NUTRIENTIA.

Perhaps the whole of our subject might be divided into food and medicine. The first is implied by the term nutrientia, which comprehends every thing used by mankind in their daily food, as well the substances which are strictly nutrient, as those which are employed to obviate and correct the degeneracy to which the nourishment is liable. But more strictly nutrientia are such sub­stances as are fitted by the vital power to be converted into our fluids and solids, in order to sustain their growth and repair their daily waste. Here a question arises, whether our solids and fluids are formed from one common aliment, or out of a mixed, i. e. one containing a principle of nourishment suited to each. The first opinion appears to me the most probable.

All aliment differs in two particulars; first, as it is already assimilated into the animal nature, or requires to be converted into it, by a particular process of the animal oeconomy. Of the first kind are all animal substances, which, if not similar, are nearly so to our nature, and require only for that assimilation solution and mixture. The second kind comprehends vegetables, which must undergo several changes before they can be assimilated. But as the nourish­ment of all animals, even of those who live on other animals, can originally be traced to the vegetable kingdom, it is plain that the principle of all nourishment is in vegetables, and that, therefore, we ought to begin with these.

VEGETABLE ALIMENT.

The first question that arises here is, What are the vegetables which are peculiarly appropriated for food? Perhaps there is no vegetable but what affords aliment to some animal. But I will venture to say, that in human aliment a choice is necessary, and a distinction ought to be made. The first distinction is, that those vegetables which are of a mild, bland, agreeable taste, are proper [Page 46] nourishment; while those of an acrid, bitter, nauseous nature are improper. Every body, en gros, will allow the truth of this. There are, however, several acrid substances that we use as food, but the mild, the bland, the agreeable, are in the largest propor­tion in every vegetable; whereas the acrid, the bitter, the dis­agreeable enter in the least quantity; which last, however, may prove nourishment, provided our system is capable of subduing their nature. Thus we see that some animals live on what is poisonous to others, which seems entirely owing to the particular confor­mation of these animals. Of all these animals the human body is most delicate in the choice of its food, and the acrid, bitter, and disagreeable can never be admitted as aliment. There, however, seem some exceptions. Thus celeri and endive are used in common food, both substances of considerable acrimony; but you must observe, that when we use them, they are previously blanched, which almost entirely deprives them of that suspicious tendency. Or if we employ other acrid substances, we generally, in great measure, deprive them of their acrimony by boiling. In different countries the same plants grow with different degrees of acrimony. Thus garlic here seldom enters our food; but in the southern countries, where they grow more mild, they are frequently used for that purpose. Again, the plant which furnishes cassada, being very acrimonious, and even poisonous in its recent state, affords an instance of the necessity of preparation of acrid substances even in these countries; for by a particular management they allow the acrimonious juice to run off, and the farinaceous nutritious part of it is left behind. Upon the whole, therefore, I maintain, that we use no acrid substances in our food that are not previously deprived of their acrimony; or, if we do, they are only employed as condimenta. But if the question still remain, if it is still urged, that acrid substances are employed in our food, I alledge they are only such as the human body, by its particular conformation, is capable to subdue. Here then begins the division of plants, into food and medicine, the mild, the bland, the agreeable plants, or their parts, being fit for food; while the acrid, &c. are proper for [Page 47] medicine. For this reason Linnaeus's aphorisms are well founded, insipida & inodora nutriunt, sapidiora non nutriunt. The reason is very obvious, for unless substances affect remarkably our organs of sense, they cannot be supposed to operate powerfully on our system. And this very effect of operating powerfully on our system, destroys their expediency as food. Again, as sapid and odorous substances have the power of operating changes in our system, they must act on the nervous power, the part chiefly changeable. The insipid and bland do, indeed, act on our fluids, but the changes they pro­duce must be very slow.

We shall now enquire what part of the mild and bland substances constitutes the proper aliment. In general, the more sweet sub­stances are all nutritious: These are little known here as food, but in the warmer climates make the greatest part of it. We have now facts to prove, that sugar alone is nutritious, and we shall afterwards endeavour to prove, that all fruits we use are nutritious only from their sugar. Here, the farinaceous substances are more evidently nutritious, as likewise the bland mucilaginous. These two are nearly connected with each other, and both with the saccharine substance; for all farinaceous substances, before maturity, are sweet, and, after maturity, can be restored to their sweet state by malting. Again, in fruits we observe a change from sweet to farinaceous, which last property many of them attain upon maturity; and all fari­naceous substances, when mature, abound in oil; so that it appears that the saccharine and oily part, blended together, make the mu­cilaginous and farinaceous matters, i, e. the intermediate states be­tween sugar and oil; so that I conclude, that sugar and oil blended together, and forming the farinaceous substance, is the nutritious part of vegetables. You will now see what I formerly asserted, that either oil may enter into the nutritious substance, or that the nutri­tious substance, by animal process, may afford oil.

We are next to consider on what the difference of nutritious sub­stances depend. This turns on two heads; 1. On the quantity of [Page 48] nutriment each substance contains; 2. On its being more or less easily assimilated.

DRY FRUITS.

None are fit, or indeed are subjected to this process, except those which abound, in their recent state, with much saccharine juice. It is true, that fruits of every kind are preserved, but this is more [Page 60] for elegance than as a part of food; any of the dried fruits I am to mention, are only such as are nutritive. I have said that sugar itself was nutritive; nay, indeed, the very principle of nourishment, of which we have various proofs: Thus the Negroes employed in the sugar manufacture live almost solely on this, and fatten exceedingly. Another chief proof is, from the fruits which I am to speak of, which are remarkably fattening, but chiefly in their dried state. Again, birds, in fruit time, when the fruits are ripe, increase in fatness; and at such time, Dr. Robinson has observed, that their livers are enlarged; whence we see how fat people are so much subject to diseases of the viscera, especially the liver.

The dried fruits I am to treat of, are the grape, date, and fig. They have the common properties of ripe fresh fruits, but are not joined with so powerful an acid, part of it being dissipated in drying. Hence they are less liable to run into active fermentation; but if taken in too great quantities, they will run into that, and the acid produced will have all the bad effects of fresh fruits, in producing diarrhoeae, cholera, &c.

DRIED GRAPES, RAISINS, CURRANTS.

Of this are two kinds, the uvae passae majores, or raisin, and the uvae passae minores, or corinthiacae, or currants; these last have more acid joined to their sugar, hence more laxative. I do not doubt but sugar itself may stimulate the intestines, and be a gentle laxative, but its stronger effects in purging are to be deduced, from its con­version into an acid. Hence currants are more purgative than rai­sins, and those than figs, on account of their acidity; and for this reason prunes and currants are nearly similar in their effects. The raisins will also have more or less of these virtues, in proportion to the quantity of acid they contain.

DATE.

This fruit is now less generally known here, but is the com­mon food of a great part of Asia. Were I to give a botanical [Page 61] account of any production, it would be this, as the palm-tree, whence it is produced, is so curious in its vegetation, and so exten­sively useful in life; but as I have nothing now to offer on this subject, I shall omit it, referring you to books where such disquisi­tions are particularly treated. The date is of different kinds: In their best state they are a pure saccharine fruit, free from acidity, but with considerable acerbity. Formerly they were much em­ployed in medicine, but are now justly laid aside for those fruits which contain all their qualities in a greater degree, viz.

FIGS.

These are the most nourishing of the dried fruits; they contain a large portion of saccharine matter, united with mucilage. From their containing much sugar, and from being viscid and less readily perspired, they are more fit for nourishment. They are also, from their sugar and mucilage, used as demulcents, as their juice is most fit for covering acrimony. The date and raisin were formerly used in this intention: The first is now laid aside, but we retain the raisin as giving a grateful acidity to the too luscious taste of the fig. The fig is also nephritic from its demulcent quality. They have been said to produce lice, but there is no foundation for believing this, either from information, or from our experience of them in this country. It is true, that in their native country they make the chief food of the poorest people, who are generally dirty, and this may have given rise to the opinion.

The next class we are to mention is the cucurbitaceae, of which many more are used in food than those here mentioned, viz. cu­cumber, melon, and pompion, which are chiefly used here.

CUCUMBER.

This is taken in great cities by the lower people as nourishment, but by the better sort is chiefly employed as a refrigerant, or con­diment, to accompany animal food. They have a bland insipid juice, [Page 62] without acidity or sweetness, approaching, as appears by their ri­pening, to a farinaceous matter. When used green they have little nourishment, so are they only to be used in the summer season and by the sedentary. Although cucumber is neither sweet nor acid, yet it is considerably acescent, and so produces flatulency, cholera, diarrhoea, &c. I apply all these to their acescent nature, though indeed its coldness and flatulency may be encreased by the firmness of their texture. I have seen them discharged with little change from the stomach, after being detained there for forty-eight hours. By this means, therefore, their acidity is greatly encreased. Hence oil and pepper, the condiments commonly employed, are very useful to check their fermentation. We have lately used another condi­ment, viz. the skin, which is bitter, and may, therefore, supply the place of aromatics. But let me observe, that the cucurbitaceae have, many of them, a very acrid juice in their skin; e. g. the colocynth, which is of this kind, into a bitter of which nature it is alledged that the cucumber, by particular management may be converted. Hence it would appear, that, as the bitter in the skin of cucumbers is of this kind, it should, therefore, only be used when young.

MELONS.

These have the same qualities we were just now mentioning, but being of a tenderer texture, they are, on this account, less hurtful, and, as accompanied with sugar, are consequently more easily digested from its bringing on sooner a fermentation to hasten their solution. All our watery vegetables may be considered as diuretics. Cucum­bers and melons have been reckoned remarkably, so much as to bring on bloody urine. But this seems to be without foundation. To me, indeed, they would rather appear to have a contrary effect, by encreasing the watery part of the urine▪ POMPIONS Are only used when boiled, and therefore are more safe, as their texture is much loosened; but at best they are a weak, insipid [Page 63] food, except from the dressing, and therefore are now neglected. It tends to show their nature, that when well ripened, or when kept long after being cut from the stalks, they become mealy and farinaceous, and therefore more nourishing, and likewise safer with respect to the effects I spoke of.

We now come to the Herbae esculentae. (c.) Oler [...] has been used for every thing put into the pot. Linnaeus has confined the term oleraceae to a particular order of plants, to which the three first in the catalogue belong orach [...], beet, and spinage.

ORACHE.

This is of the coarsest texture of the three, insomuch as to be now hardly known in our gardens.

BEET and SPINACH.

Beet is more tender, but less so than spinach, to which both this and the former have almost entirely given place. They are all of a watery, insipid taste, with little saccharine or mucilaginous quality, and therefore are of weak nutriment. On account of their little acidity and loose texture they are less flatulent than some of the other olera. They are said to be laxative, but as they have little acidity or sweetness, this quality cannot be remarkable. They are, however, acescent, and hence, if taken in considerable quantity, may prove so.

Nothing is more common than the opinion that all these olera are of a nitrous quality. This was Dioscorides's opinion, and he has been followed in it by almost every succeeding Author. But from a strict examination of their essential salts, I have found no foundation for such an opinion. The effects of all the olera, as laxatives, are very dubious. In weak stomachs they rather encrease costiveness, having nothing in them to stimulate the intestines and encrease the peristaltic motion. They are, indeed, the most cooling and least irritating of the aliments. What I have said of the beet be­longs [Page 64] entirely to the herb, for the root is very sweet, and, according to Margraaf's experiments, contains a larger proportion of sugar than any other root he examined. But the nature of this will be better understood when we come to speak of roots.

Brassica: These belong to an order of plants much used in food. Their general character is, that they are remarkably acrid, but not poisonous; on the contrary, their acrimony is of consi­derable use in medicine, and in their bland state, being deprived of this acrimony in boiling, they are used in food. Hence I took the general rule, that all our aliment is remarkably bland, and that the acrimonious part has little share in it: Of these we only use the brassica and turnep as food, the others only as condiment. Brassica is most frequent in use, and of this there are many varieties, as colewort, cauliflower, brocoli, &c. All these are sensibly sweet, and therefore more nutritious than most of the herbaceous kind. The distinction we make of them depends mostly on their texture. Formerly we only employed the colewort, which has given place to the more tender savoy; and perhaps this last will give way to the still tenderer cauliflower. Those of the brassica kind are more flatulent than the oleraceae, as having more of a saccharine quality, which enables them to ferment, and, by this means, to produce an acid in the stomach. I believe they produce these effects in a milder degree, in proportion to the richness of their sweet, and tenderness of texture. On this account cabbage is rendered more flatulent, and hence a confirmation of the general rule, that flatulency is most owing to firmness of texture: Thus cabbage itself, when very young, is tender, and less flatulent, than when full grown.

NASTURTIUM

Is used merely as a condiment. Were it not of scanty growth, it might enter into our food, for I know that, by boiling, it is deprived of its acrimony, and affords an agreeable green.

LACTUCA AGNINA.

This is a species of valerian: It is an insipid plant, perhaps from its being early taken up in the spring; for in its more advanced state it is somewhat bitter, and then approaches, in some degree, to the four following. In general, all early plants are either insipid or remarkably acrid: Lactuca, as we use it, has the general qualities of the oleraceous plants.

CICHOREUM, DENS LEONIS, ENDIVIA, LACTUCA.

These belong to the semi flosculosae, or plano petalae. They will afterwards be mentioned as medicines, under the subdivision of amaro frigida. These are all lactescent plants, and it is almost an universal rule, that all those which afford a milky juice are re­markably acrid, and many of them poisonous. This set has been excepted, and seemingly with reason, as we use them so much in food. But they do not infringe so much the general rule as has been imagined: For one species of them is very narcotic, and all are so, in some measure, when old; for this reason we only use them when very young, or blanch them, to free of their acrimony, which is done by depriving them of light. When young, they are acescent, cooling, flatulent; when old, less acescent, less cooling, less flatulent, which, perhaps, may be owing to taking the skin along with them. But they are never used without a condiment.

CELERI.

This is an [...]pium, or petroselinum. It belongs to a set of plants often lactescent, but, independent of this, they have a poisonous acrimony, on which account it is blanched, though it is never en­tirely deprived of its acrimony in this way, but more so by boiling, when it acquires a mucilaginous sweetness, and is then used in our animal broths, especially in winter, for which season it is fittest, on account of its acrimony.

ASPARAGUS.

This is an intermediate substance between root and plant. In its adult state it is remarkably acrid, so only esculent in its first stage of growth. This serves to illustrate the different states of plants according to the time of their growth. There are many other plants, which, by age, turn acrid, whose first shoots we might use as food, as hops, thistles, bardana, &c. but asparagus is the only one employed at present. This is somewhat sweet, more re­markably mucilaginous; from both which qualities it is manifestly nutritive, and more so than any of the olera mentioned, also on account of its mucilaginous juice, though it be acescent, yet it is less flatulent than some of them. It has often been supposed, even as we eat it, of very active parts: These, however, appear to con­stitute a peculiar acrimony, quite distinct from the nutritious matter, and which seems to give the smell which is perceptible in the urine of persons who use it.

CINARA, ARTICHOAK.

The part in use is of a nature somewhat between herb and fruit, and is the receptacle of the flower and seed. Artichoaks came early into use in Europe, and came into England about Henry the Eighth's time, and then were considered as the rarest delicacy, and sold at much the same price as pine-apples now. When thus rare, many qualities were attributed to it. Among the rest it was called aphrodisiac, but without foundation. In southern climates arti­choaks are eat raw, as sallad, with oil and pepper; but this practice is only fit for warm climates. In this country we use them boiled; and, if young, they are of a tender texture, and easily dissolved. They are little acescent, so not flatulent. The taste of artichoaks is sweet, which bespeaks them remarkably nutritious.

FUNGI.

Next to the herbs, I have set down these. These are, indeed, herbs only in so far as some of them are above ground; but they differ so much from every other herb and even vegetables, and be­sides their virtues are so different, as to make it very difficult to class them. Of the fungi, three distinctions are to be noticed, Truffle Morelle, and Mushroom, which take in the other fungi.

TRUFFLE.

This is as singular in its qualities as vegetation. It never rises above ground, nor seeds, but shoots in the earth, being a single solitary ball, somewhat firmer than mushroom. In this country they are never found, scarcely in England. From Geoffroy I learn that it is not acescent, but yields at first a volatile alkali, which shows it approaches near to the animal nature. Hence its qualities may probably be deduced; and for this reason it is less flatulent, more nourishing, and more stimulating to the system than any other vegetable; and of the great variety of vegetables, commonly said to be possessed of aphrodisiac virtues, is perhaps the only one which has any title to them. In those countries where it is used it is never found noxious or poisonous as the mushrooms. It has been alledged, that on account of its firm texture it may be of slow solution, and so difficult to digest.

MORELLE.

This belongs to a genus, called by Linnaeus phallus. There are two species, viz. the one here mentioned, which is not indigenous, and another remarkably foetid, growing about hedges, the phallus foetidus penis imaginem referens. It is of a porous cellular texture, not laminated as the mushroom. The morelle has been said to approach in qualities to the truffle, but I consider it more as a fashionbale ornament to our dishes, than as any proper food.

MUSHROOMS.

Physicians have disputed much about the qualities of these, some considering them as a rich nourishment and perfectly innocent when properly chosen, others asserting them to be extremely dele­terious; most of the fungi are indeed of a hurtful quality, and with respect to the whole tribe the esculent are very few. Esculent mushrooms are very nutritive, very readily alcalescent, and more so without intermediate acescency than any other vegetable; therefore a rich nourishment, and much akin to animal food; on which account they may be indulged in considerable quantity to strong persons. It requires, however, skill to distinguish this esculent kind; and very few have studied Clusius, or other authors, who have been at the pains to distinguish them, especially those, viz. the servants who are employed to gather them. Perhaps our esculent mushrooms, if old, acquire a dangerous acrimony; where­fore, as exposed to all these accidents, I think it may be prudent for the most part to avoid them. In the warmer climates, they may be used as a light kind of food, but here it is preposterous to use them along with animal food, as they do not correct its alkaline tendency.

ESCULENT ROOTS.

Radish, Turnep. These belong to the siliquosae, which we mentioned, under nasturtium and brassica, to be an acrid class, but never poisonous, and often good in medicine. This acrimony has given rise to particular opinions, some asserting that they are cooling, while others call them alkalescent. Both, however, seem to mistake. Their acrimony is diuretic and diaphoretic, and so discharges all the parts of the blood which have degenerated to an alkaline acri­mony. On the other hand, I have said that all plants are acescent, and I except only the fungi. Perhaps, indeed, the siliquoso do run on quicker to putrefaction, but this is only a difference in degree, and not in quality. Thus far of the siliquosae in general.

RADISH.

This, as being so acrid, is used only as sallad or condiment. When boiled it becomes mild, and were it not for its slender state when young, and for the difficulty of depriving it of its acrid skin when old, and its toughness, it might be used this way in the kitchen.

TURNEP.

This is easily deprived of its acrid skin, and is also pretty large, which is the reason why it is preferred in our aliment, but is a watery weak nutriment, very flatulent, and purgative in consequence of its acescency.

SCORZONERA, TRAGOPOGON.

These belong to the semiflosculosae. The roots are remarkably free from the acrimony which appears in the plant above ground, and of what acrimony they have, they can easily be deprived, by boiling. They are sweeter than turnep, and therefore less acescent and less flatulent, but yield to the three following:

CARROT, PARSNIP, and SKIRRET.

Skirret is remarkable for being a plant from whose root Margraaf, of all the plants he tried, extracted most grained sugar, except the white beet. The carrot yields a considerable quantity of rich saccha­rine matter, in the form of syrup. From the parsnips, a small quantity of grained sugar, and a large one of syrup, is extracted, very viscid, with a copious mucilage. From the sweet mucilaginous matter contained in all, they are considerably nutritious. The quantity of nourishment is least in the skirret, and greatest in the parsnip, from different mixture in each of the saccharine and muci­laginous matter. In the skirret, the saccharine fermentable matter is most open, and therefore this, of the three, is most acescent and [Page 70] flatulent. All three are taken from a class of plants which abound in a deleterious acrimony; Parsnip, from its ranker smell and taste, is most suspected and most shunned. And here I may observe, that the bland nutritious vegetables are agreeable to all, but in those of a mixed or suspicious kind we see many idiosyncrasies. It is said that parsnips, when old, turn very acrid, insomuch as to have pro­duced mania and other dreadful effects: When old, they are called madnips by the English. These effects, perhaps, might have pro­ceeded from taking hemlock, or others of the umbelliferous kind, by mistake.

LEEK, ONION, GARLICK.

These belong to the alliaceous kind, and are all species of one genus. In their recent state they are acrid, but harmless to the human body: When, by age or climate, this acrimony is too great, we do not use them as food. In Spain, the garlick being equally mild with the onion, is used as common food. By the ordinary culinary preparation, their acrimony is dissipated, and a remarkably mild substance remains, promissing much nutriment, which those who can digest them raw will certainly obtain. Though sometimes shunned as food, yet, on that account, they are em­ployed in medicine, uniting the two qualities of pectorals, viz. on the account of their acrimony, being, in their recent state, expecto­rant; in their boiled, on account of their mucilage, demulcent, provided the quantity taken be sufficient. Some of late, in this country, have found in the leek a somniferous quality; but this is not yet confirmed by a sufficient number of experiments.

Besides the three here mentioned, there are several others, be­longing to the same tribe, that we use as condiments, but only the leek and onion as diet. In its recent state the onion is most acrid, in its boiled one the leek retains its acrimony most tenaciously. On account of this, and some difference of texture, the onion is more easily digested, and more universally used than the leek, being more easily broke down, and more generally agreeable.

POTATOE.

This is an intermediate substance, between esculent roots and farinaceous seeds, and is now of frequent use, being of easy culture and plentiful product. Some have alledged it has bad qualities, but experience shows the contrary; as acescent indeed, it may be flatu­lent, but as it approaches more to the farinaceous seeds, it is less flatulent, and more nourishing, than any of the oleraceous herbs or roots I know: That they are farinaceous there are many proofs, as they can be applied to all the purposes of the farinaceous seeds, as for making starch, vinous liquors, &c. Though this plant be­long to the genus of night-shade, and though the seeds retain the acrimony of that genus, yet the root is found to have no such qua­lities, being, in my opinion, of the most innocent and safest nutri­ment. Hence then it would appear, that the rule of plants of the same genus having the same virtues, is not so general as is com­monly imagined: This, indeed, is so far from being true, that different parts of the same plant have often different virtues.

SALEP.

This is a preparation of the root of the orchis, which grows plen­tifully in Turky and Persia. The orchis of this country seems to be of much the same nature, though not so convenient, as it does not grow to the same bulk. The method of preparing salep is as follows, and given us by Geoffroy: First, they throw the roots into water, in order to free them of the skin. My author does not men­tion whether the water should be cold or hot; in my opinion the latter would be preferable; it is afterwards boiled in water, till, I fancy, it is perfectly soaked with it; the water is then drained off, and the root hung up on threads to dry, till it has acquired a gummy or resinous appearance. In England, it is said to be imported in this form; but here we commonly have it in a powder. Thrown into wa­ter it melts into a mucilage, of a smooth taste, somewhat sweet. Both from taste and mucilage, it is plainly of a farinaceous matter, [Page 72] and is liable to the same inconveniencies, acescency and fermenta­tion, especially acescency. It is extremely convenient for affording an extemporaneous mucilaginous drink, but, as we use it, it is too weak a nutriment. Hence I have no faith in its aphrodisiac virtues; but it is very fit, where acrimony abounds in the primae viae, as in dysenteries, as we find confirmed by Degner, on that subject.

Many other roots, of the farinaceous kind, might be mentioned here. Several of these roots are, in their recent state, remarkably acrid, as the cassada of Surinam already mentioned. In the same manner the Laplanders use a plant of the like qualities, which af­fords a mealy matter, with the same management. In this country the arum seems to be of the same nature; being, when recent, very acrid, by drying turned mild and farinaceous; and I make no doubt but it might be used as a farinaceous substance in food. I know one purpose which it serves in common with other farinae, viz. making a fine powder for the hair

SAGO.

It is the product of a species of oriental palm, called todapanna, &c. We have long been acquainted with the substance, but often have dis­puted about its origin. We are now assured, that it is the pith of the tree above mentioned. When the tree is cut down, the pith is sepa­rated from its filamentous membrane, and afterwards farther cleaned by winnowing, and broke down into a fine meal, and dried in the sun. Some say that this meal is made into a pulmentum with water, dried, and afterwards formed into the grains in which we have it. This opinion I am apt to favour. Possibly, from some of our own farinaceous matters, some such substance might be procured. Sago appears to be a pure, mild, bland, farinaceous substance, having the oil and sugar intimately blended. Hence its qualities may be under­stood, being demulcent, as other farinae, &c. It dissolves in water into a viscid mucilage, and it is owing to its viscidity that it is less acescent, and flatulent, than other farinae, keeping longer, even for [Page 73] twenty years, than other farinae, and also in its mucilaginous state a long time. Hence it is considerably nutritious, as the East Indians experience.

FARINACEOUS SEEDS.

These make the chief vegetable nutriment of all nations. They are subdivided into three kinds, 1. Cerealia; 2. Leguminoso; 3. Nuces oleosae. The first is the purest farina; the second is more oily; the third so much more so as to have their oil separate, and easily ex­tracted from them. The Cerealia are of most universal use. Thus barley, rye, and oats are the food of the North. In the Southern parts of Asia, Africa, and America, wheat, rice, and maiz. To these millet may be added. All these substances belong to a distinct family of plants, under the name of Culmifer [...]e, or Graminos [...]e. The whole of the gramina are of the same nature, and furnish aliment to men and domestic animals. All these might be used in food, but we employ those of largest growth and product. The properties of all are much in common. They are all acescent and saccharine, or by malting, convertible into a saccharine nature. Hence they are the proper subjects of fermentation, and hence they are acescent, though less so than any of the vegetables yet mentioned. And here, by the bye, I may observe, that in my Catalogue I had in view to place the substances in the order of acescency. To go on; we render them less acescent by a previous fermentation, as in the form of bread: So much for their assimilation. They are not so readily soluble in the stomach as most of the vegetables we have mentioned, especially when made into a paste; but in this form they have an advantage, becoming not only more nourishing for the robust, but, as I shall afterwards observe, for all. The first ap­pearance of their solution, is to give a mucilage; hence they are demulcent. Some call them astringent: I see no foundation for this, as any appearance of their astringency is owing to their de­mulcent property. So far of these substances in general. We now proceed to speak of each in particular, very briefly.

BARLEY.

This is a sweeter grain than most of the others, its sugar being less covered by the oil; hence it is the more common subject of fermentation. It is also less nourishing, not only because the sugar is least covered, but also because it breaks down into a very bulky meal, on which account when made into paste it is least solid food, so that barely pottage, &c. makes a less solid, and therefore a lighter nourishment. It is, however, preferable for decoctions, as it renders them less viscid than any of the farinaceous substances I know.

MILLET.

This, from its sweetness, is manifestly of the same nature as barley, and if as large a grain, would be used for the same purposes. As tender and sweet, it is sometimes used in our puddings.

RYE.

This a sweet grain, and from accidents, as well as this, it has particular qualities, being in the countries where it is used the food of the poor, and therefore not cleaned accurately from its husks. Hence, and from its sweetness, it is considerably acescent, so more liable to ferment in the stomach and produce purging, which people on their first using it commonly experience.

OATS.

This grain is a stronger nutriment than the former, as the sweet­ness is less obvious, the oil being more intimately blended with the sugar. This appears from more nourishment being actually obtain­ed than from the same quantity of barley or rye. It is of a more [...] and compact texture, and from being less soluble than the wheat, appears to me the reason why it gives less nourishment. Oats have been supposed heating, and to produce itch, &c. [Page 75] It is absurd to suppose any heating quality in any of the farinaceae. Heart-burn produced from its use is given as an instance of its heat­ing quality, but this is owing to the acescent quality common with other farinaceae, taken unfermented. Even wheat itself, made into unleavened cakes, as the oats are commonly here, produces the same effects.

WHEAT.

This is a more perfect grain than any yet mentioned, particularly it affords a finer farina than oats or barley, for I believe it is scarce possible to make a scarce fine enough, in order to hinder its trans­mission. It is the grain of most plentiful encrease, even in this country, and, in proportion to the quantity, gives a more plentiful nourishment. It is certainly the fittest for bread of any, I mean the European grains, for I imagine it is excelled by

RICE.

This, both for largeness of produce, quantity of nourishment, and goodness, is more excellent, being of finer farina and more tender texture, as is plain by macerating the different grains in water; for as the rice swells to largest size, so its parts are more intimately divided. Rice is said to affect the eyes, but this is purely prejudice: Thus it is alledged a particular people of Asia, who live on this grain, are blind eyed; but if the soil be sandy, and not properly covered with herbage, and as these people are much employed in the field, this affection of their eyes may be owing to the strong reflection of the rays of light from this sandy soil; and I am more inclined to this opinion, as no such effect is observed in Carolina, where it is very commonly used.

MAIZ.

Of this I have but little experience to speak positively of it. It is an American grain. It is of a firmer, more solid texture than [Page 76] the rest; it may, however, be broke down into a fine meal. With water, it forms the most gluey viscid substance of any of the farinaceae, therefore should be well opened by fermentation, to make it fit for tender stomachs. In our trials we have never been able, when we imported it in times of scarcity, to make it undergo such a fermentation as to have the friability of our grains.

BUCK WHEAT.

This is a farinaceous seed, but does not belong to the same class with the former. It is employed as food in this country now very rarely. It is used for some other purposes, particularly to give a thick mucilage, of use to give tenacity to yarn in weaving, for which purpose it answers better than oats, barley, or wheat. I am led to make the same observations on it as the maiz, viz. that it is a hard, viscid, less soluble substance than any of the other grains. It cannot be reduced to a fine enough meal. If we could open it by fermentation, it might be useful in food.

Having thus treated of the principal species of the farinacea, I now come to their preparations. By much the most common of these is bread, and without somewhat of this form no nations seem to live. Thus the Laplanders, having no corn of their own, make a sort of bread of their dried fishes and of the inner rind of the pine, which seems to be used not so much for their nourishment as for supplying a dry food. For this mankind seem to have an universal appetite, rejecting bland, slippery, mucilaginous foods. This is not com­monly accounted for, but seems to depend or very simple principles. The preparation of our food depends on the mixture of the animal fluids in every stage. Among others the saliva is necessary, which requires dry food as a necessary stimulus to draw it forth, as bland, slippery fluid aliments are too inert, and make too short stay in the mouth to produce this effect, or to cause sufficient degree of man­ducation to emulge that liquor. For this reason we use commonly dry bread along with animal food, which otherwise would too [Page 77] quickly be swallowed. For blending the oil and water of our food, nothing is so fit as bread, assisted by a previous manducation. For which purpose bread is of like necessity in the stomach, as it is proper, that a substance of solid consistence should be long retained there. Now I have said that the animal fluids must be mixed with our aliments, in order to change the acescency it undergoes. But liquid foods would not attain this end, whereas the solid stimulates and emulges the glands of the stomach. The bread then appears to be exceedingly proper, being bulky without too much solidity, and firm without difficulty of solution. Although the bread I here men­tion only of our own farinacea, yet in different countries others are used, as sago, &c.

Bread is of two kinds, leavened or unleavened, i. e. subjected to fermentation, or only simple dough made or water. Leavened bread is of two kinds; first, as made of dough set to ferment naturally, and afterwards employed as a ferment to other dough; secondly, where we employ a ferment of vinous liquors. The first is a pre­carious uncertain operation in itself, and more especially so in its application to a fresh mass of unfermented dough. This is the method used in the southern countries of Europe. The yeast used in the second more preferable method is a more active ferment, and less liable to accident than the leaven, even although it is subject to be used too old, &c. and so we find British bread better raised than the French and more spungy; but it has a disadvantage, espe­cially to strangers, from the disagreeable bitterness of hops often tainting our yeast, and so the bread as formed with it. The ad­vantages of leavened bread are to promote assimilation and solution.

As to the first, all vegetable food becomes naturally more or less acescent, and it is the mode of this that forms a disease, viz. when the vinous fermentation takes place. Indeed, I also own, that disease may sometimes depend on the quantity of acid produced. One way of obviating the vinous fermentation is, by giving our food somewhat of the acetous tendency, or throwing into the stomach [Page 78] somewhat to have this effect. Unfermented, or too little fermented bread, will cause heart-burn; when too acid from over fermenta­tion it will purge. This then explains the use of bread, and the degree of leavening necessary, viz. that it should not be so much leavened as to purge, but sufficiently so, in order to check the noxious vinous fermentation. The more acescent grains, as barley and rye, are more especially purgative, and the husks of all grain are somewhat of this nature, while the pure farina has loss of it. Thus then the finest bread will be least purgative, and the coarsest most certainly so. So far as to the assimilation, now with regard to the solution.

In all bodies there is blended a certain quantity of air, and nothing promotes solution more than the extrication of this air, which is particularly effected by fermentation. Application of heat, of a menstruum applied, &c. would be of little avail, unless assisted by a fermentation going on in the stomach, which is particularly assisted by bread, which, besides the advantages of solidity, &c. is of use, as having its own texture already opened, to prove a ferment to other food. Bread is necessarily in a solid and dry form, and hence is less soluble. To prevent this, and at the same time preserve the solid form, is the purpose of baking. To make the bread cohere, water is used, and there is no greater secret in the art of baking than the quantity of this used, which, if too great, makes the whole concrete into a firm insoluble mass. Here we are apt to be deceived, as meal, like clay, will absorb a considerable quantity, and still retain its mealy form. This mixture must be made not with gentle stirring, but accurate kneading, in order to make a small quantity of water suffice; for if gentle mixture were used, it, like the clay before-mentioned, would take in too much water, before it would cohere. After the mixture is made, we proceed to drying, which must be performed suddenly, all slow drying giving to sub­stances a tough compact form, while sudden drying gives a spongy porous texture. This is illustrated in making of paper, which, slowly dried, is of fine compact texture; whereas, if taken sud­denly [Page 79] from the mill, it is porous, sinking, and spungy. Hence we can apprehend what are the qualities of bread properly dried; for the water, interposed as a gluten, is dissipated, and leaves the bread in a considerable degree of friability. Its friability depends also on the fineness of the meal, and quality of the ferment applied, ren­dering it fit for manducation and solution in the stomach: Hence the difference between new bread and stale; the latter being more friable, and more easily soluble, is preferable, provided it has got none of the putrefactive taint: However, in strong stomachs, this may too easily be dissolved and digested, and therefore, in such cases, the other is to be chosen.

As to unleavened bread, which is used both here and in many other parts of Europe; this necessarily comes into a firm and tough cake, not having the advantage of fermentation to extricate the air. On account of this closeness of texture, it will retain the water more tenaciously: Hence the reason of the different form of un­leavened bread being made out into thin cakes to favour their dry­ing, which the more expeditiously it is done, for reasons already assigned, without burning, it is the more soluble, friable, and po­rous. People obliged to use unleavened bread, have thought of adding butter, to render it more friable; but from this, perhaps, it is less miscible with the watery fluids, and those in the stomach; and hence, as we have said, it is more acescent, and apt to produce heart-burn. We also sometimes use bread leavened to a very great degree, under the name of [...]our cakes. These are made by adding a good deal of water to give them viscidity, that they may be thinly extended. To obviate the effects of this viscidity, they are ren­dered proportionably more [...]our, on which account, when taken in considerable quantities, they are purgative. So far with regard to bread.

We now proceed to the other preparations of farinacea. These, when made into paste with water, and exposed to a heat capable of coagulating our fluids, are hardened into indissoluble masses; but [Page 80] when they are mixed with cold water, and afterwards exposed to a gradual heat, their solution is effected. This is illustrated by the preparation of hasty-pudding and water-gruel. The first practice is the most common, probably from being more solid and longer retained in the stomach, till it undergoes the proper acescent changes, while the water-gruel is little considered as a food, but rather as a drink, because it passes quickly off. All the puddings are analogous in their preparation to the hasty-pudding. The farinacea prepared by coagulation are of three kinds, pudding, pancake, and baken paste; pudding is of two kinds as made of flour or bread. The first is coagulated into a firm mass, which we should not be able to dissolve unless mixed with other matters, as suet; on the contrary, that made of bread, still remains, after being drenched with water, easily soluble. These are the common forms of pudding, though sometimes they are made of grain, as rice, millet, &c. In this case the grain is first boiled, and then dried to a proper consistence, and mixed with variety of substances. In all of these forms milk is commonly used rather than plain water, as giving a less tough consistence. Eggs are also used to obviate acescency, as being of animal nature. 2. Pancakes. Here somewhat of a firm texture is required, and they are made out into thin plates for the same reason as the unleavened cakes. More water is necessary to give them tenacity, and butter is added to pre­vent fermentation. 3. Paste. This is sometimes made of fer­mented bread, but ordinarily of flour. As it is to be converted into various forms, it is made considerably tenacious. This is done by adding a large quantity of water, by [...]low drying, and other means. It would, therefore, be very hard without the addition of butter, and, after all, it is very indigestible, and apt to produce heart­burn and acescency. Perhaps this is increased by the burned butter, from a certain sensibility in the stomach, which occasions all empyreumatic oils to be long retained, and so turn rancescent and acid.

LEGUMINA.

These are unctuous and oily, and have the oil intimately blended with a saccharine matter, so that they afford a pure and strong nourishment; and that they do so appear from experiments made on domestic animals. It is observed too that servants, caeteris paribus, living on low grounds, where the legumina grow in great plenty, and are their chief food, fatten remarkably, and then when trans­ported to the higher ground, they turn weak and lean, living mostly on the culmiferous farinacea, and sometimes cannot recover them without having recourse to the former diet. That the legumina are intended for food, a curious reason may be assigned. The culmiferous, indeed, are intended for food, but the same ground cannot produce them above one or two years without being exhausted; whereas the legumina have no such effect, and interposed between the culmiferous crops, make these be borne more easily: And thus I have known a field, by alternate crops of the culmiferae and legumina, after twenty-four years, without any particular manure, capable to produce the same crop of culmiferae as at first. This practice is very ancient, and therefore legumina very early must have made a part of food.

Legumina are of a more firm texture and less soluble, therefore their use in food should be confined to the hardy robust farmer. They are more flatulent than most vegetables, at least than the farinacea. This depends not merely on that quantity of saccharine matter (which appears to be considerable, as appears from the rich sweet procurable from them) as the bad effects of this are obviated by its intimate mixture with their oil, but on the great quantity of air there is lodged in that texture, and which, during their fermenta­tion, is copiously extricated; and hence they are improper aliment for weak stomachs. They are used in two different states, not only when fully ripe, (their effects in which case I have just now mentioned,) but also when very tender and green, at which time [Page 82] they have not attained the oil they afterwards gain, approach in their qualities to other olera, and are hardly more sensibly flatulent than these; but after all, in compensation for these properties, their nutriment is proportionably diminished.

In the Catalogue I have only set down of the legumina, peas, beans, and French beans, though many more of the same kind might have been added, as lentils, &c. but they are purposely omitted, as all of the same qualities, and I have only mentioned the three most com­monly used.

The phaseoli, or French beans, are here little known in their mature state, but are used with their cod in the manner of olera, than which they are somewhat more firm and more nutritious. The phaseoli, in their ripe state, have a bitter disagreeable husk, deprived of which they are more tender, more soluble, and less flatulent than other legumina, even the peas, and for the purposes of peas, by the better sort they are, for this reason, sometimes imported, as for puddings.

Peas, both raw and ripe, are of a more tender and soluble texture than beans, and hence the better sort seldom employ the bean, but use the pea for culinary purposes, as puddings, &c.

NUCES OLEOSAE.

This term is not strictly proper in a botanical sense, but common language has authorized it. All these consist of a farinaceous sub­stance by itself, and have an oil in their composition, not mixed as in the legumina, but separate, and easily obtained by proper expres­sion. Though this oil be separate, yet, by triture with water, it may be united with the farinaceous substance into an homogeneous emulsion; and most of the preparations of nuces oleosae in food should be made on this foundation. Nuces oleosae are less flatulent than the legumina, and even than the farinacea, and, on account of their [Page 83] copious oil, more nutritive, but hence more difficultly assimilated, and its effects appear by stuffing the lungs, especially such as were formerly affected with any disorder of the asthmatic kind.

Let us now proceed to treat of the Nuces oleosae in particular. I have ranked them in the Catalogue according to alphabetical order, but according to the proportion of oil they may stand thus: AVELLANA, CASTANEAE, JUGLANDES, PISTACEAE, AMYGDALAE, CACAO.

HAZEL NUT.

This is less oily, and has its oil more intimately blended with the farinaceous substance than in the rest, but all this is to be taken with distinction, of those nuts in different countries, climates, and seasons. Thus in the southern, drier and hotter climates, the oil is more copious and separate. Before these arrive at maturity, they are more watery than the other nuts.

CHESNUT.

This I suppose was the food of the ancients, and not the acorn of the oak, which is scarcely reducible to food. The later Botanists have very justly reduced the chesnut tree to the genus of the fagus, and this was probably the ancient esculent one. Chesnuts still, in some countries, make the chief parts of food to the lower kind of people, as in the fertile plains of Lombardy. They afford a copious nourishment, as somewhat of the nature of the legumina, having their oil intimately blended, and much air being fixed in their substance, and they are the most flatulent of the nuces oleosae.

WALNUTS.

These are more oily than the former, and have that oil more separate.

PISTACHIO.

This still more abounds in oil, and may give a more copious nou­rishment, but it is scarcely possible to separate from them the ter­binthinal acrimony of the tree.

ALMONDS.

These are the most agreeable of the nuts, but are no where pro­duced in such quantity as to afford a food. They are divided into bitter and sweet, and the oil is said to be obtained equally sweet from both. And, indeed, it appears, that bitter and sweet almonds are only varieties, but it is a doubt whether the bitter almond ought to be used in food. The farina and oil of it are ex­actly the same, but its bitter makes it suspicious, as the laurel bitter, afterwards to be mentioned, may be procured from it, and as it is a poison to many animals. Some men, indeed, use them with impu­nity, but I think it a dangerous practice. They are, however, de­prived of this acrimony by heat, and hence are used in baking; but we should not from this infer, that the use of them, when fresh, is allowable.

CACAO NUTS.

These contain the largest proportion of oil, and thence are hardly used without preparation, by mixing the oily with the farinaceous part, and on the accuracy of this mixture the quantity of their nourishment depends, as well as its easiness of digestion. The cho­colate made in Portugal and Spain is not near so well prepared as the English, depending, perhaps, on the machine employed here, viz. the double cylinder, which seems very well calculated for exact triture. If perfectly prepared, no oil appears on the solution. London chocolate gives up no oil like the foreign, and it also may, in some measure, depend on the thickness of the preparation. The solution requires more care than is commonly imagined. It is proper [Page 85] to break it down, and dissolve it thoroughly in cold water, by mill­ing with the chocolate stick. If heat be applied, it should be done slowly; for if suddenly, the heat will not only coagulate it, but separate the oil, and therefore much boiling after it is dissolved is hurtful. Chocolate is commonly required by people of weak stomachs, but often rejected for want of proper preparation. When properly prepared it is easily dissolved, and an excellent food where a liquid nutrient vegetable one is required, and is less flatulent than any of the farinacea.

OLIVES.

These might be referred to the head of Condiment, and they are even used only picked in those countries where they are native, and their disagreeable bitter is by this means corrected. I only mention them here, on account of the oil they afford so copiously.

I formerly started a question about the use of oil, viz. Whether oil was necessary for nourishment, or only for supplying the great quantity of oil in the system? Though the latter opinion be granted, yet I imagine oils are also directly nutritive, being copi­ously mixed and intimately blended with the other parts of our aliment, and thus constituting a part of the proper nutritious fluid. They are also necessary for assimulation; for the acescency of the fructus acido dulces would be difficultly subdued without these. Hence the use of oil and butter is almost as universal, and as neces­sary, as that of the farinacea. They give an aliment which approaches most to that obtained from animal food. They give a more dense elastic blood, and probably, too, a more putrescent one than vegetables. Their viscidity also remains in some degree in the blood vessels, on which account we shall mention them under the class of medicines. Dr. Russel, in his Natural History of Aleppo, tells us, ‘that in certain seasons, when they use a great quantity of oil there, they are then disposed to somewhat of fever, with remarkable infarction of the lungs, which symptoms wear off on [Page 86] retrenching the use of oil.’ Considered as aliment, oil is diffi­cultly perspired, the meaning of which shall be afterwards explained. These are the properties in general of our oily nourishment, whether oil or butter. Here a question arises, Whether the Northern or Southern countries are supplied with the most agreable substance of this kind? With regard to butter, it has always a quantity of animal mucllage mixed with it, and hence is easier miscible with water. But hence, although from the muscilage it receive con­sistence and somewhat of miscibility with water, and hence more easily digested, yet from this very mixture it is more rancescent, and does not keep so long fresh as oil, and hence produces disorders in the primae viae. In the Southern countries oil is procured little disposed to rancescency, and therefore, where it can be used per­fectly fresh, it is not so apt to produce rancescent disorders as butter. But here it is not so equal advantage, and I never saw any in this country but had some degree of rancidity, and therefore, we ought not in any case, to prefer the imported oils to good fresh butter. However, as fresh oil is certainly eligible, and as almonds, whose oil is better than that of olives, afford it but in inconsiderable quan­tity, I think we ought, as we have native seeds which will afford a pure oil in pretty large quantity, to endeavour to procure it from them.

VEGETABLE ALIMENT preserved by SUGAR.

This preparation is so performed, that the saccharine matter i [...] intimately and every where introduced into the pores of the vege­table substance; so that preparations of this kind may be considered as entirely sugar, participating of none of the qualities of the vege­table, excepting those of the acrid kind, as ginger. The same may be said of

VINEGAR PRESERVES,

As vinegar is applied only to insipid substances, or which, by boil­ing or soaking with it, become so; and so preparations of this kind [Page 95] may be considered as so many sponges containing vinegar, and may indeed be employed to increase the flavour of food, and, as antisep­tics, will go as far as vinegar itself only. With regard to the small quantity of aromata joined to these, their effects may be known from what we have said before.

ANIMAL FOOD.

We formerly distinguished animal from vegetable food, by saying, that it required no assimilation, but only solution and mixture. But this is not so clear as has been commonly imagined. What gives rise to this doubt is, that carnivorous animals live on that without any vegetable mixture, or even salt, by which they are even poisoned, living long without putrid accumulations, which, though for a short time might produce little inconvenience, yet, in the course of life, would certainly produce bad consequences. This accumulation is obviated by particulars in their oeconomy, as short intestines; whereas in the phytovorous, long intestines are given to give rise to putrescency. Again, the carnivorous animals are exposed to putri­dity, from their irregularity, taking in water in small quantity, &c. They are said to be of quick excretions; but this is contradicted from their being capable to bear long abstinence, being glutted to­day with a full meal, and starved perhaps for several weeks after, which would be in other animals as the surest means of pushing pu­trefaction to the greatest degree. From all this we must suspect something in carnivorous animals to prevent putrefaction.

Here let me offer a conjecture, viz. that the food in the stomach of carnivorous animals suffers a decomposition in some degree, and becomes [...]. This appears probable, from the change which de­cocted or [...]lixated animal substances undergo, these broths becoming in time acescent: Besides, it has been said, that an acid is always found in the stomach of these animals: If it be really so, it can proceed from no other source but decomposition. However, in accounting for the effects of animal food on the human body, we may neglect this, and consider the diseases thence arising to proceed from [Page 96] putridity; for no man, as has been proved from experiment, can bear animal food alone, without nausea, for even a few days. Putrescency takes place in the stomach and intestines, in the first producing nausea and thirst, which would oftener occur unless obviated by the acid of vegetables conjoined with it; in the second, violent purging, cholera, and dysentery, from putrid exhalations.

Next, as to the solution of animal food. This, though seemingly of greater cohesion, is of more easy solubility than vegetables. How­ever, I do not mean by this a quicker but a more entire solubility; for very firm animal substances are extracted and dissolved in the human body, and the firmest, as bones, in stomachs similar to the human, though, at the same time, I am convinced, that vegetables, which are not dissolved at all, have yet their juices more quickly extracted than animal food, and pass sooner off. For easiness of solubility does not depend so much on the firmness of texture, as on the viscidity of the juice. Thus the more young and succulent animal food is less soluble than the old, veal than beef, lamb than mutton, &c. And Dr. Robinson relates, that a Gentleman who used to take an evening puke, would throw up chicken unchanged, while of beef there were no remains. Animal food excites the fever mentioned as consequent on digestion [...] greater degree than ve­getable, giving a greater stimulus to the stomach, and so to the whole system; and the difference of animal foods depends on the putrescency and viscidity taken together. Thus young food, being more viscid than old, though less putrescent, is yet less soluble. Ani­mal food differs also as to its perspirability, or passing of the last con­coction. Sanctorius found mutton the most perspirable, and Keil and he call oysters least so, so animal foods differ in their perspira­bility, according as in their nature they approach nearer or recede farther from these.

MILK.

Of the foods taken from animals, I chuse to begin with milk, as it is a connecting and intermediate substance between animals and vegetables. I do not find it proper to enter just now into a minute chemical investigation of this subject, especially as you will soon have an opportunity of seeing that subject more fully treated than I can do here^*. Milk seems immediately to be secreted from the chyle, both being a white liquor of the same consistence: It is most copiously secreted after meals, and of acescent nature. In most animals who live on vegetables, the milk is acescent, and it is [Page 107] uncertain, though at the same time no observation proves the con­trary, whether it is not so likewise in carnivorous animals. If it really be found of this nature it will solve the question about the de­composition and acescency of the food of these last mentioned animals in the primae viae. But whatever be in this, it is certain, that the milk of all animals, who live on vegetables, is acescent. Milk being derived from the chyle, we thence conclude its vegetable nature, for in those who live on both promiscuously, more milk is got, and more quickly, from the vegetable than the animal food. Milk, how­ever, is not purely vegetable, though we have a vegetable liquor that resembles its taste, consistence, colour, acescency, and the separa­bility of the oily part, I mean an emulsion of the nuces oleosae and farinaceous substances. But these want the coagulable part of milk, which seems to be of animal nature, approaching to that of the coagulable lymph of the blood. Milk, then, seems to be of an inter­mediate nature, between chyle taken up from the intestines, and their albumen, or fully elaborated animal fluid.

Its contents are of three kinds; first, an oily part, which, what­ever may be said concerning the origin of other oils in the body, is certainly immediately derived from the oil of the vegetables taken in, as with these it agrees very exactly in its nature, and would entirely, if we could separate it fully from the coagulable part. Another mark of their agreement is the separability, which proves that the mixture has been lately attempted, but not fully performed. 2dly, Besides this oily, I have told you there is a proper coagulable part; and, 3dly, much water accompanies both, in which there is dissolved a saline saccharine substance. These three can be got separate in cheese, butter, and whey, but never perfectly so, a part of each being always blended with every other part.

Nothing is more common, from what has been said of its intermediate nature, than to suppose that it requires no assimilation, and hence has been deduced the reason of its exhibition in the [Page 108] most weakly state of the human body. But wherever we can examine milk we always find that it coagulates, suffers a decomposition, and becomes acescent. Again, infants, who feed entirely on milk, are always troubled with eructations, which every body observes are not of the same quality with the food taken, and therefore I would alledge, that, like all other food, milk turns naturally acescent in the stomach, and only appears in the chyle and blood, in consequence of a new recomposition. It approaches then to the nature of vege­table aliment, but is not capable of its noxious vinous fermentation, and therefore has an advantage over it; neither from this quality, like animal food, is it heating in the stomach, and productive of fever, though at the same time, from its quantity of coagulable matter, it is more nourishing than vegetables.

These are the general qualities of milk; now let us consider these as applicable to food. Milk is the food most universally suited to all ages and states of the body, but it seems chiefly designed by Nature as the food of infants. When animals are in the foetus state, their solids are a perfect jelly, incapable of an assimilatory power. In such state Nature has perfectly assimilated food, as the albumen ovi in the oviparous, and in the viviparous animals certainly somewhat of the same kind, as it was necessary the vessels should be filled with such a fluid as would make way for an after assimilation. When the infant has attained a considerable degree of firmness, as when it is separated from the mother, yet such a degree of weakness still re­mains, as makes somewhat of the same indication necessary. It behoves the infant to have an alkalescent food ready prepared, and at the same time its noxious tendency to be avoided. Milk then is given, which is alkalescent, and, at the same time, has a sufficient quantity of acidity to correct that alkalescency. As the body advances in growth, and the alkalescent tendency is greater, the animal, to obviate that tendency, is led to take vegetable food, as more suited to its strength of assimilation.

[Page 109] I observed, that milk was almost suited to all temperaments, and it is even so to stomachs disposed to acescency, more than those sub­stances which have undergone the vinous fermentation; nay, it even checks vinous fermentation, curing the heart-burn, and preci­pitating the lees, when, by renewal of fermentation, the wine hap­pens to be fouled. It therefore very properly accompanies a great deal of vegetable aliment, although sometimes its acescency is troublesome, either from a large proportion taken in, or from the degree of it; for according to certain unaccountable circumstances, different acids are formed in the stomach, in a healthy body a mild one; in the hypochondriac disease, e. g. one sometimes as corrosive as the fossil acids. When the acidity of milk is carried to a great degree, it may prove remarkably refrigerant, and occasion cold cru­dities, and the recurrence of intermittent fevers. To take the com­mon notion of its passing, unchanged, into the blood, it can suffer no solution. But if, with me, you admit its coagulum in the sto­mach, then it may be reckoned among soluble or insoluble foods, according as that coagulum is more or less tenacious. Formerly ren­net, which is employed to coagulate milk, was thought an acid, but, from late observations, it appears that, if it be an acid, it is very different from other acids, and that its coagulum is stronger than that produced by acids. It has been imagined that a rennet is to be found in the stomachs of all animals, which causes coagulation of milk; but to me the coagulation of milk seems to be owing to a weak acid in the stomach, the relicts of our vegetable food induc­ing, in healthy persons, a weak and soluble coagulum; but in dif­ferent stomachs this may be very different, in these becoming heavy and less soluble food, and sometimes even evacuated in a coagulated undissolved state, both by stomach and stool.

As milk is acescent, it may be rendered sometimes purgative by mixing with the bile; and I know some examples of this. More commonly, however, it is reckoned among those foods which occa­sion costiveness.

[Page 110] Hoffman, in his Experiments on Milk, found, that all kinds of it contained much water, and when this was dissipated, found the residuum very different in their solubility. But we must not thence conclude that the same insolubility takes place in the stomach, for extracts made from vegetables with water are often very insoluble substances, and hardly diffusible through water itself; therefore in Hoffman's extracts, if I may so call them, of milk, somewhat of the same kind might have appeared, and these substances, which in their natural state were not so, might appear very insoluble. However, we may allow that milk is always somehow insoluble in the intestines, as it is of a drying nature, and, as cheese, &c. is very costive. And this effect, I think, shows that milk is always coagulated in the stomach; for if it remained fluid no faeces would be produced, whereas sometimes very hard ones are observed. In the blood vessels, from its animal nature, it may be considered as nutritious; but when we consider its vegetable contents, and aces­cency in the primae viae, we find that, it does not like animal food, excite that degree of fever in the time of digestion, and that from its acescency it will resist putrefaction. Hence is the foundation of its use in hectic fevers, which, whatever be their cause, appear only to be exacerbations of natural feverish paroxysms, which occur twice every day, commonly after meals, and at night. To obviate these, therefore, we give such an aliment as produces the least exacerbation of these fevers; such is milk, on account of its acescent vegetable nature.

There appears also somewhat peculiar in milk, which requires only a small exertion of the animal powers in order to its assimila­tion; and besides, in hectic complaints there is wanted an oily, bland food, approaching to the animal nature, so that on all these accounts, milk is a diet peculiarly adapted to them, and, in general, to most convalescents, and to those of inflammatory temperaments. There is a certain disease whose proper salutary form is that of inflammation, I mean the Gout. There is no method of curing, I had rather say preventing this, but by avoiding this inflammatory [Page 111] tendency by a proper regulation of diet. The inflammatory form, which I said was the salutary one, is also attended with a weakness of the nerves, so that in our prevention we should not weaken the system too much, as would be done by vegetables, and therefore milk may be employed with advantage. However, it may be a question how far, and in what cases, we ought even to obviate the gout, which is often a constitutional disease, and has taken deep root in the system, and if prevented in its native inflammatory form, as it may often be by weakening too much, and so will appear in other more pernicious ones. But there can be no objection against at­tempting this by milk. However, that attempt ought not be made but very early in life, and then, if this diet be used with proper exercise, temperance, and avoiding of venery, there may be ex­pectations of success; for in the decline of life, after one has been used to high living, this low diet is often attended with pernicious consequences. So far of milk in general. We shall now speak of the particular kinds mentioned in the Catalogue, and which are in common use. I have set them down in the proportion of their solid contents.

The three first agree very much in their qualities, being very dilute, having little solid contents, and, when envaporated to dryness, having these very soluble, containing much saccharine matter, of a very ready acescency, and when coagulated, their coagulum being tender and easily broke down. From this view you see they have less oil, and less coagulable matter than the rest.

The three last agree, in opposite qualities, to the three men­tioned; but here there is somewhat more of gradation. Cows milk comes nearest to the former milks: Goats milk is less fluid, less sweet, less flatulent, has the largest proportion of insoluble part after coagulation, and indeed the largest proportion of coagulable part; its oily and coagulable part are not spontaneously separable, never throwing out a cream, or allowing butter to be readily ex­tracted from it. Hence the virtues of these milks are obvious, [Page 112] being more nourishing, though, at the same time, less easily soluble in weak stomachs, than the three first, less acescent than these, and so more rarely laxative, and peculiarly fitted for the diet of convalescents without fever. The three first, again, are less nou­rishing, more soluble, more laxative as more acescent, and adapted to the convalescents with fever.

These qualities, in particular milks, are considerably diversified by different circumstances. First, Different animals, living on the same diet, give a considerably different milk; for there seems to be something in the constitution, abstracting from the aliment, which constitutes a considerable diversity of milk, not only in the same species of animals, but also in the same animal, at different ages, and at different distances after delivery: This, you will easily per­ceive, applies to the choice of nurses. Secondly, Milk follows the nature of the aliment more than any other juice in the human body, being more or less fluid and dilute, more or less solid and nourishing, in proportion as these qualities are more or less in the aliment. (a) The nature of the aliment differs according to its time of growth, e. g. old grass being always found more nourishing than young. (b) Aliment, too, is always varied according to the season, as that is warm or dry, moist or cloudy.

The milk of each particular kind of animal is fitter for particular purposes, when fed on proper food. Thus the cow delights in the succulent herbage of the vale: If the sheep be fed there he certainly rots, but on the higher and more dry side of the mountain he feeds pleasantly and healthy; while the goat never stops near the bottom, but ascends to the craggy summit: And certainly the milks of these animals are always best in their proper soil, and that of goats is best on a mountainous country. From a dissertation of Linnaeus, we have many observations concerning the diversity of plants on which each animal chuses to feed. All the Swedish plants, which could be collected together, were presented alter­nately to domestic animals, and then it appeared that the goat [Page 113] lived on the greatest variety, and even on many which were poi­sonous to the rest; that the cow chose the first succulent shoots of the plant, and neglected the fructification, which last was preferred by the goat. Hence may be deduced rules concerning the pasturage of different animals; e. g. Farmers find that, in a pasture which was only fit to feed a certain number of sheep, an equal number of goats may be introduced, while the sheep are no less nourished than before.

BUTTER MILK.

Here the whey and coagulable part are more entirely separated from the oily, but the coagulable part in butter milk is broke down, resolved, and of easy digestion. As it is very saccharine it is very nutritious, but not without acidity, and therefore is more cooling to the system, and more suited to the inflammatory and alkalescent diathesis, than milk, but for the same reason it is noxious where refrigeration is hurtful.

Condiments of milk, as liable to acescency and cooling in par­ticular constitutions. Where this tendency is apprehended, it may be accompanied with some of the aromata, and cream and whey are there often attended with advantage if used with these. Sugar is another condiment. If milk is liable to acescency, this would seem to encrease it, and indeed it does so in stomachs so disposed. But sugar has another effect, viz. preventing the spontaneous se­paration of milk, and therefore has many of the advantages of newly drawn milk. It is proper, therefore, to give sugar along with milk to convalescents. Conserve of roses is often employed, [Page 117] and acts only by its sugar, two-thirds of it being such; and honey itself, the most acescent of all the sweets, is often employed with advantage.

Having now finished what [...]e had to say on Milk, the inter­mediate substance between Animal and Vegetable, we come now to ANIMAL FOOD, strictly so called.

The first difference of animal food regards its solubility, de­pending on a lax or firm texture of its different kinds. Solubility of animal food seems to deserve less attention than is commonly imagined; for I have known persons of a weak stomach incapable of breaking down the texture of vegetables, or even of dissolving a light pudding, to whom hung beef, or a piece of ham, was very grateful, and easily digested. None of the theories given for the solution of animal food in the human stomach seem to me suffi­ciently to have explained that process. Long ago has been discarded the supposition of an active corrosive menstruum there, and also the doctrine of trituration, for which, indeed, there seems no mechanism in the human body; and we now commonly agree with Boerhaave, supposing nothing more necessary than a watery menstruum, moderate heat and frequent agitation. This will account for solution in some cases, but not entirely. Let us try to imitate it out of the body with the same circumstances, and in ten times the time in which the food is dissolved in the stomach, we shall not be able to bring about the same changes. Take the coagulated white of an egg, which almost every body can easily digest, and yet no artifice shall be able to dissolve it. Hence then we are led to seek another cause for solution, viz. fermentation, a notion, indeed, formerly embraced, but on the introduction of mechanical philosophy, indus­triously banished, with every other supposition of that process taking place at all in the animal oeconomy.

Many of the ancients imagined this fermentation to be putre­factive; but this we deny, as an acid is produced; though hence [Page 118] the fermentation might be reckoned the vinous, which, however, I have formerly proved to you to be morbid. Neither, indeed, is the fermentation purely acetous, but modified by putrescents; for Pringle has observed, that animal matters raise and even expede the acetous process. The fermentation, then, in the stomach is of a mixed nature, between the acetous and putrefactive, mutually modifying each other; though, indeed, in the intestines, somewhat of the putrefactive seems to take place, as may be observed from the state of the faeces broke down, and from the little disposition of such substances to be so, which are not liable to the putrefactive process, as the firmer parts of vegetables, &c. Upon this view solution seems to be extremely easy, and those substances to be most easily broke down which are most subject to putrefaction.

But solution also depends on other circumstances, and hence requires a more particular regard. First, there is a difference of solubility with respect to the manducation of animal food, for which bread is extremely necessary, in order to keep the more slippery parts in the mouth till they be properly comminuted. From want of proper manducation I have known many persons subject to eructations, and this more frequently from the firm vegetable foods than from the animal, as apples, almonds, &c. though, indeed, even from animal food, very tendinous, or swallowed in unbroken masses, such sometimes occur. Manducation is so much connected with solution, that some, from imperfectly performing that, are obliged to belch up their food, remanducate it, and swallow it again before the stomach can dissolve it, or proper nourishment be extracted. Another proof of our regard to solubility, is our re­jecting the firmer parts of animal food, as bull beef, and generally carnivorous animals.

Its effects with regard to solubility I also take, secondly, to be the foundation of our choice between fat and lean, young and old meats. In the lean, although, perhaps, a single fibre might be sufficiently tender, yet these, when collected in fasciculi, are very firm [Page 119] and compact, and of difficult solution; whereas in the fat there is a greater number of vessels, a greater quantity of juice, more inter­position of cellular substance, and consequently more solubility. Again, in young animals, in my opinion, there is the same number of fibres as in the older, but these more connected; whereas, in the older, the growth depending on the separation of these, and the encrease of vessels and cellular substance, the texture is less firm and more soluble, which qualities, with regard to the stomach, are at that time too encreased, by the encreased alkalescency of the animal. To this also may be referred our choice of castrated animals, viz. on their disposition to fatten after the operation.

3. It is with a view to the solubility, that we make a choice be­tween meats recently killed, and those which have been kept for some time. As soon as meat is killed the putrefactive process be­gins, which commonly we allow to proceed for a little, as that process is the most effectual breaker down of animal matters, and a great assistance to solution. The length of time during which meat ought to be kept, is proportioned to the meat's tendency to undergo the putrid fermentation, and the degree of those circumstances which favour it: Thus in the Torrid Zone, where meat cannot be kept above four or five hours, it is used much more recent than in these northern climates.

4. Boiled or roasted meats create a difference of solution. By boiling we extract the juices interposed between the fibres, approxi­mate them more to each other, and render them of more difficult solubility, which is encreased too by the extraction of the juices, which are much more alkalescent than the fibres; but when we want to avoid the stimulus of alkalescent food, and the quick solu­tion, as in some cases of disease, boiled is not to be chosen. Of roasted meat, it may be asked whether are more proper, those which are most or least roasted. That which is least done is cer­tainly the most soluble; even raw meats are more soluble than dressed, as I know from a person who from necessity was obliged, [Page 120] for some time, to eat such: But at the same time that meats little done are very soluble, they are very alkalescent; so that, wherever we want to avoid alkalescency in the primae viae, the most roasted meats should be chosen. Those who throw away the broths of boiled meat do very improperly; for, besides their supplying a fluid, (as I formerly observed,) from their greater alkalescency they en­crease the solubility of the meat. Here we shall observe, that pure blood has been thought insoluble; undoubtedly it is very nutritious, and though out of the body, like the white of eggs, it seems very insoluble, yet, like that too, in the body it is commonly easily di­gested. Moses very properly forbad it the Israelites, as, in warm countries, it is highly alkalescent, and even here, when it was used in great quantity, the scurvy was more frequent; but to a moderate use of it, in these climates, no such objection takes place.

5. Solubility is varied from another source, viz. viscidity of the juice of aliment. Young animals, then, appear less soluble than old, not on account of their compaction and firmness of texture, but rather on their greater viscidity of juice. See Dr. Brian Robinson [...] of Dublin, on this head. And nothing is more common, as [...] observed, than to be longer oppressed from a full meal of veal, [...] from the same quantity of beef, &c. Upon account too of their greater viscidity of juice, are the tendinous and ligamentous parts of animals longer retained than the purely muscular, as well as on account of their firmness of texture. Even fishes, whose muscular parts are exceedingly tender, are, on account of their gluey viscosity, longer of solution in the stomach. And eggs, too, which are exceed­ingly nourishing, have the same effect, and cannot be taken in great quantity: For the stomach is peculiarly sensible to gelatinous sub­stances, and by this means has Nature perhaps taught us, as it were by a sort of instinct, to limit ourselves in the quantity of such nutri­tive substances.

6. With regard to solution, we must take in the oils of animal food, which, when tolerably pure, are the least putrescent part of [Page 121] it, and by diminishing the cohesion of the fibres, render them more soluble. On this last account is the lean of fat meat more easily dissolved than other lean. But when the meat is exposed to much heat, this oil is separated, leaving the solid parts less easily soluble, and becoming itself empyreumatic, rancescent, and of difficult mixture in the stomach. Fried meats, from the reasons now given, and baked meats, for the same, as well as the tenacity of the paste, are preparations which diminish the solubility of the food. From what has been said, the preparation of food by fattening it, and keeping it for some time after killed, although it may administer to gluttony, will yet, it must be confessed, encrease the solution of the food.

The second difference of animal food is with regard to

COW KIND; BEEF, VEAL.

This we use as others, in two different ways, young and old. Beef, compared with mutton, is of a more firm texture, and less soluble, but I am persuaded is equally alkalescent, perspirable, and nutritious: If, in the southern countries, it is not esteemed so, it is on account of its imperfection there, as already observed. With regard to young and old foods, a great deal has been already said: I shall confirm that here, with an observation on our use of veal. If we were purely to consider tenderness of texture, the youngest animals certainly would always be preferred; but you observe, that we use veal at a certain age, and perhaps the reason of it may be this; when an animal is very young, although its fibres, taken by themselves are more tender, yet, on account of their great connec­tion and complication, they are less soluble; whereas, in the space of a month or two, by proper nourishment, the fibres come to be more and more separated, a greater quantity of cellular substance is interposed, and they are rendered more soluble and nutritious: Now, after this period, perhaps after the third month, the animal's nature tends towards robustness, firmness, and rigidity, becoming more fibrous again, and more difficultly dissolved. When an animal is very young, we commonly have an aversion to it; the whole of it then is, as it were, a semifluid mass, which we cannot take in suf­ficient quantity, and which, from its watery consistence, must be but little nutritious.

SHEEP KIND; MUTTON, LAMB.

Mutton has commonly been preferred to all the fleshes of qua­drupedes, and indeed, besides its being more perfect, has the ad­vantage over them of being more generally suited to different cli­mates; whereas beef, e. g. requires a very nice intermediate state, [Page 127] which it seems to enjoy chiefly in England; for although we supply what are reckoned the best cattle, it is in their rich pastures they are brought to perfection. Now the sheep can be brought to almost the same perfection in this bleak northern, as in the mild southern coun­tries. With regard to the difference between the young and old of this kind, the same observations occur as under the former head. Lamb appears a more fibrous meat, and, upon that account, is less easily soluble than veal. In this country, house-lamb is never reared to advantage.

GOATS FLESH; KID.

The goat, from its own nature, and from its exercise in quest of food, is of a firm fibrous texture, and, with all the advantages art can give it, of very difficult solution, and so disused in those countries where delicacy of food is introduced. Kid, from its natural rigidity, and the little care bestowed on its feeding, has all the disadvantages of any young food in excess.

HART, CERVUS; VENISON.

Cervus dama, or fallow deer, is that with which we are best acquainted, and use most, known under the name of Venison. This, from the nature of its oeconomy, from its wild and exercised state, and from being generally killed in the blood, is an alkalescent sapid aliment, considered as a very great delicacy, and, though an exercised animal, of easy digestion. Its flesh approaches very near to that of the sheep, though undoubtedly it is more sapid and alka­lescent.

The stag, or red deer, is another of the same kind, sometimes used in food, and is a more intractable, robust, and exercised animal than the other, and consequently more insoluble. Perhaps there are others of the Cervus kind used in food, but I am not yet properly acquainted with them.

[Page 128] After the Pecora is set down in the Catalogue, after some interval, the term Lepus, one of the genera of the Mammalia Glires of Linnaeus, comprehending the hare and rabbit, which, although their specific difference be small, yet differ a good deal in qualities as food.

HARE.

This animal is much exercised, and thereby acquires a great firm­ness of fibres; and, though sufficiently alkalescent, and killed in the blood, is yet of difficult solubility. As the tenderness of meats de­pends on the succulency of the muscular parts, the hare killed after a long chace, when much of the oil of the body is absorbed, is much firmer and tougher than when killed in the seat.

RABBIT.

This animal is of very little exercise, moderately alkalescent, and one of the white meats without viscidity. Whether on these ac­counts, or some particulars in its oeconomy, I have always found it one of the lightest and most soluble animal foods.

Next Lepus, in the Catalogue, is placed the term, Sus, Hog.

HOG; PORK.

This animal is of a peculiar make, and difficultly reduced to any particular order, placed, however, among the Mammalia Bestiae of Linnaeus. It is the only domestic animal that I know, of no use to man when alive, and therefore properly designed for food. Besides, as loathsome and ugly to every human eye, it is killed without reluctance. The Pythagoreans, whether to preserve health, or on account of compassion, generally forbid the use of animal food, and yet it is alledged that Pythagoras reserved the use of hogs flesh for himself. The Jews, the Egyptians, &c. and others in the warm countries, and all the Mahometans at present, [...]eject the use of pork. It is difficult to find out the reason of this, [Page 129] or of the precept given to some of them, though commonly such as are not given without a particular one. The Greeks gave great commendations to this food; and Galen, though indeed that is sus­pected to be from a particular fondness, is every where full of it. The Romans considered it as one of their delicacies; and if some of the inhabitants of the northern climates have taken an aversion to it, that probably arose from the uncultivated state of their country not being able to rear it. Pork is of a very tender structure, encreased perhaps from a peculiarity in its oeconomy, viz. taking on fat more readily than any other animal. Pork is a white meat even in its adult state, and then gives out a jelly in very great quantity. On account of its little perspirability and tenderness, it is very nutritious, and was given for that intention to the athletae. With regard to its alkalescency, no proper experiments have yet been made, but as it is of a gelatinous and succulent nature, it is probably less so than many others.

Many others of the Mammalia, or Quadrupeds, are used in different countries, and it is not certain which of the Quadrupeds may be ex­cepted from the rule. Thus the Tartars eat horses, the Romans ea [...] asses, dogs, rats, &c. but of these, as we have no experience, little can be said, though their qualities may probably be understood from the principles already delivered.

We now come to consider the Class of BIRDS, which is di­vided into six orders, Accipitres, Picae, Anseres, Grallae, Gallinae, and Passeres. The Accipitres and Picae are carnivorous Birds, and not used by us, or indeed much by any nation in food. The other four are what are chiefly used, of which we have begun with the Gallinae, as the chief of our domestic fowl; and of these the first, viz. Gallus Gallinaceus, is comprehended by Linnaeus, under the general name of Phasianus.

[Page 130] The COCK, HEN, CHICKEN, and CAPON, are entirely domestic animals, there being no country, as far as I know, in which they are found wild. They take little exercise, live mostly on vegetables, though sometimes, indeed, they pick up insects, and are chiefly delighted with grain. Hence they are a food of tender structure, easy solution, little alkalescency, and, as a white meat, gelatinous. When very young, they are extremely viscid, when old, tough and ligamentous; so that the proper time of using them is in a middle state, between these two extremes, i. e. when about a year old.

A question here arises about the feeding of animals, it being doubted whether a crammed, or barn-door fowl, is preferable. Many of our modern arts of feeding, besides giving more succulency and ten­derness to the food, encrease its alkalescency: As giving succulency, they are an improvement, but, as giving alkalescency, a dangerous one, though even with that they make solution more easy. Exercise, however, is necessary to give perfection, for, by this means, the fat of the animal is equally dispersed through the muscular parts, whereas, when the animal is fatted hastily, the fat is accumulated in a particular part, viz. in the cellular texture, more strictly so called; so that an exercised animal of equal weight, caeteris paribus, with a fed one, is much preferable.

The next bird mentioned in the Catalogue, is The MELEAGRIS GALLOPAVO. another of the Galinae, under the generical name of Meleagris. The Meleagris Gallopavo, or turkey, with regard to its qualities in food, is entirely the same as the proceeding, being equally tender, soluble, and alkalescent.

[Page 131] The next bird we come to, is The PAVO CRISTATUS, or PEACOCK, which is somewhat of a white flesh, but firm and rigid, and partly from the coarseness of its texture, and partly from its not being pro­lific, is now properly enough neglected. The Romans formerly used, but probably only for show, our Peacock as food. It was remarked that the boiled Peacock would keep very long; but in this there is nothing extraordinary, as was imagined; for the most pu­trescent part of the food is the fluid, and this, by boiling, is ex­tracted, and leaves only the solid fibres behind. Now, if what is called jerking of beef in the West-Indies, or hand-roasting it, in both which cases the fluids are not so accurately drawn out, have the effect of preserving meat for a considerable time, how much greater must that effect be expected to be from the more rigid texture of the Peacock, exsuccated by boiling.

PHEASANT.

Next the Peacock should have been inserted the Pheasant, as it is the first among the wild fowl; but because Linnaeus has given Pha­sianus as his generical name for the Gallus Gallinaceus, &c. it was omitted: Here, however, it shall be mentioned, as it is in its proper place. The Pheasant is a wild fowl, is more exercised, and hence, and from its living on the drier vegetables, and insects, more alkalescent than the same fowl, and also, from its being capable of fattening, is more soluble.

The five following belong all to one genus, the Tetrao of Linnaeus. The two first, [Page] TETRAO PERDIX et COTURNIX, i. e. the PARTRIDGE and QUAIL, approach in their nature to the tame fowl, but are more sapid, ten­der and alkalescent, the chief cause of difference residing in the alka­lescency.

The three last, viz.

The LAGOPUS, TETRIX et UROGALLUS, as living more on insects, are more alkalescent than the two former, much more so than the tame fowl.

In following Linnaeus, I have omitted The GROUSE, or RED GAME, which, however, I meant to comprehend under the term Lagopus; although Linnaeus does not seem to be acquainted with our red game, which, however, is the Lagopus of other Naturalists, and the Lagopus altera Plinii. The qualities of these are very much in common. From its size, rather than any real difference, is, I ima­gine, the black game thought more firm, tho' perhaps, from its living on very high mountains, it is seldomer got young. I have men­tioned young food as viscid and gelatinous, but these of which we are speaking are not so, which is an exception to the general rule, and which I impute to the greater alkalescency of the kind.

ANSERES.

Next in order come the Anseres of Linnaeus, which term may properly be translated Water Fowl.

From their nature, the water fowl are much exercised, and being [Page 133] generally carnivorous, are more alkalescent than the tame; whether they are more so than the wild fowl, is undetermined. Certain however it is, that, whether from their less alkalescency, or peculiar nature, they are less soluble than these, so that if we here appre­hend a greater alkalescency, we must likewise suppose a greater viscidity, which indeed they generally possess more than the wild fowl.

Linnaeus using Anseres for the generical term, uses Anas for the goose as well as duck; but, for fear of confounding you, I have avoided the scientific terms.

ANAS DOMESTICA, the TAME DUCK.

Here Naturalists commonly have, although different in their manner of living, considered the tame and wild animal as the same: However that may hold in natural history, we must make a difference in their qualities, as food. The wild duck is more alkales­cent, more tender, and more easily dissolved than the tame, and, in general, this difference takes place between wild and tame ani­mals, if they are taken at a suitable age and proper season. Old animals are generally more alkalescent and more easily soluble than the young: Many animals, however, are not viscid when young, so that, in this case, the rule in contradicted. All wild animals too, differ according to the season, either from the time of their molting or the quantity of food they then get.

The next mentioned, is ANAS [...]OSCHATA, or MUSCOVY DUCK, which seems to be of the same qualities with the former, but somewhat of a more firm and less tender texture. First when these [Page 134] were known here, they were reared with very great care, but are now more commonly neglected.

Of the Boschus major, or Wild Duck, we have already spoken, under the Anas domestica. We go on to the others mentioned in the Catalogue.

The QUERQUEDULA, or TEALE, is very much of the nature of the wild duck, and is the most tender and alkalescent, the least viscid and most savoury of this kind.

ANSER DOMESTICUS, TAME GOOSE.

This is no less alkalescent than the duck, is manifestly less viscid, but of a firmer texture; its solution, however, is not so constant, depending more on a difference of stomach.

CYGNUS, SWAN.

In food, this is now very rarely used; in its young state, it is by far the most rigid of any of their order: It is of difficult manduca­tion, and so far as texture can occasion that, of difficult solution in the stomach.

Here I might have inserted a great many more of the ANSERINE tribe, but I was not so well acquainted with them as to point out their difference: They are all wild, and, from their oeconomy or food, we may judge of their qualities. As living on fish, they are viscid and alkalescent. I have set down two, the Pelicanus Bassanus, or So [...]an Goose, and the A [...]catorda, the Murret, or, in England, the Razor-bill, which may serve for the rest.

SOLAN GOOSE.

This is one of the most alkalescent foods we use here. It is an animal much exercised, and, when old, insoluble, but, when young, it is very easily soluble, and when it agrees with the sto­mach may be taken in large proportion, even in weak ones, as I myself have experienced, and though alkalescent, gives little in­convenience on that account. It is commonly talked of as a whet to the appetite; but this must not be taken seriously, although, in­deed, it is of remarkably easy solution. All this illustrates what has been said on the solubility of food depending on its alkalescency; and hence, in some measure, may be understood the qualities of other sea fowl used in diet.

GRALLAE.

The GRALLAE, the next class I am to mention, are much con­nected with the former, as being aquatic birds, though not always swimmers or divers. They live often in marshy grounds, catching fish, insects, &c. They have been called Limosugae, or Mud­suckers, but improperly, as they take up the earth only as it con­tains insects, or agitate it with their bills to bring up worms. For walking in marshy places they are provided with long legs, called grallae, from their likeness to those sticks on which people some­times walk, whence their gradus gralatorius. I have set down a number of different genera. Ardea, the Heron, and Bittern; Sco­lopax, the Woodcock, Snipe, and Curlew; Tringa, the Lapwing, in Scotland the Teachat, and Peaseweep, and Grey Plover; Cha­radrius, the Green Plover; Haematopus, the Sea Pye; Fulica, the Coot; Rallus the Rail, in Scotch the Corncraig; Otis, the Bus­tard, with a view to their qualities as aliment, I shall begin with

The OTIS.

It is doubtful whether this ought to be ranked with the other Grallae, it being a land animal, living on grain, and rather, I [Page 136] believe, should have been kept with the Gallinae. Its flesh approaches to that of the partridge, and its qualities are much the same with those of the wild fowl of the Gallinae.

I consider the RALLUS as likewise belonging to the Gallinae, though, indeed, a species of it, the Rallus aquaticus, more evidently belongs to the Grallae. In many countries they are considered as Quails; and in Italy called the King of these, Il Re di Qualli. With exception of these two all the rest stand properly in the same order; but, from certain circumstances, are of different qualities, viz. being inland or not, &c.

Of the inland kind belonging to the Scolopax, are The WOODCOCK and SNIPE, which, although insectivorous, appear to be less alkalescent, of a tender structure, approaching to the white meats of the gallinaceous kind.

Here may be illustrated what we have said of exercise producing firmness. The Woodcock is obliged to fly much about, while the Partridge walks more and flies less. Hence it is observed, that the wing of the Woodcock is always very tough, while that of the Par­tridge is very tender; and, on the contrary, the leg of the Wood­cock is very tender, while that of the Partridge is very tough. Hence the proverb, Give the Woodcock the Partridge wings, he will be the most delicate of birds.

CURLEW.

This also belongs to the Scolopax, but living on fishes, and at sea, is very alkalescent, and approaches in quality to the Solan Goose.

TRINGA.

The Tringa are more alkalescent than the Woodcock, but less so than the Scolopaces, who live on fish, as being inland birds. A [Page 137] difference occurs in the species, the Lapwing using its wings much, being of a firmer texture; while the Grey Plover, taking less exer­cise, is more soluble.

The CHARADRIUS, or GREEN PLOVER, is much more alkalescent than the Woodcock or Snipe.

Next come

The ARDEA, HERON, and BITTERN.

These are of a firmer texture than those we have mentioned, and, when old, are of little use. In their young state they are commonly fat, sufficiently soluble, alkalescent, and of exquisite relish. It would be worth while to examine accurately the qua­lities of the Heron and Bittern, as we should then know what dif­ference followed from animals of the same genus living on fish or on insects.

Those which remain of the Grallae are entirely sea fowl. The Haemotapus, or Sea Pye, and the Fulica, or Coot, with the Curlew, which we have mentioned under Scolopax, are more alkalescent than the other Grallae, approaching in their nature to the Solan Goose.

We now come to the AVES PASSERES of Linnaeus, of which we have a very great variety. I have only set down four of the genera, which seem to me to be the chief. It is difficult to say whether they have common qualities: Enquiry would probably shew us some difference, as they were granivorous or insectivorous.

The COLUMBA, or PIGEON KIND, are hot and alkalescent from much exercise, perhaps more so than any other of these who live on grain. When young, they are tender, and of easy solution.

[Page 138] With regard to the smaller birds, the Alauda, Turdus, & Emberiza, the Lark, Thrush, and Yellow Hammer; of these I have but little experience, and of many more which are comprehended under these generical terms. There is probably a difference, according to their exercise and food. I shall only say, that when taken at a proper age they are tender, succulent, and alkalescent.

I mentioned formerly my omission of the AMPHIBIA, which it is here proper to supply; as they are of a middle nature between birds and fish, the meaning of the term is doubtful. It is com­monly applied to animals who live both on water and land, and so includes both birds and beasts. Linnaeus's distinction is this: The Beasts and Birds have a heart with two auricles and two ventricles, a warm blood, and lungs which breathe alternately; whereas the Amphibia have a heart with one auricle and one ventricle a cold blood, and lungs which breathe arbitrarily. They are divided into three orders,

The SERPENTES, REPTILES, & NANTES.

Of the REPTILIA there are three genera employed in food, the Testudo, Tortoise, the Lacerta, Lizard, and the Rana, Frog.

TESTUDO, TORTOISE.

Of this there are several species used in food. The green Turtle is now become a famous delicacy. It is of a peculiar nature, having its fat of a green colour, of a remarkable odour, affecting the urine and sweat, the colour of which last is also altered. From this it has been supposed of peculiar qualities. From its odour, &c. it might be medicated, but these have no effect on its qualities as nutriment. From some particulars in its oeconomy, from its little motion, and its living on vegetables, it is less alkalescent than any of its kind, of a very gelatinous nature, and highly nutritious.

[Page 139] Of the numerous Lacertae there are few employed in food. There is only of which I remember, the Guana of the West Indies. This is there esteemed a great delicacy, and of tender texture. From pe­culiar antipathy against the animal, when in that country, I could not examine its qualities.

As to the FROG, one of its species is used in France, the Rana aesculenta. I am ignorant of its qualities for want of particular expe­rience. As far as we can depend on Geoffroy, this animal, from affording little volatile salt, seems not very alkalescent, nor, from others of Mr. Geoffroy's experiments, very gelatinous. But, consi­dering the class to which it belongs, and from any small examination I myself have made of it, it would seem in its nature to approach to the Tortoise and Guana.

VIPER.

Of the Amphibia serpentes, I know only one species used in food, namely, the Viper. It is still uncertain whether this is to be consi­dered as food or medicine. It has been much talked of in the last intention, though, in my opinion, it can have little power as such; for medicines are such bodies as alter the system suddenly, without being conquered by it. Now Vipers are commonly used in broths, and prove very nutritious, being continued for a length of time. Neither, indeed, is its volatile salt, which has been esteemed a famous remedy, different from that of other animals. Upon all which accounts I conclude that its virtues, as medicine, must only be in consequence of its nutritious quality. As a food, from Geoffroy's experiments, I perceive it is sufficiently soluble, approach­ing in this, and the quantity of juices it affords, to Quadrupeds; and to Fishes, in the gelatinous nature of these juices. Like all the Amphibia, it is of an intermediate nature between Quadrupeds and Fish, though in its qualities approaching more to the latter. I told you that, for want of other principles, I determined the alkalescency of animal substances from the quantity of volatile salt [Page 140] they afford. The Viper, as affording less of this, I conclude to be less alkalescent than Quadrupeds or Birds.

As in Natural History we observe one [...]ind by insensible degrees passing into another, so here the Amphibia connect the Quadrupeds and Fishes. Of these the Reptiles, on the one hand, approaching to Quadrupeds; while the Serpentes, on the other, come nearer to the Fishes. There is still another order of the Amphibia, viz. the Nantes, the same which formerly went under the name of the Car­tilaginous Fishes. I have marked three of these at the end of the Fishes, viz. the Petromyzon, or Lamprey; the Raia batis, or Thorn­back; in Scots, Scate; and the Accipenser Sturio, or Sturgeon. There are two or three more genera belonging to this order; and the Squalus, or Shark kind, is sometimes used in food. I said they were formerly classed with the fishes; but Linnaeus, considering that in their skin, lungs, organs of generation, and that in their being viviparous, &c. they approached to the Amphibia, has very properly ranked them in this class. With respect, however, to their qualities as food, they are little difference from the Fishes, though indeed I should suppose they approached to the other Am­phibia. They afford a more gelatinous food than any of the Qua­drupeds, or Amphibia, and probably are more nutritious. As to their alkalescency, from the quantity of volatile salt they afford, I conclude they are less alkalescent than the animals above mentioned, and more so than the Fishes.

FISHES.

After saying somewhat on the QUADRUPEDS, BIRDS, and AMPHIBIA, I come to the FISH kind. I have only set down those which are commonly used, though in England perhaps more may be used. The first of these in the Catalogue is the Genus of the Salmo, of which there are six species. Salmo salar, the common Salmon; Salmo trutta, is the river Trout; in Scots, the bourn Trout; Salmo hucho, in the North of England, bull Trout; in Scotland the [Page 141] Lochleven Trout; Salmo eperlanus, the Smelt; in Scots, the Sper­ling; Salmo thymallus, the Grayling, or Umber, which is not known here; Salmo Alpinus, the Charr, which lives in the coldest water in which any animal will live. After these fol­lows in the Catalogue another genus, the Cyprinus, of which eight are mentioned; Cyprinus barbus, the Barbel; Carpio, the Carp; Gobio, the Gudgeon; Tinca, the Tench; Caephalus, the Chub; Rutilus, the Roch; Alburnus, the Bleak; Brama, the Bream. After these is mentioned the genus of the Perca, of which the Perca fluviatilis, or common Perch. After this comes again the Gadus, of which six are mentioned, AEglesinus, Haddock; Merlangus, Whiting; Morhua, a Cod; Molva, Ling; Virens, in Scotland, Greenback; Callarias, in Scotland, the Codling, or Redware, though of this I am not certain. After these is the Cyclopterus lumpus, the Lump Fish, or Sea Owl; in Scots, the Cock Paddle. Next to this follows in order the Scomber Scombrus, the Mackarel; Scomber Thynnus, the Tunny, or Spanish Mackarel; Trigla cuculus, the Red Gurnard; Mugil, the Mullet; and Esox Lucius, the Pike. Next to these come the Clupea, of which four are set. Clupea harengus, the Herring; which I do not know if the Pilcher be the same species; Sprattus, the Sprat; in Scots, the Garvey; Encrasicolus, the Anchovy; Alosa, the Shad. After the foregoing are set down the Pleuronectes, of which five are marked; Flesus, the common Flounder; Solea, the Sole; Platessa, the Plaise, Maximus, the Turbot; Hypoglossus, the Holibut. In England, what is called the Holibut, is in Scotland the Turbot, et e con­trario.

Before we come to the Amphibia Nantes, which were placed here as formerly ranked among the Cartilaginous Fishes, are set down A [...]dites, the Sand Eel; Muraena Anguilla, the common Eel; Muraena Conger, the Sea Eel; and by mistake, as supposed an ali­ment, Anarrichas, the Sea Wolf.

Of QUALITIES of FISHES in general.

Their texture is generally more tender than that of Flesh, and they have nothing of a fibrous structure. With respect to their solution, after all, the matter does not seem determined; for from Geoffroy's experiments it appears, that they give less soluble matter out of the body than flesh. It is however very probable, that the powers of our stomach, the fermentation which is excited there, exceeds greatly any power we can apply out of the body; and, so far as we are able to judge, they are of more easy solution than Flesh meats. Broths, however, of Fishes do not form into a jelly, though there is somewhat gluey and viscid, which, like the young meats, makes them long retained in the stomach; yet, after all, I do not find, that even in this case of their longer retention and dif­ficult perspirability, that by ruminant men, if I may so call them, they are so often brought up as other foods.

The alkalescency of Fishes seems less than that of Meats, their putrefaction being flower, and their yield of volatile alkali less. There is in the solution of this food something particular, which is not yet properly enquired into. We use oil or butter sometimes with our vegetable aliment, oftner with meats, but more frequently still, and in greater quantity, with Fishes. This certainly, if pro­perly understood, would throw some light on solution of this ali­ment, as it seems to be a rule followed from some instigation of instinct, rather than precept of reason. I formerly spoke of the stimulus given to the stomach by the alkalescency of meats, which, at the same time, I told you might be produced by viscidity and long retention there. In the fish kind this is more remarkable, they being a very short time in the stomach before they produce heat, fever, thirst, and sometimes efflorescences over the whole surface of the body.

You will easily see, from the difficulty of giving the general qua­lities of fishes, how little you can expect to be said on particulars.

[Page 143] In order to the understanding the qualities of Fishes, they have been considered as differing in being River or Sea Fish, Saxatiles or Limosae, i. e. those living in gravelly bottoms, or such as, like the Lamprey, lie at the bottom, in the mud, &c. But in neither of these divisions do I find any certain foundation for ascertaining the difference of Fishes as aliment. Dr. Cheyne was extremely fond of the distinction by Colour, the White being supposed less stimulant, and the Red more so. In Birds and Quadrupeds this, indeed, will hold; but there are, except the Salmon, few Fishes but what are of a white colour, so that this distinction will go but a little way. As we found a difference in other aliment from a difference of food, the same would seem to take place in Fishes, all of whom are mostly carni­vorous; nor does any difference in the kind of animals they eat seem to make any difference in their qualities: The Perch, e. g. who eats mites, fishes, insects indifferently, and all of them rapaciously, and indeed, besides, water fowl, &c. is not more alkalescent than those who live on insects alone, &c. Nor indeed are they to be distinguished entirely from their different genera, though that indeed comes nearest the truth of any other of the distinctions. Now we proceed to the particular genera.

SALMON.

Most of this genus are fluviatiles, or lacustres, of a tender substance, sufficiently succulent and nourishing. They are also alkalescent and heating, and efflorescences, &c. are as frequent from them as any other fish. The red kind are of a higher relish and alkalescency, the white are soft and gelatinous. Here I may observe, that Lin­naeus seems to have forgot what are called our Salmon Trout, which are undoubtedly more stimulating and alkalescent, and less gelatinous than those of the white kind.

CYPRINUS.

This genus is of greater variety than the former, drier, and less tendinous, less sapid and heating, and among the fishes of a nature little gelatinous.

[Page 144] To these in nature approaches the Perch, which is of firm texture, but tender substance, easily soluble, not glutinous, heating, or re­markably stimulant.

GADUS.

These are Sea Fishes, and those of them we are best acquainted with are the Whiting, Haddock, and Cod. These give a gradation in tenderness, glutinosity, and stimulus to the system, the Cod being the firmest, most viscid, and heating of the three.

Fishes are often distinguished as being more or less squamous. All those we have mentioned are the scaly kind. The Amphibia and Eel kind have no scales. The Flounder is intermediate betwixt the two. The squamous are universally less glutinous than those without scales, easier miscible in the stomach, though less nutritious. Before the squamous I set down

CYCLOPTERUS LUMPUS.

The Lumpus Fish is remarkably glutinous, without scales, ap­proaching in [...]lity to the Eel, and remarkably nutritious to them who use it. The Mackarel is a drier substance and less nutritious; the Tunny is mentioned here inadvertently, as it is only known in the the Mediterranean, and is there said to be more succulent and nu­tritious than the common Mackarel.

TRIGLA CUCULUS, RED GURNARD.

This is a remarkable sapid Fish, of the white kind, said to be considerably nutritious, and much valued in those places where it is used.

MUGIL, MULLET.

I am not certain if our Mullet be the Mugil of the Romans. It certainly has not the exquisite relish for which they valued theirs, [Page 145] and seems to me to be of a middle between the Carp and Haddock, less dry than the one, and more succulent than the other. It is sufficiently soluble and nutritious.

ESOX LUCIUS, the PIKE.

This, though rapacious and carnivorous, is yet a dry, little oily and little alkalescent food, and one of the least heating of any we take in. We must suppose, then, considering these qualities of this fish, that there is somewhat peculiar in their oeconomy which gives rise to them.

CLUPEA.

All this genus, comprehending the Herring, &c. are of an oily, succulent nutritious nature, in their heating quality being next to the Salmon, quickening the pulse to a considerable degree.

PLEURONECTES, the FLOUNDER KIND.

This genus comprehends several species: They are all of a tender, oily, succulent nature, more glutinous than the preceding, but less so than the following. They are set down according to their qua­lities, the Flounder and Soal more tender, the Turbot and Holy but more glutinous.

EEL KIND.

Some here are without squamae, much of the same quality with the Viper, viscid, nutritious, and difficultly perspirable; by long re­tention in the stomach, heating and oppressive. As to the different species, I am not in a condition to ascertain the difference.

INSECTA.

This is a class little thought of as food. In some countries the Locusts and Grasshoppers are used as food. I can say nothing [Page 146] of the Grasshopper, but that it approaches in nature to the Shrimp. The whole of the Crab kind, although different in their class, approach in their quality to Fishes in not being easily dissolved by decoction, to the Amphibia in giving a jellied broth, and again to the Fishes in stimulating the system. They afford little volatile alkali, and to some are a very peculiar stimulus, producing heat, anxiety, and fever. The three mentioned in the Catalogue are, Cancer Pagurus, the Crab; Cancer Gammarus, the Shrimp; Cancer Squilla, the Lobster.

VERMES.

These were formerly confounded partly with the Fishes; for the reasons of classing them separately, vide Linnaeus, vol. I. Systema Naturae. They are of five orders, two only of which are used as aliment, the Mollusca and Testacea. Of the Mollusca, the first species in the Catalogue is the Sepia Loligo, in Scotland, the Stock­ing Fish; in England, the Ink Fish. With regard to its qualities, it has none but what is common to it with the rest of the Vermes. Of the Testacea I have only set down such as are found on our shores, and give for them Linnaeus's trivial names. After the Sepia, I have set down eleven of the Vermes, viz. Patella vulgata, Limpet, Papshell; Helix Pomatia, the Garden Snail; Buccinum undatum, the Welk; in Scotland, the Bakky; Turbo littoreus, Periwinkle; in North of Scotland, the Black Welk; the Razor, in England; Cardium edule, the Cockle; Cardium echinatum, prickly Cockle; Venus Chione, Gawky in Scotland; Ostrea maxima, Scallop; Clam in Scotland; Ostrea edulis, common Oyster; Mytalus edulis, common Muscle.

The qualities of the whole of the Vermes is nearly the same. They are of a more tender texture than any other Animal Food, and thus would seem to be of very easy solution. But they afford, perhaps, the most viscid gluten of any of the Animal Foods, by this means affect the mixture in the stomach, and more the last [Page 147] digestion, by which they are with very great difficulty expelled. By this means they are among the nourishing of Animal Foods; and though as Animal Substances they are alkalescent, yet they are among the least so, and least heating to the system.

Sepia loligo & Solen siliqua, or Spout, appear to possess nothing but the common qualities of the Vermes.

The four first mentioned of the Testacea are Univalves, and the ani­mal inhabiting them of the same genus; the last four are Bivalves, and the animal inhabiting them of the same genus, in all called, by Naturalists, Tethys; so that really we have only two animals to treat of. With regard to the snail, it has the general qualities of the Worms in a high degree, of a tender texture, easily soluble, but viscid and imperspirable. The Garden Snail is not known here as food, but in some of the southern countries it is reckoned a deli­cacy, and very nourishing food. Our own snails are sometimes boiled in milk and employed as a medicine in hectic cases, and I myself have seen remarkable advantage from them where there were no ulcerations, they soon recruiting the emaciated habit; but in case of ulcerations, these, as well as all other animal food, are very improper. A remarkable instance of the nutritious quality of Snails appears in the famine, which happened in this country about sixty years ago, of two girls being found to be remarkably nourished from snails alone, while others of [...] sort were meagre and half-starved.

With regard to the other genera, they are more commonly em­ployed, but seem to be less tender, and therefore, perhaps, less nutritious.

BIVALVES.

Of the Bivalves, the most common is the common Oyster: It is among the few Animal Foods we take in raw, and in that state can be taken in much larger proportion, and more easily digested, than [Page 148] when dressed. Keil and Sanctorius both agree in calling it a food of slow perspirability. Keil says it retards perspiration of other food; but this I confess I do not understand. On this account they are nutritious, and, though long retained, as little heating as any to the system.

The rest of the Bivalves are less soluble and tender; some of them are said to be somewhat poisonous, as the Muscle and Limpet, but in what part of them this resides I cannot tell; something, however, is always rejected.

EGGS of BIRDS.

These might have been set down after the Birds, but, as they are somewhat analogous to the last mentioned food, I have placed them here. It is obvious, from their nature and use in the nou­rishment of the foetus, that they contain a larger proportion of pure nutriment than any other aliment, as they give no foeces; for every other kind of animal food has some of its juices gone farther to putrefaction than the albumen, which is extracted in our stomach, which are deposited in that form. After all, Eggs are not of easy digestion, and, from the proportion of nourishment they afford, cannot be taken in large quantity. Whether the difficulty of di­gestion in Eggs resides naturally in the viscidity of the albumen, or, in the coagulated state in which we take it in, is a question; it seems at least to be encreased by coagulation, as the hardest Egg is most difficult of digestion. I do not think the insolubility resides in the Yolk, as some have supposed, for I have known persons reject the White, and live on the Yolk entirely, which is of different qua­lities and designed for an after-food. I have already mentioned the insolubility of the albumen ovi out of the body, by heat, &c. and said it could only depend on fermentation. Eggs approach to the Vermes in viscidity and difficult perspirability; they are less alkales­cent than Flesh, some of whose juices have always proceeded too far. A proof of the little alkalescency of Eggs, is from their being the Animal Food least apt to pall. Some have supposed bad qua­lities, [Page 149] but I know no instance of any: They are sometimes noxious to certain persons, but this we must explain from an idiosyncrasy.

This is all that occurs on the subject of Eggs. I should next go on to consider medicines, but, before that, shall recapitulate a little what has been said on the subject of Aliment. From the whole you will perceive, that Aliment is divided into Vegetable and Animal, and that Milk is of an intermediate nature between both, acescent as the vegetable, but not liable to its noxious acescency; nourishing as the Animal, though not liable to its noxious alkalescency. The aces­cent Vegetable Aliment seems absolutely necessary to the human oeconomy, and there are none of the human species but what em­ploy it. How far we could dispense with Animal Food is uncertain; it seems rather useful than necessary, in order to give great strength, and for subsistence and long duration of life little proper. Farther, the Vegetable Aliment is never hurtful, except in the primae viae, and in these only of the diseased: Its effects never appear in the blood-vessels. On the contrary, Animal Food, which is more nourishing, easily goes to excess, and exposes to danger, readily, by its alkalescency, laying the foundation of diseases, and as well as its other qualities, e. g. corpulency, obesity, and putrescent acrimony.