser. 8.

Corrected.

"I am persuaded that the love of letters, with that liberal cast of thought which they are naturally calculated to give, would be one powerful preservative against these evils.

POETRY.

[Page]

Inverted Order.

"Or southward far extend thy wondering eyes,

Where fertile streams the garden'd vales divide;

And mid the peopled fields distinguished rise▪

Virginian towe [...]s and Charlestown's spiry pride."

Elegy on the times.

Natural Order.

Or extend thy wondering eyes far southward, where fertile streams divide the gardened vales; and Virginian towers and Charlestown's spiry pride rise distinguished amidst the peopled fields.

2

Here the pure church, descending from her God,

Shall fix on earth her long and last abode;

Zion arise, in radiant splendors dress'd

By Saints admired, by Infidels confess'd

Her opening courts, in dazzling glory blaze;

Her wa [...]ls salvation and her portals praise."

Prospect of peace.

The natural Order, supplying the Ellipsis.

"Here the pure church, descending from her God, shall fix her long and last abode on earth; Zion shall arise, dressed in radiant splendors, being admired by Saints and confessed by Infidels; her opening courts shall blaze in dazzling glory; her walls shall be salvation and her portals shall be praise."

Transposition is more necessary in poetry than in prose; but in either it ought not to be indulged, unless to acquire some ornament which cannot be compassed in a natural order.

ARRANGEMENT.

As the principal object to be considered in any composition whether prose or verse, is perspicuity, and as this depends much on a proper arrangement of the members of a period; it is necessary to lay down some general rules with respect to this point and illustrate their propriety by examples of wrong arrangement.

[Page]

1

Words, expressing ideas that are connected in the mind, ought to be placed as near together as possible.

The want of such connection is obvious in the following examples.

§

"For the English are naturally fanciful, and very often disposed, by that gloominess of temper which is so frequent in our nation, to many wild notions and visions, to which others are not so liable. Spect. No. 419.

For as no mortal author, in the ordinary fate and vicissitude of things, knows to what use his works may some time or other be applied, &c. Spect. No. 85.

"The same Lucumo, having afterwards attained the crown, with the name of Tarquin the ancient, by the favour of the people, did, that he might preserve their affection, choose out of their order a hundred Senators, &c."

Corrected.

For the English are naturally fanciful and by that gloominess of temper which is so frequent in our nation, are very often disposed to many wild notions and visions to which others are not so liable.

For as in the ordinary fate and vicissitude of things, no mortal author knows to what use his works may, sometime or other be applied, &c.

"The same Lucumo having afterwards, by the favour of the people, attained the crown, with the name of Tarquin the ancient, did, &c.

Answer to Earl Stanhope's memorial prefixed to Vertot's revolutions, page 19th, London 1770.

2

A circumstance ought not to be placed between two capital members of a period; for this renders it doubtful, to which of the two members, the circumstance belongs. Witness the following example.

[Page]

§

Since this is too much to ask of freemen, nay of slaves, if his expectation be not answered, shall he form a lasting division upon such transient motives? Bolingbroke.

[Page]

Corrected.

Since this is too much to ask of freemen, nay of slaves, shall he, if his expectations be not answered, [...] form a lasting division upon such transient motives?

In this example it is doubtful, whether the circumstance in Italics, belong to the first or last member of the period; in the correction the ambiguity is removed.

3

A circumstance should be placed near the beginning of a period, rather than at or near the conclusion. The mind passes with pleasure from small to great objects; but the transition from great to small is disagreeable. For this reason, the closing member of a period ought to be the most important.

In this respect the following examples are exceptionable.

§

"And although they may be and too often are drawn, by the temptations of youth and the opportunities of a large fortune, into some irregularities, when they come forward into the world; it is ever with reluctance, and compunction of mind, because their bias to virtue continues." Intelligencer No. 9.

§

"And although, when they come forward into the world, they may be and too often are drawn, by the temptations of youth, and the opportunities of a large fortune, into some irregularities; it is ever with reluctance and compunction of mind, because their bias to virtue continues."

In this example, the circumstance in Italics, is placed too late in the period, and renders the first [Page] division of it, flat and unimportant; in the correction, the circumstance is placed in the beginning of the period, and its harmony and dignity are not afterwards interrupted.

§

"Let us endeavour to establish to ourselves an interest in him who holds the reins of the whole creation in his hand." Spect. No. 12.

"For the armies of Alexander contained but thirty thousand men and he overcame in one battle Darius, who had ten hundred thousand, when he was so heavy with sleep that his eyes were scarce open, as the stories report." Notes on Daniel, 7.6.

§

Let us endeavour to establish to ourselves an interest in him, who holds, in his hand, the reins of the whole creation."

"For the armies of Alexander contained but thirty thousand men, and in one battle, he overcame Darius, who had ten hundred thousand, when, as the stories report, he was so heavy with sleep, that his eyes were scarce open."

In both these examples, the circumstances that close the periods, are the lest important, and render the conclusion flat and languid. In the first example corrected, the closing word creation being the most important, gives the whole period an air of dignity and leaves a deep impression upon the mind. In the other example, the period is mended, but the meaning is still left obscure; for we are at a loss to know whether Darius or Alexander is said be nearly asleep. The ambiguity is removed by the following arrangement. "For the armies of Alexander contained but thirty thousand men and in one battle, as the stories report, when he was so heavy with sleep that his eyes were scarce open, he overcame Darius, who had ten hundred thousand." Though [Page] it must be confessed that the words are hardly capable of an elegant or perspicuous arrangement.

§

"The Emperor was so intent on the establishment of his absolute power in Hungary, that he exposed the Empire doubly to desol [...]tion and ruin, for the sake of it." Bolingbroke.

§

"The Emperor was so intent on the establishment of his absolute power in Hungary, that, for the sake of it, he exposed the Empire doubly to desolation and ruin."

In this example, the closing circumstance, which abounds with particles, is so feeble and unimportant as to disgust every reader of the lest taste.

4

A number of circumstances ought not to be crowded together, but interspersed among the capital members of a period.

Example.

"It is likewise urged that there are, by computation, in this kingdom, above 10,000 parsons, whose revenues &c." Swift

Corrected.

"It is likewise urged, that, in this kingdom, there are, by computation, above 10,000 parsons, whose revenues &c."

The two circumstances, by computation and, in this kingdom, placed together, destroy the clearness and beauty of the period

§

"They beheld, with wonder, at court, a young lady so intelligent, and who spoke the ancient languages with no less purity than grace." Essay on char. of women.

§

"They beheld, with wonder, a young lady at court, who was so intelligent and spoke the ancient languages with no less purity than grace."

Perhaps the best arrangement would be, "With wonder they beheld &c." "In England we meet with the three Seymours, sisters, nieces to a king and daughters to a protector, all celebrated for their [Page] learning, and for their elegant Latin verses, which were translated and repeated all over Europe;—Jane Gray, whose elevation to the throne was only a step to the scaffold, and who read before her death, in Greek, Plato's Dialogue on the immortality of the soul." Ibid.

One would imagine by the situation of the two circumstances, before her death and in Greek, that her death was in Greek: It ought to be, who, before her death, read in Greek, &c. The ellipsis also in the beginning of the period, rather serves to obscure the sense. "The three Seymours who were sisters, &c." would be more perspicuous. Perhaps the greatest fault in Mr. Russel's style, is, a too frequent use of the ellipsis.

5

A pronoun ought to stand as near to its antecedent as possible. A wide separation of words so intimately connected, often renders the sense ambiguous.

§

"It is the custom of the Mahometans, if they see any printed or written paper upon the ground, to take it up and lay it aside carefully as not knowing but it may contain some piece of their alcoran." Spect. No 85.

§

"It is the custom of the Mahometans, if they see, upon the ground, any printed or written paper, to take it up and lay it aside carefully &c."

In this example, the construction of the sentence, leads us to imagine that the pronoun i [...] refers to ground; whereas its antecedent is paper: And the nearer these stand to each other, the more easily does the mind comprehend the meaning of the author.

[Page]

§

"Tom is a lively impudent clown, and has wit enough to have made him a pleasant companion, had it been polished and rectified by good manners." Guardian, No. 160.

§

[Page]

"Tom is a lively impudent clown and has wit enough, had it been polished and rectified by good manners, to have made him a pleasant companion."

6

The members of a period ought if possible to be so arranged, that the mind will easily comprehend the meaning and the connection as fast as the eye surveys the word. A suspension of thought till the close of a period is painful and embarrassing to the understanding. Witness the following,

Example.

"She again, who should not perceive herself prompted to a prudent and amiable demeanour, or guarded against the contrary, by those pictures of discretion and excellence on one hand, and of levity and worthlessness on the other, with which sentimenta [...] and moral writers abound, must be absolutely void of decency and reflection." Fordyce, Sermon. 3d.

Corrected.

"She again must be absolutely void of decency and reflection, who should not perceive herself prompted to a prudent and amiable demeanour, or guarded against the contrary, by those pictures of discretion and excellence on one hand, and of levity and worthlessness on the other, with which sentimental and moral writers abound."

In this example, the first word she is intimately connected with the last member of the period, must be &c. and it is a task too painful for the mind to retain the first word till it arrives to the close, and at the same time comprehend the meaning of the intervening circumstances.

[Page]The arrangement in the correction renders the period smooth and perspicuous.

An elegant writer of the present day is guilty of the same fault, in the following example.

"The burning ardours and the tormenting jealousies of the Seraglio and the Haram, which have reigned so long in Asia and Africa, and which in the southern parts of Europe have scarcely given way to the differences of religion and civil establishments, are found, however, with an abatement of heat in the climate, to be more easily changed, in one latitude, into a temporary passion which engrosses the mind, without enfeebling it and which excites to romantic atchievements, &c."

Forguson's essay on the history of civil society, part 3, sect. 1. Here the capital members of the period, viz. the burning ardours and the tormenting jealousies of the Seraglio and Haram are found to be more easily changed into a temporary passion &c. are separated at such a great distance and disjoined by such a number of intervening circumstances, as to perplex the reade and fatigue his mind by closely attending to the connection of ideas.

It may also be remarked in general, that sentences ought not to close with adverbs, relatives, or particles. Little unimportant words; as, to, for, with, it, &c. close a period without force and leave a feeble impression upon the mind. Important words, such as nouns, verbs, participles and adjectives, make the best figure in the conclusion of periods—they add dignity to style and energy to sentiment.

REDUNDANCY of WORDS.

It has been remarked, in the first part of this Institute, that the present English language is derived principally from two sources, the Saxon and the Roman; the Saxon words forming the language of the common people; and the Roman, the learned and sublime style. For this reason, we may ob [...]erve [Page] that, to express the same idea, we have at lest two words, the one of Saxon, and the other of Roman original. That this is the case with respect to the common ideas of mankind, will appear from the following comparison.

Saxon.

Roman.

truth

veracity

talk

conversation

house

dome or palace

greatness

magnitude

raise

elevate

tool

instrument

praise

commendation

want

poverty

keep

preserve

laugh at

deride

show

exhibit

gift

gratuity

bloody

sanguinary

thankfulness

gratitude

end

termination

life

animation

enough

sufficient

asleep

dormant

bargain

contract

trust

confidence

friendship

amity

being

existence

inward

internal

freedom

exemption

rest

tranquillity

harmless

innocent

light

luminous

worship

adoration

The words, veracitas, conversatio &c. in the Latin language, conveyed the same ideas as truth, talk &c. in the Saxon and in the modern English. Where the Latin has not furnished us with a convenient word, we have borrowed from the Greek and French, and sometimes from the modern German. This in one respect is a real advantage to the language; as it affords a variety of words to express our ideas, and prevents the necessity of repeating the same words, as was the case with some of the ancient oriental languages. At the same time, it leads ignorant and half-learned people into the frequent and disagreeable use of synonymous terms. Thus we often hear it said that "he is a man of truth and veracity," which is saying no more than that he is a man of truth and truth. In the solemn act of prayer, we often hear the Deity intreated to keep and preserve us; which, by any explication, will amount to no more than an intercession to keep and keep us.

The Hebrew language, at the time the scripures [Page] were written, consisted of few words*, and in order to express ideas with uncommon energy, the writers were obliged to use repetitions. But the, copiousness of our language supersedes the necessity and consequently the propriety of using two or three synonymous terms to express any idea, however forcible: And in expressing the common unimportant ideas of mankind, every word that does not add somethig to the meaning of a phrase, must be considered as superfluous and detracting from the beauty of style. To set this impropriety in a striking point of light, I will insert a passage from the Spectator, No. 302, and add a great number of synonymous terms to the original.

"Who ever beheld and saw the charming Emilia without feeling in his breast at once the glow and ardour of love, and the tenderness of virtuous friendship. The unstudied and natural graces of her behaviour and the pleasing and agreeable accents of her tongue, insensibly and imperceptibly draw you on to wish for a nearer enjoyment of them; but even her smiles carry in them a silent reproof to the impulses of licentious and lawless love. Thus, though the attractives of her beauty play almost irresistibly upon you and create and give birth to desire, you immediately stand corrected, not by the severity and rigour, but by the decency of her virtue. That sweetness and good humour, which is so visible and apparent in her face and countenance, naturally diffuses and spreads itself into every word and action. A man must be a savage who, at the sight and view of Emilia, is not more inclined and disposed to do her good than to gratify himself. Her person, as it is [Page] thus studiously embellished and ornamented by nature, thus adorned with unpremeditated and unstudied graces, is a fit and proper lodging and habitation for a mind so fair and lovely, handsome and amiable; there dwell and reside rational piety, modest hope, and cheerful resignation. Were I to relate that part of Emilia's life which has given and granted her an opportunity and occasion of exerting the heroism and fortitude of christianity, it would make and form too sad and sorrowful, too tender and affecting a story: But when I consider her done in the midst of her distresses and sufferings, looking beyond this gloomy and dark vale of affliction and sorrow into the joys of Heaven and immortality, and when I see and view her in conversation and discourse thoughtless and easy, as if she were the most happy creature in the world, I am transported and carried away with admiration and wonder,"

In this beautiful description of female excellence, the words in Italics are superfluous: Let them be omitted and we have the passage in the original style, which is pure and elegant.

But it must be remarked that custom has affixed very different meanings to the same words and very often different from the original sense. Thus freedom is much more general in its signification, than exemption. To say a man is free from trouble and exempt from trouble, is saying the same thing: But the phrase political exemption is not admissible; though political freedom is as common and proper as any phrase in the language. When therefore I say that two words of the same import ought not to be used at the same time, I would be understood to mean, that they ought not to be used to convey exactly the same idea.

For examples of the needless use of synonymous terms, see Spectator No. 352.

In discourse and familiar writings, I would generally [Page] prefer the Saxon to the Roman words. Many of the Saxon words and phrases have a particular force or beauty that is lost in Roman words of correspondent import. But many Saxon words which were used in the time of Spencer and Chaucer are now become obsolete; others are grown vulgar; and the prevailing taste of the English seems to be, to neglect their native tongue in complaisance [...]o the ancient Roman and modern French and Italian.

Notes

*

It is said to consist of about two thousand words. The English contains twenty thousand; besides the singular advantage of composition, which by prefixing to words certain particles and annexing terminations of determinate and known significations, renders the language capable of an endless variety.

↵

DERIVATION and COMPOSITION of WORDS.

This is what Dr. Ash calls the grand laboratory of the English language; for by the help of certain prefixes and terminations, we form new words to express any idea we please. The modes of derivation and composition of most general use are the following.

Saxon Modes.

From a substantive or noun we form an adjective by the terminations,

|  |  | Noun. | Adj.
ful | which signifies abundance | as, | joy, | joyful.
some | the same | as, | game, | gamesome.
less | which denotes a want | as, | hope, | hopeless.
| of the quality
ly | which denotes likeness to, | as, | man, | manly.
y | which denotes fulness &c. | as, | dirt, | dirty.
ish | denoting likeness to | as, | child, | childish.
like | the same | as, | lion, | lionlike.
wise | denoting skill | as, | weather, | weatherwise.

From one noun we form another by the termination,

|  |  | Noun. | Noun.
head | denoting state or condition | as, | God, | Godhead.
h [...]d | the same | as, | man, | manhood.
ship | denoting office or jurisdiction | as, | clerk, | clerkship,
rick | the same | as, | bishop, | bishoprick,
wick | the same | as, | bailiff, | bailiwick.
dom | jurisdiction | as, | king, | kingdom.

[Page]From an adjective we form a noun by the termination,

|  |  | Adj. | Noun
ness | denoting state or condition | as, | good, | goodness.

Another adjective, by the terminations,

|  |  | Adj. | Adj.
some | denoting the quality in great degree | as, | glad, | gladsome.
ish | denoting a diminution of the quality | as, | white, | whitish.

From adjectives we form adverbs in ly, w [...]h signify the manner of a quality or action▪ as prudent, prudently; that is, in a prudent manner.

From a verb we form a noun by the termination er, as help, helper.

The particle un, is prefixed to verbs, adjectives, and participles, and implies negation; as, dress, undress, holy, unholy.

Re, signifies repetition, and is prefixed to, nouns, verbs and participles; as, union re-union, animate, re-animate, elect re-elect.

The words well, ill, half, are prefixed to participles; as, accepted, well-accepted, advised, ill-advised, eaten, half-eaten.

All, is prefixed to adjectives and participles; as, wise, all-wise, seeing, all-seeing.

Happify, is a compound of British and Latin originals.

Latin Modes.

From nouns we form adjectives by the terminations,

|  |  | Nouns. | Adj.
ous | which denotes the quality of the noun | as, | joy, | joyous
al | the same | as, | scripture, | scriptural.
ive | the same | as, | sport, | sportive.
able | denoting power or capacity | as, | sale, | saleable.

[Page]From nouns we form other nouns by the termination,

|  | Noun. | Noun.
ist | as, | art, | artist.
ian | as, | logic, | logician.

From an adjective we form another adjective by the termination al, as, heroic, heroical; but these signify the same thing; and the termination is commonly omitted.

From an adjective we form a noun, in ity, as, pliable, p [...]ility.

From the verb we form adjectives by the termination,

|  |  | Verb. | Adj.
able | which denotes power or capacity | as, | attain, | attainable.
ive |  | as, | effect, | effective.
ant |  | as, | comply, | compliant
ent |  | as, | differ, | different.

From the verb we form nouns in,

|  | Verb. | Nouns.
ation | as, | frustrate, | frustration.
etion | as, | complete, | completion
ition | as, | add, | addition.
ance | as, | attend, | attendance
ence | as, | exist, | existence.

Prefixes.

Ante, prefixed to verbs, participles and nouns, signifies before, as dated, ante-dated, chamber, ante-chamber.

Co, signifies with, as exist, co-exist, partner, co-partner.

Non, signifiing not, is prefixed to nouns, as conformist, non-conformist.

In, im, ir, implying negation, are prefixed to nouns, adjectives and adverbs, as congruity, incongruity, possible, impossible, regular, irregular.

Pre signifying priority or eminence, i [...] [Page] prefixed to verbs, nouns and adjectives, as suppose, pre-suppose, existence, pre-existence, eminent, pre-eminent.

Counter, signifying opposition, is prefixed to nouns, verbs and participles, as project, counter-project, act, counter-act, poised, counter-poised.

Super, signifying above, is prefixed to adjectives and verbs, as abundant, super-abundant, abound, super-abound.

Inter, signifying between, is prefixed to verb [...], nouns and participles, as mix, intermix, [...], intermission, woven, interwoven.

Greek Modes.

From the noun we form a verb in ize, as author, authorize, and another noun is ism, as Calvin, Calvinism.

From the verb, is formed a noun in sm, as baptise, baptism.

Anti, signifying opposition, is prefixed to nouns and adjectives, as ministerial, anti-ministerial.

French Modes.

From a noun is formed another noun, in age, as pound, poundage, person, personage.

From a verb is formed a noun, in ment, as resent, resentment.

Mis, emplying error, is prefixed to nouns, verbs and participles, as demeanor, misdemeanor, apply, misapply, informed, misinformed.

Dis, implying contrariety, is prefixed to nouns, verbs and participles, as repute, disrepute, claim disclaim, possessed, dispossessed.

We have one species of composition, which is very common, especially among poets, which must not be omitted: This is when two whole words are united to express some complex idea with conciseness and energy. Of this kind are the following: "Cloud-compelling Jove," "cloud-topt hill," Pope. "Root-obstructed channel," Hervey. "Heart-felt [Page] pangs," "Sun-descended race." These are adjectives in sense, but formed of a noun and a participle and convey the whole meaning of a phrase in a single word.

Many of these compound adjectives, in the sublime style, acquire a beauty and force that would be entirely lost in a circumlocution. But care should be taken not to indulge this licence of composition to such a degree, as to unite words that appear harsh and unnatural. Such are the "devotion-confounding pests" [...]heridan, and the "sin and sorrow-sunk" of Dodd.

PROSODY or An attempt to investigate the rules of English Verse; with some preliminary observations on Accent and Emphasis.

The precise definition of the terms accent and emphasis, in our language, seems never to have been settled. This has given rise to various disputes among Grammarians.

Accent has been generally used to signify the peculiar stress of the voice on a particular syllable, in words of more syllables than one: Emphasis, to denote the peculiar stress of the voice, on a particular word in a sentence. According to these definitions, no monosyllable can have any accent; and emphasis is limited to one kind.

Mr. Sheridan, who has taken more pains to regulate the pronunciation of the English language, than any other writer, defines accent to be the stress of voice on a particular letter of a syllable, which distinguishes it from the rest; and confines emphasis to those particular words in a sentence, which demand, not only a greater stress, but a change of tone in the voice.

This definition of accent appears to be more accurate and useful, than the former, especially as it enables us to make, in all words, the necessary distinction [Page] between accented vowels and accented consonants.

But this is not perfectly accurate; for by this rule, no word consisting of more letters than one, can be unaccented; and he calls the particles of, at, in, to, &c. unaccented by mistake; while the pronoun I, which often requires great stress of voice, without change of note, can have no accent, because it has but one letter.

Perhaps the following definitions may [...]rly explain the distinctions.

In every word in the English language, there is some particular letter on which the stress of the voice falls in pronouncing it. This stress of the voice, regulated merely by the rule of pronunciation, I would call accent. Emphasis is a stress of voice, regulated only by the sense and importance of the word; but it always falls on the accented letter.

Emphasis is of two kinds; the first I call the natural emphasis, as it is constant and invariable, and depends on the importance of the word with respect to the idea it conveys, without regarding its relation to other words in the sentence.

Thus the words man, house, strength, are in their nature important and consequently emphatical in any sentence where they can be placed. They will naturally be pronounced with more force than the particles, at, of, in, &c. which instead of being unaccented, as Mr. Sheridan calls them, are more properly unemphatical. All nouns and principal verbs have this emphasis in the highest degree—all adjective [...] participles and adverbs, in a less degree—pronouns though they supply the place of nouns, are generally deprived of emphasis in pronunciation. Conjunctions, interjections, prepositions, auxiliaries and articles, are in their nature unemphatical. This kind of emphasis requires no change of tone, but only that natural force of voice with which we pronounce important words.

[Page]The other kind of emphasis, which is the most forcible, depends merely on the importance of the word on which it falls, in the particular sentence where it is used. It often determines the sense of the phrase, and usually requires a change of tone as well as stress of voice on the accented letter. This emphasis, which may be called accidental, being regulated entirely by the sense, may fall on any word in the language and cause particles to be pronounced with the highest stress of voice.

Scarcely any subject has been less attended to than English Prosody. Grammarians have gone no farther than to divide the kinds of verse into the iambic, [...] and anapaestic, and to distinguish them [...] number of syllables in each line. The rule laid down generally for the heroic measure, is, that it consists of five feet and that to make a perfectly regular verse, these ought to be all iambic, with this exception only that the first foot may sometimes be a trochee. All variations from the iambic in the subsequent feet, are considered as defects in the structure of the verse.

These rules have taught all common readers of poetry to affect the placing of the accent or emphasis on every second syllable, which makes our versification thus pronounced, the most monotonous and ridiculous of all poetry in the world. But the truth is, our heroic iambic verse admits of a greater variety of feet, than the heroic measure of any language with which I am acquainted. The Latin and Greek, as it is well known, admit but two, the dactyl and spondee, except only that the last foot may be a trochee; which however in that place can hardly be perceived by the ear.

In order to explain the nature of English verse, it is necessary to give some rules concerning long and short syllables in our language, which has not yet been attempted on its true principles—the Latin [Page] prosody having nothing to do with the English language.

1st. Every accented syllable is long. This has never been doubted, where the accent falls on a vowel; as, glo-ry, ho-ly. Where the accent falls on a consonant, as in hab-it, bat-tle, the preceding vowel is undoubtedly short; but the syllable is nevertheless long. Thus in the syllable prac, the vowel is as short as possible, the syllable being closed by a pure mute consonant; but when we join to it another syllable, if it begin with a consonant; as, prac-tice, the time required to place the organs of speech in a position to pronounce the consonants, renders the syllable as long as if the accent lay on the vowel. And if the following syllable begin with a vowel, we cannot avoid joining to it the last consonant, which is the same as doubling the consonant; for the words hab-it and hab-bit are pronounced precisely alike and in the same space of time. And I appeal to the most accurate ear, whether there be any difference in the ordinary pronunciation of these words glo-ry, ho-ly, hab-it, prac-tice.

This difference however must be observed, that all accented syllables are not equally long, for all are not equally accented. In many polysyllables, besides the principal accent, there is a weaker accent on another syllable, which may with propriety be called the half accent. Thus in the word ex-pos-tu-la-to-ry, the full accent is on the second syllable and the half accent on the fifth; this syllable is longer and more distinctly articulated than the unaccented syllables, though it is not so long as the second, on which lies the principal accent.

The half accent, especially when it follows the full accent, renders such words ungraceful in poetry, except in one single place in the verse; for the half accent may fall gracefully upon the last syllable but two, as in these lines of an anonymous writer:

[Page]

"A new disgrace inevitably sheds."

"Gives the keen curse accumulated gall."

When the half accent precedes the full accent, it is stronger—indeed in many words there are two accents almost equal; as, exaltation, explanation, commutation; and such words, if they exceed not four syllables, are graceful in poetry

2d. Every emphatical syllable is long. This rule applies to all monosyllable nouns and all other monosyllables used emphatically. In these lines of Pope's,

"Respecting man, whatever wrong we call

May, must be right, as relative to all."

The monosyllables wrong, right, may, must, the two former of which being adjectives, are naturally emphatical; and the two last which are auxiliaries, and accidentally so—are all important—and in pronunciation are equally long.

3d. All unaccented syllables are, in our language, naturally short. The voice is to dwell on there no longer than is necessary to pronounce distinctly the combination of letters of which they are composed. And although some of them, having more consonants, require more time in pronouncing than others, yet this makes no difference in their use or effect in poetry.

4th. All unemphatical monosyllables are naturally short; as, prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs and articles.

From the foregoing rules, it appears that the movement of our verse is regulated by accent and emphasis† Whether the accented syllables and emphatical monosyllables are all really long, in the same [Page] sense as syllables are denominated long in the Greek and Roman languages, is a dispute of little consequence. All accented syllables and all monosyllables either naturally or accidentally emphatical, are important—on these depend the dignity and harmony of verse—and by these, the prosody of our language, with all its variety, may be reduced to rules as simple and at the same time as accurate, as those of any other language†

In illustrating the rules of metrical composition, for want of proper types, I shall use figures to represent the length of the syllables—the long [...] important syllables, by the figure 1; the short or unimportant, by the figure 2. The syllables, which exemplify the rules, are printed in Italics.

The feet we admit into the heroic measure, are nine; the iambus, the trochee, the spondee, the pyrrhichius, the dactyl, the anapaest, the tribrachus, the amphibrachus and the antibacchus.

The iambus, is a foot of two syllables, the first short and the second long; as,

be²-hold.¹

The trochee, two syllables, the first long and the second short; as,

glo¹-ry.²

The spondee, two syllables, both long; as,

earth¹-quake.¹

The pyrrhichius, two syllables, both short; as,

of² a.²

[Page]The dactyl, three syllables, the first long and the two last short; as,

fu¹-ri²-ous.²

The anapaest, three syllables, the two first short and the last long; as,

to² be² sure¹

The tribrachus, three syllables, all short; as,

impet-u²-ous² to² the plain.

The amphibrachus, three syllables, the first and third short, the second long; as,

re²-quire¹ it.²

The antibacchus, three syllables, the two first long and the last short; as,

go,¹ take¹ it.²

The iambus, which is the ground of this measure, may be used in every foot and is most frequent in all.

"Let² these¹—the² brave¹—triumph² ¹—ant² vic¹—tor² grace,¹

And² war¹—ring² na¹—tions² part¹—in² leagues¹—of² peace."¹

POPE.

These lines are purely iambic. Each consists of five feet, the first syllable of which is short, and the last, long. That is, every second syllable is accented or emphatical and pronounced with a stress of the voice: The others are unaccented or unimportant and pronounced with less force.

The trochee may always be used gracefully in the first foot; as,

"Glow'd¹ in²—the² front¹—of² heaven¹—and² gave¹—the² day."¹

POPE.

Here the first foot is a trochee and the rest are iambic.

The trochee is most graceful when followed by a spondee; as,

"Load¹ the²—tall¹ bark1—and² launch¹—in² to²—the² main."¹

POPE.

In the second foot, it is rarely admissible. Dryden has used it, but the verse is ungraceful; ‘"Each¹ Greek¹—was1 [...] ²—Ulys² ¹—ses,² such¹—a² dread."¹’

[Page]In the third and fourth feet, it is harsh, but may have a beauty when it suits the sound to the sense; as,

"Eve¹ right¹—ly² call'd¹—mother¹ ²—of² all¹—mankind."² ¹

MILTON.

"And² stag¹—ger'd² by²—the² stroke¹—drops¹ the²—large¹ ox."¹

PITT.

If the trochee in the first foot, be followed by a short syllable, in the same word, it almost destroys all melody; as, ‘"Happi¹ ²—ly2 thus¹—they¹ pass¹—the² pleas¹—ing² hour."¹’

In the last foot it is always inadmissible.

The spondee may be used gracefully in every foot.

In the first; as,

"Good¹ life1—be² now²—my² task¹—my² doubts¹—are² done."¹

DRYDEN.

In the second; as,

"As² some¹—lone¹ moun1—tain's² mon¹—strous² growth¹— he² stood."¹

POPE.

In the third; as,

"The² moun¹—tain² goats¹—came¹ bound1—ing² o'er²—the² lawn."¹

POPE.

In the fourth; as,

"All¹ look'd¹—for² arms¹—in² vain¹,—no¹ arms1—were² nigh."¹

POPE.

In the fifth; as,

"Singed¹ are²—his² brows¹—the² scorch¹—ing² lids¹—grow¹ Mack."¹

POPE.

On this foot it may be observed, that in our language the two syllables can never be equally long, because the accent or emphasis on one will always be stronger than the other; as in earth-quake, the [Page] strongest accent is on the first syllable: So a monosyllable adjective has less emphasis than a noun. A noun and a verb are nearly equal in emphasis naturally, yet the sense will ever determine one to be more emphatical than the other, These ought to be so managed that the most strongly accented syllable or the most emphatical should be the last of the foot; unless it stand in the first place, where the contrary is equally graceful; as,

"Death,1 great¹—propri² ¹—etor² ²—of² all¹—'tis² thine,¹ &c."

YOUNG.

Or sometimes in the second place, where it is allowable and may be graceful in the solemn and elegiac style; as, ‘"The² broad¹—moon¹ swim1—ming² thro'²—the² bro¹—ken² clouds."¹’

Or in blank verse, to begin the next sentence after a full pause in the middle of the line.

The pyrrhichius in the first foot is admissible but weak; as,

"Nor² in2—the² help¹—less² or¹—phan² dread¹—a² foe."¹

POPE.

But may be aided by a succeeding spondee; as, ‘"To² the²—great¹ sire1—whom¹ heaven¹—and² earth¹—adore.² ¹’

In the second it is hardly admissible; yet Pitt has used it in the example cited above, ‘"And² stag¹—ger'd² by2—the² stroke¹—drops¹ the²—large¹ ox."¹’

In the third, it is admissible but weak; as,

"A² ser¹—vant² ad¹—ded² to2—his² ab¹—sent² Lord."¹

POPE.

In the fourth, it is usually graceful; as, ‘"And² thus¹—concludes² ¹—the² glo¹—ries² of2—the² day."¹’

[Page]The dactyl is admissible when it consists of word capable of an elision; as, different, &c. in which the second syllable is too weak to make a full syllable in the verse. These have been usually printed with an apostrophe, thus, diff'rent; but are not pronounced so; for we give every syllable its full sound, which makes it a proper dactyl.

It is also necessarily admitted in many words, when two vowels meet, each of which forms a syllable, though unaccented, and which are incapable of [...]lision; as, glorious, furious, infuriate.

In the first foot, the dactyl is graceful, as, ‘Furious1 ² ²—he² spake¹, &c.’

In the second, it is scarcely admissible; it being a general rule that the last syllable of the second foot should be accented or emphatical.

In the third it is sometimes admissible, but ungrateful; as, ‘"Thus² spoke¹—the² king,¹—furious1 ² ²—the² chief¹—replied."² ¹’

In the fourth, it is hardly admissible, and in the fifth never.

The anapaest is composed of the same kind of words as the dactyl.

It can have no place in the first foot; but in the others, it is graceful. In the third; as,

"Fiery¹ ² ²—The² fi¹—ery² ² Duke1—tell¹ the²—hot¹ Duke."¹

SHAKESPEARE.

In the third and fifth; as, ‘"And² hosts¹—infu² ¹—riate² ² shake1—the² shud¹—dering² ² plain."¹’

In the second and fourth; as,

"On² ev¹—ery² ² side1—with² shad¹—owy² ² squad1—rons² deep."¹

MILTON.

The tribrachus is composed of like words as the dactyl and anapaest. It may be used in the third and fourth places.

[Page]In the third; as, ‘"And² rolls¹—impet² ¹—uous² ² to2—the² sub¹—ject² plain."¹’

In the fourth; as,

"And² thun¹—ders² down¹—impet² ¹—uous² ² to2—the² plain."¹

POPE.

The amphibrachus is used only in the last foot, when we take the licence to add a short syllable; as,

The² piece¹—you² think¹—is² in¹—correct² ¹—why² take¹ it.2

I'm¹ all¹—submis² ¹—sion²; what¹—you'd¹ have¹—it,² make¹ it.²

This may also be an antibacchus; as, go,¹ take¹ it.²

POPE.

But this is improper in the solemn style.

It may be also remarked that in dissyllables and polysyllables, the accented syllable can never be the first syllable of a foot in any place but the first, in which a dissyllable will make a graceful trochee. But an emphatical monosyllable may stand in any place in the line.

In English poetry, there are as many full accents or equivalent emphases, as there are nouns, adjectives, verbs or participles in a line; besides many other words which are accidentally emphatical. This is a source of great variety in our versification.

A regular, though weak line, may be composed with but three emphatical or accented syllables; as, ‘Or² to²—a² sad¹—vari² ¹—ety² ²—of² woe.¹’

And with four, very frequently; as,

'He² mounts¹—the² storm¹—and² walks¹—upon² ²—the² wind.'¹

POPE.

This example has seven:

"Men,¹ bearded,¹ ² bald,¹ cowl'd,¹ uncowl'd,² ¹ shod,¹ unshod."² ¹

POPE.

[Page]Hence lines, abounding with monosyllables that are emphatical, are the most forcible and solemn; but are often two much encumbered.

To end a line with a trissyllable, the last syllable of which has the half accent or none at all, though sometimes practised by our best Poets, is subversive of all harmony and contrary to the genius of our poetry.

"Th' eternal art, educing good from ill,

Grafts on this passion, our best principle."

POPE.

"The first of men in sovereign misery."

POPE.

In these cases, y is made to rhyme sometimes with long I and sometimes with long e, neither of which is the proper sound of the vowel y, in unaccented syllables.

"Blest are the saints who sit on high

Around thy throne of majesty."

WATTS.

"Till a wise care of piety

Fit us to die and dwell with thee."

WATTS.

It is a pity that such improprieties should be mingled with the best productions in the language.

It is to be remarked that the rules given above apply particularly to rhyme; for in blank verse, a much greater licence may be indulged without injuring the verification.

It would exceed the limits of my design to enter into a particular explanation of the other kinds of English verse; and it is rather unnecessary, as they depend much upon the same principles as the iambic measure.

The trochaic measure, consisting of three, five or seven syllables, the lines beginning with an accented syllable, is but an elliptical form of the iambic; for by prefixing a short syllable to each line, the verse becomes purely iambic; as,

A "Little Siren of the Stage,

The "Charmer of an idle age,

An "Empty warbler, breathing lyre

The "Wanton gale of fond desire.

[Page]In the anapaestic measure, every third syllable is accented, and the multitude of short syllables gives the verse an air of li [...]eliness, well suited to cheerful subjects; as,

"Not² a² pine¹ in² my² grove¹ is² there² seen¹

But² with² tendrils¹ ² of² woodbine¹ ² is² bound."¹

SHENSTONE.

Sometimes a syllable is omitted in the first foot; as, ‘"Old² Plato¹ ² that² learned¹ ² divine."² ¹’

An alexandrine is a heroic verse of twelve syllables and is of the iambic measure; as,

"Who guides the vengeance of mechanic power, To² blast¹—the² wa¹—tery² ² world¹—and² guard¹—the² peaceful¹ ² shore."¹

Prospect of Peace.

With respect to the pauses of our verse, which constitute an essential article, I shall only observe that they are of two kinds; the cesural pause, and the final.

The cesural pause happens in almost every line of heroic verse and after almost every syllable: But it is most graceful after the 4th, 5th, 6th or 7th syllables.

After the fourth; as,

"Know then thyself; presume not God to scan."

POPE.

After the 5th, 6th and 7th in the following lines;

"Men would be angels, angels would be Gods.

Aspiring to be Gods, if angels fell;

Aspiring to be angels, men rebel."

POPE.

And it very frequently happens that either the sense or harmony or both require two or more semi-pauses; as,

"To him no high, no low, no great, no small;

He fills, he bounds, connects, and equals all."

POPE.

[Page]The final pause must be observed at the end of every line, whether there be a stop in the sense or not. Thus in reading these lines

"And who but wishes to invert the laws

Of order, sins against th' eternal cause."

The voice must be suspended at the close of the first line, but not elevated or depressed. And it may be observed that in the second line, there is a pause after the third syllable.

The nature of the cesural pause is well considere [...] in Kaim's Elements of Criticism; and the final pause, in Sheridan's Rhetorical Grammar.

To read verse with propriety, let the following rules be observed.

1. All the words should be pronounced just as they are in prose.

2. The voice should bound from accent to accent, and no stress should be laid on unaccented syllables.

3. The emphasis should be observed as in prose.

The pauses, which are marked by the sense, and may be called sentential, should be observed as in prose. But the cesural and final pauses, which are designed merely to add harmony to verse, and depend on the structure of it, require only a suspension of the voice without elevation or depression. Where these points are observed in reciting verse, if it then be ungraceful, it is the author's fault, not the reader's.

Notes

†

That the movement of our verse depends not on the length of the vowels, is evident from this; that our longest vowels and diphthongs are often thrown into the shortest place in the line and that without injuring the versification.

"Above, how high, progressive lif: may go!"

Pope.

May is long, but arbitrarily shortened; may go, not forming a spondee.

↵

†

According to the rules of English prosodians, the monosyllables, strength, health, thrust, thick, are short syllables; for the vowels are as short as possible. But the fact is, they are some of the longest syllables in the language; and the word language, in which there is no long vowel, requires as much time to be pronounced distinctly, as many words of three syllables. In learning our language, it is of the highest importance to know the long vowels from the short; but in investigating the rules of verse, we are to attend less to the length of the vowels than to that of the syllables, which depends much upon the combination of consonants and the force of utterance.

↵

PUNCTUATION. Abridged from Dr. Lowth.

Punctuation is the art of marking in writing the several pauses or rests between sentences and the parts of sentences.

As the several articulate sounds, the syllables and words, of which sentences consist, are marked by letters; so the pauses, between sentences and their parts, are marked by points.

The different degrees of connection between the [Page] parts of sentences, require a great variety of pauses o [...] different lengths; yet, to express this variety, we use only four points. For this reason the doctrine of punctuation must necessarily be imperfect and not reducible to precise rules.

But a few general remarks on this subject may be useful in directing the judgment of the learner.

The points used to make the pauses between sentences and their several parts, are the period, colon, semicolon, and comma. The proportional quantity of time between these may be, as, six, four, two and one.

The period is the whole sentence complete in itself, wanting nothing to make a full and perfect sense, and not connected in construction with a subsequent sentence.

The colon or member, is a chief constructive part, or greater division of a sentence.

The semicolon or half member, is a less constructive part or subdivision of a sentence or member.

A sentence or member is again subdivided into commas or segments; which are the least constructive sense of a sentence or member, in this way of considering it; for the next subdivision would be the resolution of it into phrases and words.

In order the more clearly to determine the proper application of the point which marks it, we must distinguish between an imperfect phrase, a simple sentence, and a compound sentence.

An imperfect phrase contains no assertion, or does not amount to a proposition or sentence.

A simple sentence has but one subject, and one finite verb.

A compounded sentence has more than one subject, or one finite verb, either expressed or understood; or it consists of two or more simple sentences connected together.

In a sentence, the subject and the verb may be each [Page] of them accompanied with several adjuncts; as the object, the end, the circumstance of time, place, and manner, and the like : and this, either immediately, or mediately; that is, by being connected with something which is connected with some other; and so on.

If the several adjuncts affect the subject or the verb in a different manner, they are only so many imperfect phrases; and the sentence is simple.

A simple sentence admits of no point by which it may be divided, or distinguished into parts.

If the several adjuncts affect the verb in the same manner, they may be resolved into so many simple sentences; the sentence then becomes compounded, and it must be divided into its parts by points.

For, if there are several subjects belonging in the same manner to one verb, or several verbs belonging in the same manner to one subject, the subjects and verbs, are still to be accounted equal in number: for every verb must have its subject, and every subject its verb; and every one of the subjects or verbs; should or may have its point of distinction.

EXAMPLES.

"The passion for praise produces excellent effects in women of sense." Addison, Spect. No. 73. In this sentence passion is the subject, and produces the verb: Each of which is accompanied and connected with its adjuncts. The subject is not passion in general, but a particular passion determined by its adjunct of specification, as we may call it, the passion for praise. So likewise the verb is immediately connected with its object, excellent effects ▪ and mediately, that is, by the intervention of the word effects, with women, the subject in which these effects are produced; which again is connected with its adjunct of specification; for it is not meant of women in general, but of women of sense only. Lastly, it is to be observed, that the verb is connected [Page] with each of these several adjuncts in a different manner; namely, with effects, as the object; with women, as the subject of them; with sense, as the quality or characteristic of those women. The adjuncts therefore are only so many imperfect phrases; the sentence is a simple sentence, and admits of no point, by which it may be distinguished into parts.

"The passion for praise, which is so very vehement in the fair sex, produces excellent effects in women of sense." Here a new verb is introduced, accompanied with adjuncts of its own; and the subject is repeated by the relative pronoun which. It now becomes a compounded sentence, made up of two simple sentences, one of which is inserted in the middle of the other; it must therefore be distinguished into its component parts by a point placed on each side of the additional sentence.

"How many instances have we [in the fair sex] of chastity, fidelity, devotion? How many ladies distinguish themselves by the education of their children, care of their family, and love of their husbands; which are the great qualities and atchievements of woman kind; as the making of war, the carrying on of traffic, the administration of justice, are those by which men grow famous, and get themselves a name."

Ibid.

In the first of these two sentences, the adjuncts chastity, fidelity, devotion, are connected with the verb by the word instances in the same manner, and in effect make so many distinct sentences: "How many instances have we of chastity? How many instances have we of fidelity? How many instances have we of devotion?" They must therefore be separated from one another by a point. The same may be said of the adjuncts, "education of their children, &c" in the former part of the next sentence: as likewise of the several subjects, "the making of war, &c." in the latter part, which have in effect [Page] each their verb; for each of these "is an atchievement by which men grow famous."

As sentences themselves are divided into simple and compounded, so the members of sentences may be divided into simple and compounded members: for whose sentences, whether compounded or uncompounded, may become members of other sentences, by means of some additional connection.

Simple members of sentences closely connected together in one compounded member, or sentence, are distinguished or separated by a comma: as in the foregoing examples.

So likewise, the case absolute; nouns in apposition, when consisting of many terms; the participle with something depending on it; are to be distinguished by the comma: for they may be resolved into simple members.

When an address is made to a person; the noun, answering to the vocative case in Latin, is distinguished by a comma.

EXAMPLES.

"This sa [...] he form'd thee, Adam; thee, O man, Dust of the ground."

"Now morn, her rosy steps in th' eastern clime,

Advancing, sow'd the earth with orient pearl."

Milton.

Two nouns, or two adjectives, connected by a single copulative or disjunctive, are not separated by a point; but when there are more than two, or where the conjunction is understood, they must be distinguished by a comma.

Simple members connected by relatives, and comparatives, are for the most part distinguished by a comma, but when the members are short, in comparative sentences; and when two members are closely connected by a relative restraining the general notion of the antecedent to a particular sense; the pause becomes almost insensible, and the comma is better omitted.

[Page]EXAMPLES.

"Raptures, transports, and extasies, are the rewards which they confer: sighs and tears, prayers and broken hearts, are the offerings which are paid to them."

Addison, Ibid.

"Gods partial, changeful, passionate, unjust; Whose attributes were rage, revenge, or lust."

Pope.

"What is sweeter than honey? and what is stronger than a lion?"

A circumstance of importance, though no more than an imperfect phrase, may be set off with a comma on each side, to give it greater force and distinction.

EXAMPLE.

"The principle may be defective or faulty; but the consequences it produces are so good, that, for the benefit of mankind, it ought not to be extinguished."

Addison, Ibid.

A member of a sentence, whether simple or compounded, that requires a greater pause than a comma, yet does not of itself make a complete sentence, but is followed by something closely depending on it, may be distinguished by a semicolon.

EXAMPLE.

"But as this passion for admiration, when it works according to reason, improves the beautiful part of our species in every thing that is laudable; so nothing is more destructive to them, when it is governed by vanity and folly."

Addison, Ibid.

Here the whole sentence is divided into two parts by the semicolon; each of which parts is a compounded member, divided into its simple members by the comma.

A member of a sentence, whether simple or compounded, which of itself would make a complete sentence, and so requires a greater pause than a semicolon, yet is followed by an additional part, making [Page] a more full and perfect sense, may be distinguished by a colon.

EXAMPLE.

"Were all books reduced to their quintessence, many a bulky author would make his appearance in a penny paper: there would be scarce any such thing in nature as a folio: the works of an age would be contained on a few shelves: not to mention millions of volumes, that would be utterly annihilated."

Addison, Spect. No. 124.

Here the whole sentence is divided into four parts by colons: the first and last of which are compounded members, each divided by a comma; the second and third are simple members.

When a semicolon has preceded, and a greater pause is still necessary; a colon may be employed, though the sentence be incomplete.

The colon is also commonly used, when an example, or a speech is introduced.

When a sentence is so far perfectly finished, as not to be connected in construction with the following sentence, it is marked with a period.

In all cases, the proportion of the several points in respect to one another, is rather to be regarded, than their supposed precise quantity, or proper office, when taken separately.

Beside the points, which mark the pauses in discourse, there are others which denote a different modulation of the voice in corresponding with the sense. These are

The interrogation point, | thus marked | ?
The exclamation point, | !
The parenthesis, | ()

The interrogation and exclamation points are sufficiently explained by their names: they are indeterminate as to their quantity or time, and may be equivalent in that respect to a semicolon, a colon, or a period, as the sense requires. They mark an elevation of the voice.

[Page]The par [...]nt [...]esis incloses in the body of a sentence a member me [...]t [...]d into it, which is neither necessary to the [...]en [...] nor at all affects the construction. It makes a moderate depression of the vo [...], with a pause greater than a comma.

The End of the Second Part.

Information about this book

Title statement

A grammatical institute, of the English language, comprising, an easy, concise, and systematic method of education, designed for the use of English schools in America. : In three parts. : Part II. Containing, a plain and comprehensive grammar, grounded on the true principles and idioms of the language; with an analytical dissertation, in which the various uses of the auxiliary signs are unfolded and explained: and an essay towards investigating the rules of English verse. / By Noah Webster, Jun. Esq. ; [One line in Latin from Cicero]Grammatical institute of the English language. Pt. 2

Webster, Noah, 1758-1843.

Publication

Publisher

Text Creation Partnership,

Place of publication

Ann Arbor, MI :

Date

2007-01.

ID [DLPS]

N14876

ID [TCP]

N14876

ID [STC]

Evans 18871

ID [NOTIS]

APX3635

ID [IMAGE-SET]

18871

ID [EVANS-CITATION]

99020404

Availability

This keyboarded and encoded edition of the work described above is co-owned by the institutions providing financial support to the Early English Books Online Text Creation Partnership. This Phase I text is available for reuse, according to the terms of Creative Commons 0 1.0 Universal. The text can be copied, modified, distributed and performed, even for commercial purposes, all without asking permission.

Series

Early American Imprints, 1639-1800 ; no. 18871.

Notes

(Evans-TCP ; no. N14876)

Transcribed from: (Readex Archive of Americana ; Early American Imprints, series I ; image set 18871)

Images scanned from Readex microprint and microform: (Early American imprints. First series ; no. 18871)

Source

— A grammatical institute, of the English language, comprising, an easy, concise, and systematic method of education, designed for the use of English schools in America. : In three parts. : Part II. Containing, a plain and comprehensive grammar, grounded on the true principles and idioms of the language; with an analytical dissertation, in which the various uses of the auxiliary signs are unfolded and explained: and an essay towards investigating the rules of English verse. / By Noah Webster, Jun. Esq. ; [One line in Latin from Cicero], Grammatical institute of the English language. Pt. 2, Webster, Noah, 1758-1843., Trumbull, John, 1750-1831..

Extent

139, [1] p. ; 16 cm. (12mo)

Printed by Hudson & Goodwin, for the author, M,DCC,LXXXIV. Under protection of the statute.,. Hartford: :: [1784]. (Two states of the title page noted by Skeel. On one the quotation on the title page is attributed to Cicero, on the other it is not.) ("Prosody."--p. 119-132. By John Trumbull; cf. BAL entry 20542.)

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