SECTION 1.—Situation and Extent.

THE district included in this Survey is the whole of the county of Northumberland, and those detached parts of the county of Durham called Norhamshire, Island­shire, and Bedlingtonshire.

SECT. 2 —Division.

The county of Northumberland is divided into six Wards.—viz. Tindale Ward, Coquetdale Ward, Glen­dale Ward, Bamborough Ward, Morpeth Ward, and Castle Ward.—The three first are situated in the wes­tern part of the county, and include the whole of the mountainous district, with a considerable portion of in­closed cultivated country:—The three latter adjoin the sea coast, and being exempt from mountainous district, have been long under cultivation; the vast resources of coal, Castle Ward in particular possesses, and the increased population the coal trade occasions, give them a decided preference in point of riches and population; tho' in point of magnitude, considerably the smallest, occupying less than one fourth of the county.

Norhamshire and Islandshire are situated at the northern extremity of the county of Northumberland, and com­prehend a triangular space, the two sides of which are formed by the River Tweed and German Ocean, and the base the northern boundary of Glendale and Bambro' Ward; it contains about 72 square miles of well-inclo­sed cultivated country.

Bedlingtonshire is situated at the south-east corner of Castle Ward, bounded on the east by the German Ocean, and on the north and south by the rivers Wansbeck and Blyth, and contains about 30 square miles.

SECT. 3.—Climate.

The Climate—in regard to temperature, is subject to great variation; upon the mountains, snow will often continue for several months, (and may frequently be seen there of a considerable depth) when there is none in the lower districts. The weather is very inconstant, but most­ly [Page 3]runs in extremes. In the Spring months, the cold, piercing, easterly winds are most prevalent; and our longest droughts are always accompanied by them: in some places they have acquired the name of sea-pines, from the slow progress vegetation makes whenever they con­tinue for a few weeks. Rain is of little use while they prevail, from the great cold which always attends them.

The mild western and southern breezes rarely take place before June; they are certain harbingers of rain and vigorous vegetation, and are the most prevailing winds through the Summer and Autumn: In the latter season, they often blow with tempestuous fury, dash out the corn, and disappoint the just hopes of the industrious farmer.

Our greatest falls of snow, or rain, are from the south, or south-east; and whenever we have a very high west wind, it is a certain sign that a great quantity of rain is falling to the westward, in Cumberland and Roxburgh­shire.

SECT. 4.—Soil and Surface.

A strong fertile clayey loam—occupies the level tract of country along the coast, and reaches as far up in general as the great post road. It is well adapted to the culture of wheat, pulse, clover, and grazing.

Sandy, gravelly, and dry loam—or what is here more generally understood by turnip soil, is found on the banks of the Tyne, from Newburn to Haltwhistle; on the Co­quet, about and above Rothbury; on the Aln, from its mouth to Alnwick; and down Tweed-side: But the greatest quantity of this kind of soil is found in the vales of Breamish, Till, and Beaumont. The hills surrounding the Cheviot mountains are mostly a dry, channelly, sharp-pointed, gravelly loam.

[Page 4] Moist Loams—on a wet, cold, clayey bottom, occupy a large portion of this county, being unsafe for sheep, and unfit for turnips; they are principally employed in grow­ing grain, rearing young cattle, and feeding ewes and lambs. This soil prevails most in the middle and south­east parts of the county.

Black Peat Earth—is the prevailing soil in most of the mountainous districts, and is found in many places through the lower parts of the county.

The aspect of this county, in respect to surface, is mark­ed with great variety; along the sea-coast, it is nearly level; towards the middle, the surface is more diversified, and thrown into large swelling ridges, formed by the principal rivers:—These parts are well inclosed; in some places enriched with wood and recent plantations, but the general appearance is destitute of those ornaments:— The western part (except a few intervening vales) is an extensive scene of open, mountainous district, where the hand of Cultivation is rarely to be traced.

Of the mountainous districts, those around Cheviot are the most valuable; being in general fine green hills, thrown (by some of those convulsive changes which this globe has at some time experienced) into numberless variety of forms; the verdant, swift-sloping sides of which, inclose and shelter many deep, narrow glens: through the whole of this district no mineral or other kind of stone is found, except brown, red, and grey whinstone: —they extend from the head of Coquet, down to Allen­ton; from thence northward to Prendwick, Branton, Il­derton, Wooler, Kirknewton, and Mindrim, and occupy at least an area of 90000 acres.

The other mountainous districts lie chiefly on the western part of the county, some of which adjoin the county of Durham; but the largest portion extends from the Ro­man Wall to the river Coquet (with a few intervening [Page 5]inclosed vales) and to the moors north of Rothbury.— They are not marked by any striking irregularities of sur­face, being in general extensive, open, solitary wastes, growing little else but heath, and affording a hard subsis­tence to the flocks that depasture them.

SECT. 5.—Minerals.

Coal—is found in abundance thro' the greatest part of this county, particularly in the lower district; in the south-east quarter it is of the best quality,^* and the most numerous and thickest seams, from whence those vast quantities are exported which supply the great consump­tion of the London market, as well as the coasting and foreign trade.—This coal trade is the foundation of the commerce of the county, and the principal source of its wealth, as well as a never-sailing nursery for some of the best seamen in the British Navy.—Of the quantity of coals raised in this county, we have not been able to form a probable conjecture, for want of sufficient data to esti­mate the quantity used at home; but have obtained what are exported from the River Tyne, in which a consider­able portion raised in the county of Durham is included, and which may probably come near a balance for those consumed in this county.—Some idea of the magnitude of this trade may be formed by the following statement of.

From hence it appears that this trade is increasing at an amazing rate, there being not less than one-third more coals exported now than were exported 20 years since: From Hartley and Blyth there are exported yearly between 30000 and 40000 chaldrons; if these be added to the average export from Newcastle for the last three or four years, the quantity exported from this county may be fairly estimated at 510000 Newcastle chaldrons, or 956250 London chaldrons; the Newcastle chaldron being to the London chaldron in the ratio of 8 to 15:—The value of the above quantity to the various parties concerned will appear by the following

Which deducted from 500l. (the amount of the cargo as above) leaves 183l. 7s. 7d. for the freight of the ship.

[Page 9]As we are not able to procure sufficient information of the number of people in the coal trade, we shall take the liberty of extracting from Mr M'Nab's Letter to Mr Pitt, that the number of persons employed and dependent on the coal trade, in the year 1792, were,

To the coal-owners the winning and working these collieries are very expensive, and frequently attended with considerable risque; for tho' very large fortunes have been made in the business, yet many have been lost; the unexpected alteration of the strata, from dykes and other troubles; the frequent and dreadful explosions from in­flammable air; the great depth of the shafts, and increas­ing quantities of water to be raised from them, baffle the most experienced artists, and overcome the amazing pow­ers of the fire-engine, which of late years has received many improvements, and been made to perform what was thought absolutely impossible at its first introduction.^*

These powerful machines are now applied to the pur­poses of drawing coals, which business was formerly uni­versally performed by horses; frequently 8 to a shaft, where great quantities were drawn and dispatch was ne­cessary; but by the invention and application of the draw­ing machines, a great many horses were dismissed from [Page 10]the collieries; which has considerably reduced the con­sumption of oats in this neighbourhood.

Many of the collieries are situated at a considerable dis­tance from the river, to which the coals are conveyed from the pits in a peculiar kind of carriage, called a New-castle coalwaggon; (pl. 1, fig. 1.) it has 4 small wheels, about 34 inches diameter, fixed to the axles, with which they turn round, and move on a road (called the waggon-way) made on purpose with wood, which is formed by long pieces of wood (RA, rails) about 4 inches square, laid length-ways, upon sleepers of wood (SSS) and the thickness of the rail above the plane of the rest of the road, and at the exact distance of the waggon wheels from each other, as it is upon those rails the wheels run.

A new waggon-way (including timber, levelling, gravel­ing, and workmanship) will cost about 5s. per yard, or 440l. per mile; and the expence of keeping it in repair is generally about 1½d. per chaldron on a quantity of 15000 chaldrons annually, or 93l. 15s. 0d. per mile.^*

The dimensions of the body of these waggons are as follows:

They hold a chaldron of coals, or 53 cwt. and are drawn by a single horse.

[Page 11]A gently-inclined plane is the most desirable position for those waggon-ways; but few situations will admit of this: Upon levels, or easy ascents, a single horse draws the waggon: On such parts of the way where the declina­tion is sufficient for the waggon to move by the power of gravity, the horse is taken out and follows behind; and where the descents are such, that the waggon would move with too great rapidity by its own weight, (or "run a­main,") the motion is regulated by a crooked piece of wood, (called a convey) coming over the top of one of the hind wheels; upon which the waggon-man presses with such force as he finds requisite, to regulate the motion of the waggon.^*

In has been asserted, that "the coals in this county are inexhaustible"—Mr Williams, in his Natural History of the Mineral Kingdom, is of a different opinion, and think it a matter of such importance as to deserve the se­rious attention of the Legislature.—Towards elucidating this point, it may be of some use to estimate what number of acres are wrought yearly in this county to supply the above quantity of coals: In order to accomplish this ob­ject, the thickness and number of workable seams of coal must be first ascertained; for which purpose we have been favoured with sections^† exhibiting the thickness and depth of the various strata, in some of the deepest pits in the county; which will not only be useful for the present purpose, but we hope will be acceptable to many of our readers, who are curious in researches of subterraneous geography.

At St Anthon's Colliery (3 miles east of Newcastle) the strata from the surface to the LOW MAIN coal, are:—

[Page 12]

In the above pit or shaft, which is nearly^* the deepest in the kingdom, there are no less than 16 seams of coal. But many of these, from their thinness, are not workable. The 9th, called the high main coal, and the 10th, the low main coal, are the two principal seams for affording quan­tities of coal, being together 12½ feet thick, and are those most generally wrought. But the 10th, 13th, and 14th, are all workable seams, and will afford considerable quan­tities of coal; the aggregate of the three making nearly 9½ feet thick; so that the total thickness of the workable seams in this colliery amount to 22 feet.

In Montague Main Colliery (3 miles west of Newcastle) south of the main dyke, the strata are:—

In this shaft there are 15 seams of coal, of which on­ly four are workable, viz. the 4th, 7th, 11th, and 12th, making together 4 yds. 1 ft. 7 ins. of wórkable coal. If the medium be taken betwixt this and St Anthon's, it will be nearly 6 yards thick of workable coal, from which may be formed▪

[Page 18]

And as three cubic yards of coal, when wrought, afford a Newcastle chaldron,

=gives 6453 Newcastle chaldrons per acre.

The coals exported yearly from the rivers Tyne and Wear, with Hartley and Blyth, amount to about 825000 chaldrons,^* which, with the home consumption of the two counties of Northumberland and Durham, will make the quantity of coals raised yearly about 1,000,000 chaldrons.

=gives 155 acres near­ly per year, cleared of coal 6 yds. thick.

And by estimating the breadth occupied by the caking coals to be on an averge 8 miles broad, and 25 miles long, in the two counties, we shall find there will be about 200 square miles, or 128000 acres, of coal proper for expor­tation.

[Page 19]

=825 years. The time before this space will be wrought out.

But there are some reasons to think, that a thickness of seam equal to 6 yards will not be obtained over an ex­tent of 200 square miles; probably not more on an aver­age than 4 yards; in which case, the coal will be exhaust­ed in 550 years: and if the aggregate thickness of the seams to be obtained should prove only three yards, then little more than 400 years will be the term of continu­ance; but it is probable, that before the half of that time be elapsed, the price to the consumer will be con­siderably increased, from the increased expence of ob­taining them, and the increased length of carriage from the pits to the river. This last, we presume, may be re­duced in some situations, by adopting canals instead of waggon-ways, which we have often wondered have never yet been attempted.

From the above investigation it appears, that Mr Williams's apprehensions are not so chimerical at have been represented; how far it may be right for the legis­lature to interfere, we leave to the consideration of those more conversant in political speculations.

Of the coal found all thro' Bambro' Ward, Islandshire, and those parts of Glendale Ward east of the river Till, the seams are very thin, mostly from 1 to 3 feet thick, and of a very inferior quality, yielding a great quantity of ashes, and neither caking in the fire, nor burning to a cinder: they are used only for home-consumption, and for burning lime; for the latter purpose they are well adapted, by their property of neither caking nor burning to a cinder; and it luckily happens, that thro' all this dis­trict, the coal and lime are generally found together; a circumstance which greatly facilitates and lessens the ex­pence of burning lime.

[Page 20]If a line be drawn from Alemouth to a little west of Bywell on the river Tyne, very little of this kind of coal and limestone will be found to the east of it; and from this line to the sea coast, no limestone whatever ap­pears, except a small patch of a different limestone that puts in at Whitley, near Tynemouth, and runs from thence in a south-westerly direction thro' the county of Durham, &c. In this space, betwixt these two ranges of limestone, lie the caking coals of superior quality above de­scribed, and the same breadth of coal may be traced thro' the county of Durham, stretching in the same direction, and bounded on the east and west, in a similar manner, by stretches of limestone of different kinds.

It would be a curious investigation to trace these mi­nerals thro' the different counties across the island, and show where the strata of each species rise to the surface; and the deviations caused in them by cross veins or dykes, &c.; we believe it will be found that very little or no coal lies to the east of this line, and that no chalk lies to the west.

Limestone,—of an excellent quality, abounds thro' all Bambro' Ward, Islandshire, and that part of Glendale Ward situated on the east side of the river Till; it stretches from hence in a south-westerly direction thro' the central parts of the county, and is found at Shilbottle, Longframlington, Hartburn, Rial, Corbridge, &c. and at numberless other places to the westward of these; but the south-east quarter, which is so rich in coal, is destitute of lime;^* as is also that part of Glendale Ward west of the river Till.

Stone Marl,—abounds in many places near Tweedside; and Shell Marl is found in a few places in Glendale Ward. The greatest quantity is at Wark and Sunnylaws, where it has been formed by a deposit of various kinds of [Page 21]shells, both univalve and bivalve, many of which are yet perfect, forming a stratum several feet in depth of pure calcareous earth; but the exact depth of this bed of marl has never yet been ascertained, for want of a proper level to carry off the water: It probably may afford matter of speculation to some readers to be informed, that in the middle of this marl there is an horizontal stratum of sand about 12 inches thick; and also that, a few years since, a Red Deer Stag, in the attitude of running, and in every part complete, was found embedded in the marl: horns of the same animal have been found at different times in perfect preservation; and a part of the scalp, with the cores of a pair of horns belonging to some animal of the Bos Taurus species, were lately found here: we have never seen any breed of cattle, the horns of which were of equal magnitude; for though the outside shell or horn part was wanting, yet the core was 24 inches long, and 12 inches circumference at the root; and when in a perfect state and covered with the outside shell, must have been about 5 inches diameter: their form is a gentle curve, and have all the appearance of a pair of bull's horns; but probably of a different breed of cattle to any we have at present.

Clay Marl,—is also found in small quantities, but in situ­ations where it could not be conveniently used with effect.

Lead Ore,—has hitherto never been found in any quan­tity but in the mountainous districts on the south-west part of the county, towards the head of that branch of South Tyne, called Allendale; and a small quantity at Fallowfield, a little to the north of Hexham.^*

In this county, lead ore is wrought by the bing, a measure containing 8 cwt. of clean ore; the workmen being paid by the owners of the mine at different prices, [Page 22]from 8s. to 36s. per bing (for getting, and washing, or cleaning) according to the richness. quality, or hardness of the mine. If the owners sell any of the ore in this state, the price is generally from 3l. 10s. to 4l. 10s. per bing, but they mostly have smelt mills of their own, where they smelt it at their own cost, take the silver out of it by refining,^* and then cast the lead into long pieces, call­ed pigs of 1 ½ cwt. each.—Pig lead is sold by the fother, a quantity containing 21 cwt. which is reckoned to sell at a fair price when at 15l. or 16l. per fother; in 1776 it was as low as 12l. and in the beginning of 1782 it was 17l. 5s.—in 1788 it rose gradually to 23l. 10s. per fother, which was several pounds higher than it was ever sold at before; but in the following year, it sell to 16l. or 17l per fother, which shews the fluctuating price of this article.

The Ore of Zink,—is found in great abundance embed­ded with spar, in most of the veins producing lead ore; but its distance from any brass manufactures, and from water carriage, renders it of little value. In these mines are also found great variety of crystallizations of spar, quartz, &c. &c.

The mines which produce lead ore are very fluctuating, and uncertain in point of profit to the adventurers; but tend to a general good, by giving employment to a numer­ous class of industrious workmen, who, being situated in a climate improper for the production of grain, are oblig­ed to receive the greatest part of their provisions from the more fertile districts of the county, and by those means encourage its agriculture.

[Page 23] Iron Ore,—may be had in many parts of the county; of late years the convenience of shipping it at Holy Island, has induced the Carron Company to have considerable quantities from thence.

Freestones,—of various kinds, abound in almost every part of the county, and are applied to all the purposes of building. Many of the quarries afford tolerable slates for roofing, and flags for floors: at some of them excellent grindstones are got, of which a great many are exported from Camus and Warkworth.

SECT. 6.—Waters.

The principal rivers, which act as estuaries to the rest, are the Tyne, Blyth, Wansbeck, Coquet, Aln, and Tweed. The innumerable streams, which lose their names in the above, spread in every direction through the county:— The Tyne branches into nearly two equal streams a little above Hexham, which are distinguished by the names of North Tyne and South Tyne: the main branch of North Tyne, is the Reed; and of South Tyne, the Allen: The principal streams which empty themselves into the Tyne east of Hexham, are the Devil's-water and the Der­went: and the river Till is the only stream, of any note, which empties itself into the Tweed, in this county.

The Tyne and Tweed are the most eminent for their navigation, the tide flowing up the former 16 miles, and up the latter eight or ten; the navigation of the other rivers is confined to a small distance from their mouths; of these the Blyth and Aln are of the most im­portance, from the convenience which the first affords to its neighbourhood, for the exportation of considerable quantities of coals; and both of them for corn, &c. and the importation of timber, iron, and other useful articles.

The Tyne and Tweed have been long celebrated for [Page 24]their salmon fisheries: in the latter a rent of 800l. a year is paid for a fishing of 200 yards in length, near the mouth of the river; and the same rent is paid for other [...] above the bridge, not more than 250 yards in [...]. The fish taken here are, the Salmon, Bull-trout, Wh [...]ng, and large common Trout, and nearly the whole of them sent to London; in the con­veyance of which, a great improvement has taken place of late years, by packing them in pounded ice; by this means they are presented nearly as fresh at the London market, as when taken out of the river. For the purpose of car­rying them, and keeping up a constant and regular supply, vessels called smacks sail 3 times a week, and being pur­posely constructed for swift sailing, frequently make their run in 48 hours. These vessels are from 70 to 120 tons burden; on an average 12 men are employed in each vessel, and make about 14 voyages in a year; and not less than 75 boats, and 300 fishermen, are employed in taking the fish in the river Tweed.

SECT. 1.—Estates.

ESTATES vary in their annual value from 20l. to up­wards of 20000l. a year;—one in particular is upwards of 40000l.—Small estates from 20l. to 200l. a year, are found in the southern and middle parts of the county, but very rarely in the northern.

There are probably few parts of the kingdom where estates have made such rapid improvements as in this county; there being several instances of the value being [Page 25]more than trebled within the last 40 years. Many cau­ses have certainly been aiding to produce this great ef­fect; but the principal one is attributed to letting large farms, and leases for 21 years; by which means the te­nants of capital were encouraged to make those great ex­ertions, from which such advantages have resulted, not only to themselves and proprietors of the land, but to the community at large, from the very increased produce, and superiority of its quality.

The usual mode of letting farms is to fix a rent, under certain conditions and covenants, 6 or 12 months before the expiration of the lease; but upon one of the largest estates in the county,^* the tenants have an offer of their farms 2½ or 3 years before the expiration of the lease, which is a mutual benefit to both landlord and tenant; and is attended with so many advantages, that it is in a fair way of being generally adopted.

On some estates the practice of letting farms by secret proposals is still in use: this is a dark and mysterious mode, which frequently defeats the end it is intended to accomplish, and instead, of obtaining an excessive high rent, the prize has been often gained at a very inferior value; and, in the language of the turf, (where only one has en­tered the lists) "by walking the course:" and we have known some of the first farmers in the county forego their farms, rather than submit to contend in the dark. Upon most estates it is generally stipulated, that a certain portion of the best old grazing, lands, on each farm, shall be kept in grass during the whole term.

The quantity of land to be in ploughing is mostly limit­ed to a certain number of acres; and at the expiration of the term, where the tenant quits on the 12th of May, he is allowed to have a crop of corn from off two-thirds of the arable lands; this is called the way-going crop: the [Page 26]entering tenant has the straw, and leads the crop into the stack-yard.—The houses, hedges, gates, drains, &c. are kept and left in repair by the tenant, who likewise pays all taxes, cesses, &c.

Of the annual value of the estates in this county, no authentic information could be obtained; but a probable guess may be formed by supposing that there are 800000 acres of cultivated land, and that this on an average is worth 14s. per acre,—and that 450,000 acres of moun­tainous district is worth 2s. per acre.

SECT. 2.—Tenures.

The land property in this county is mostly freehold:—There are to be found in a few places some small par­cels of copyhold; and in those districts which belong to the county of Durham, some leaseholds for lives, or years, held under the church.—There are also two or three ma­nors of customary tenure towards the head of South Tyne.

SECT. 1.—Houses of Proprietors.

THE seats of the principal proprietors of this county consist of venerable castles, old halls, and elegant mo­dern mansions.—To give particular descriptions would [Page 27]be too extensive for an Agricultural Survey; those who wish for information on this subject, we beg leave to re­fer to Hutchinson's View of Northumberland, Pennant's Tour, &c. &c.

SECT. 2.—Farm Houses, Offices, &c.

Buildings,—for the use and convenience of farms, were formerly very shabby and ill contrived; but those that have been erected of late years, are better adapted to the various purposes wanted for extensive farms and improved cultivation.

The most approved form of distributing the various offices is, on the east, west, and north sides of a rectan­gular parallelogram, which is generally divided into two fold-yards, for cattle of different ages, the south being left open to admit the sun; and for the same reason, and also for the sake of cleanliness and health, the farm house is removed in front thirty or forty yards; between which and the south wall of the fold is a small court for coals, young poultry, &c. as in the annexed plan

• [Page 28]A. The farm-house.
• B. The barn, 18 feet by 60.
• C. Sheds, over which are granaries.
• D D. Ditto, upon which are built corn-slacks; one of which is for wintering yearling calves, the other for holding implements of husbandry.
• E. Byers for cows and work-oxen, 16 feet by 48.
• F. Stables.
• G. Pig-styes, with hen-house above.
• H H. Fold-yards for cattle of different ages.

Repairs are mostly done by the tenants; on the large farms complaints are seldom made of their being neglect­ed, but upon small farms the landlord is frequently obli­ged to lend his assistance.

SECT. 3.—Cottages.

Such cottages as have been erected a number of years, are built with stone and clay, and covered with thatch; those that have been built of late years, are of stone and lime, covered with tiles, and mostly a floor of lime and sand; they consist of one apartment 15 ft. by 16, to dwell in, with a small one at the entrance for a cow, coals, working tools, &c. 9 ft. by 16, and are only one story high: Very few of them want the accommodation of a garden.

The materials used for building are, stone and bricks, but mostly the former. Straw (thatch) used to be the universal covering, but it is now nearly fallen into disuse, and tiles or slates substituted in its stead. The small dark blue slate, from Scotland, is the kind generally used here, and are much superior to tiles; for though they are more expensive at first, yet it is probable that in a few years they may be as cheap, from the repairs tiles so frequently require, especially where they are so ill manufactured.

Fir timber is universally used for all the purposes of building.

SECT. 1.—Farms, and Character of the Farmers.

THE size of farms—varies considerably in this county; in Glendale and Bambrough Wards the farms are large, from 500l. to 1500l. a year; very few under 100l. In the other parts of the county they are from 50l. to 300l. a year: Some tenants in the northern parts of the county, farm from 2000l. to 4000l. a year, and upwards:—The capitals necessary for such farms entitle them to a good education, and give them a spirit of independence and en­terprize, that is rarely found amongst the occupiers of small farms and short leases. Their minds being open to conviction, they are ready to try new experiments, and adopt every beneficial improvement, that can be learnt in other districts; for this purpose many of them have tra­versed the most distant parts of the kingdom to obtain agricultural knowledge, and have transplanted every prac­tice they thought superior to those they were acquainted with, or that could be advantageously pursued in their own situation: And scarce a year passes without some of them making extensive agricultural tours, for the sole pur­pose of examining the modes of culture, of purchasing or hiring the most improved breeds of stock, and seeing the operations of new-invented and most useful imple­ments.

The character of a farmer is here so respectable, that gentlemen who possess landed property from 500l. to 1500l a year, think it no debasement to follow the pro­fession: [Page 30]and so high a name have many of the farmers obtained for their superior knowledge in rural affairs, that they are seldom without pupils from various and distant parts of the kingdom, with whom they have very hand­some premiums.^*—Amongst the present pupils may be reckoned the son of an Parl and the son of a Baronet;—who, from their abilities, attention, and anxious readiness to learn and work at every operation, we hope will do cre­dit to the profession, and render the most essential services to their respective districts.

SECT. 3.—Rent.

The rent—of lands in this county used formerly to be clogged with payments in kind, and personal services: But these have been long disused, and the whole is now paid in money.—The rents are mostly due on the 12th of May and the 22d of November; but payment is seldom required till four or five months after being due.

The rent per acre must vary with the quality of the land, and other circumstances: At a distance from towns, and for the purposes of farming only, lands may be had from one shilling per acre up to 30 and 40 shillings:—Last year, a farm of upwards of 2000 acres was let for 20s. an acre, uninclosed, but tithe-free of grain:—One of 600 acres, at 24s. per acre, pays all tithes:—Another of 300 acres, at 35s. per acre, tithe-free, well inclosed, and in high condition, and several other large farms that pay tithes of every kind, have been let as high as from 27 to 37s. per acre; and some old rich grazing pastures along the sea-coast let for 40s. per acre.

SECT. 3.—Tithes.

Of this bane to Agriculture, we do not find any thing, peculiar to this county, which is not common to the rest. In some parts the tithes are collected with moderation, in others with all the severity that law can enforce; some let for a term of years at a fair rent, whilst others value and let every year.

SECT. 4.—Poor Rates.

In Newcastle they vary from 2s. 6d. to 4s. 6d. in the pound, in times of peace; but at present, All-Saints pa­rish is as high as 6s. per pound, owing to the sea-faring people living mostly in this parish; and the sailors being impressed, their wives and children come for support up­on the pairsh—At Hexham they are 2s. 6d.—Morpeth 3s. 6d.—Alnwick 1s. 10d.—Belford 2s. 6d.—Berwick 2s 8d.—Wooler 1s. 6d.—and in other parts of the county we find they vary from 6d. to 2s. per pound.

SECT. 5.—Leases.

Leases—for twenty-one years, are let on most of the principal estates, especially in the northern parts of the county. Some proprietors of land in the other districts let only for nine, twelve, or fifteen years. The general time of entry is the 12th of May.^* The covenants vary with circumstances; but we think the following the best calculated for improvement, and the benefit of both land­lord and tenant:

After the usual reservations of mines, woods, &c. and [Page 32]provisoes of re-entry on non-payment of rent or aliena­tion, &c. the tenant covenants to pay the rent—all taxes—keep and leave all in repair—not to sell hay, straw, or other fodder, from off the premises—to lay the dung on the premises, except that bred the last year—not to sow any hemp, flax, mustard, or rape, except the last for green food—not to depasture more stints the last year, than were depastured for two years preceding—to destroy the moles yearly, and scale the grass grounds—to thresh the waygoing crop in an uniform manner, and deliver a daily supply of straw to the next tenant—to keep uneaten the lands sown with grass seeds in the last year of the term, from the first of October, except one half to be eaten by the offgoing tenant after the 1st of April, to the end of the term—to permit the lessor to sow grass seeds on the waygoing crop—and to plough the lands intended for fallow five months before the expiration of the term—to have no more ploughing than^* acres at one time—to fallow yearly for wheat, turnips, or other green crops, one-third of the tillage lands, and lay upon every acre cart loads of lime, where necessary; or, in lieu thereof, cart loads of dung—not to keep any land in tillage more than three years at one time—to lay to grass yearly one-third of the tillage lands, and sow upon every acre pounds of clover, &c. (or other seeds suited to the soil;) to keep such lands in grass at least two or three years,^† be­fore they are ploughed out again—to lay down to grass, or have in grass the last three years, all those fields called —to keep in grass [Page 33]during the whole of the term, and at the end thereof leave in grass all those fields called^* [...] and all such lands as shall be converted into watered meadows—to be at one half the expence of making new quick sences, and of cleaning and rearing them for seven years after first planted—and others, that situation or circumstances may require.

The lessor convenants, that the tenant shall have peace­able possession, and a waygoing crop from off two-thirds of the tillage lands, with the use of the stack yards, barns, and granaries, for twelve months after the expiration of the term; also to be at one-half the expence of making all new quick fences, and of cleaning and rearing them for seven years after first planted; with other covenants that may be agreed on, respecting building, &c.

SECT. 6—Expence and Profit.

The expence upon a farm may be estimated pretty near the truth, for a certain number of acres; but the profits depend upon so many precarious circumstances, such as seasons, mode of culture, produce, markets, &c. that we think any estimate of profits upon a particular farm, would be a very vague criterion for judging of the rest, and most probably would not suit any other farm of the same rent or magnitude in the county; we shall there­fore state the expence of cultivating an acre, supposing a farm in the rotation of three years arable and three years grass—viz—

• 1 year oats.
• 2 turnips.
• 3 barley.
• 4 clover and other grasses.
• 5 clover and other grasses.
• 6 clover and other grasses.

[Page 34]And that the first year's clover carries six sheep per acre, the second year four, and the third year two sheep per acre:—Then the expence will be as follows.

The expences incurred for cultivation will be nearly the same, whatever the soil, but the produce will vary ac­cording to the quality of the land.

On good lands the produce may be,

If the value of the crops be,

From the above statement it appears, that nearly the fame capital will be required to carry on a farm in tillage, at 7s. per acre, that it does one at 26s. per acre:—There­fore, a farm of good land of 100l. per year, will require less capital than a farm of bad land of 100l. per year; and also, that when the value of the crops in 6 years amounts to no more than 12l. such lands are improper for arable, and will pay no rent;—of course the most profitable mode of employing such soils, is to let them remain in pasturage.

SECT. 1.—Tillage.

THE arable lands of this county being under various systems, and directed by various opinions, the manage­ment of the tillage must differ considerably.—In the oper­ation of ploughing, it is generally agreed that the breadth of the furrow should be about 9 inches, and the depth from 4 to 6 or 7 inches.

It was formerly the general practice not to plough the lands intended for fallow till after Spring seed-time, (and very often delayed till May, or even June) but now the fallows are ploughed before Winter, to meliorate by the frost.—In the middle of April or beginning of May, those that are intended for turnips or potatoes are harrow­ed [Page 60]and ploughed across, and, where necessary, rolled with a heavy roller; the same operations are repeated two, or three, or more times, until it is thought sufficiently fine and clean for sowing or planting.

Those that are intended to be naked sallow for wheat, receive three, four, of five ploughings through the Sum­mer; but are seldom harrowed, it being thought an ad­vantage to wheat to have the land cloddy.

On those fallows where quickens or couch grass, &c. are found, every exertion is used to extirpate them, by harrowing, gathering and burning, or leading off, so long as the smallest remains are visible. The lime and manure are mostly laid on before the last ploughing.

For barley, it is the general custom to plough only once; but the best cultivators seldom sow this grain with­out giving two or three ploughings, especially when the land is to be sown with clover and grass feeds.

Every other species of grain is sown after one plough­ing, except when beans or pease are to be drilled.

Trench Ploughing, is practised by a few; it is an excel­len mode for breaking up grass lands, and is performed by two ploughs following each other in the same furrow; the first plough paring off the surface, from 1 to 1½ inches thick, and turning it into the bottom of the last-made furrow: While the second plough, going 3 or 4 inches deeper, turns upon it a sod of friable earth, which being destitute of tough fibrous roots, harrows to a sine mould with little difficulty.

This practice entirely obviates the objections to drilling upon clover lea, and the additional expence will not be more than 4s. per acre, which, put in competition with the advantages to be derived from it, will leave a consider­able balance in favour of the practice: in breaking up old swards, on clayey lands, the expence is almost saved in the harrowing; on such soils it will be found of great [Page 61]service, if they are thus ploughed in Autumn, they may be easily drilled with beans or pease in the Spring, and the subsequent hoeings performed with facility; operations that would be very difficult to perform, when ploughed in the manner usually practised.

The Ridges are of various forms and sizes.—On the deep soiled lands, that were used as arable some centuries since, the ridges are mostly very high, broad, and crook­ed;^* upon lands that have been lately brought into cul­tivation, they are straight, nearly flat, and in general a­bout twelve or fifteen feet broad; on dry lands, they are quite flat, and alternately gathered and split. A breadth of fifteen feet answers best for sowing broad-cast at two casts.

A few years since, the ploughing, and various other purposes, for which draughts are wanted upon a farm, were performed by horses, which in ploughing or harrow­ing are always yoked double, and driven with cords by the ploughman, and in general plough an acre a day; but in the season of sowing turnips, one and a half, or even two acres, are frequently ploughed, on fine light soils. But since the great advance in the price of horses, oxen have been more used, especially for the purposes of ploughing, and carting about home.

They are harnessed both with yokes and collars. Where three or four are used, a boy is allowed to drive; when two,^† the man that holds the plough drives with cords. They only plough half a day at a time; one half of a team being used in the forenoon, and the other in the afternoon.

SECT. 2.—Fallowing.

The practice of making naked fallows on all kinds of soils, once in 3 or 4 years, was general thro' this county, till the introduction of turnips; in a few years the fallows of the dry lands were covered with this valuable plant. On such other soils as were found improper for this root, the naked fallows still prevail, with an almost universal opinion, that it is absolutely necessary to the fertility of the land; yet there are some few who dare to doubt this long-established doctrine, and presume to think, that na­ked fallows might be dispensed with in many situations, by cultivating leguminous crops, drilled at wide intervals, to admit being ploughed, or horse-hoed between: to which, if proper hand-hoeings be added, the land will be as well pre­pared for wheat, as if it had been a compleat naked fallow.

This is not advanced on speculation or theory; instan­ces can be produced, where no naked fallows have been made on fields of strong loam for 12 years, yet they are as clear of quickens, couch-grass, or other pernicious weeds, as any fields in the district, that have been under naked fallow two or three times in the same period.^*

Whether fallowing is or is not necessary, has been much agitated of late years; so much so, that the diffe­rent partisans have obtained the appellation of "fallow­ests," and "antifallowests:" It happens to be one of those subjects which can never be determined by reasoning, o­pinions, or bold assertions; fair experiments only can resolve it; and whatever may be the results of such ex­periments, [Page 63]it may be justly concluded, they will be the same in similar soils, climates, and situations.

Tho' we are diffident in giving a decided opinion up­on so important a subject, yet from observations made on the above facts, we cannot help being inclined to think, that the quantity of maked fallow might be very much reduced, and in another century will probably be totally abolished, if no fortuitous circumstances arise to check the exertions and spirit for improvement, which have been so prevalent of late years, and so generally dif­fused thro' this district.

SECT. 3.—Rotation of Crops.

The most prevailing rotation was,

• 1 fallow
• 2 wheat
• 3 oats
• 4 fallow, &c.

repeated for two, three, or four fallowings:—Upon the strong lands along the sea-coast, instead of oats after wheat, they generally substitute pease or beans, or beans and pease mixed; when laid down to grass, it is sown with grass seeds, and continued in grass seven or more years.

On dry soils, after ploughing out from grass, the rota­tion was,

• 1 Oats
• 2 Oats
• 3 Turnips, sown broad-cast, limed and dung­ed and twice hand-hoed.
• 4 Barley or wheat, sown up with clover and ray-grass, and continued in grass from four to seven, or more years, depastured principally with sheep.

The best cultivators use the following rotations, accor­ding to soil, situation, and circumstances.

• 1 Fallow
• 2 Wheat
• 3 Clover for 1 or 2 years, depastured with [Page 64]sheep.
• 4 Beans or pease.

• 1 Turnips, drilled at 30 inches intervals.
• 2 Barley
• 3, 4, Clover and grass seeds; for 2 or 3 years, depastured with sheep, and a small proportion of cattle.
• 5 Oats
• 6 Beans, or pease, drilled at 30 ins. in­tervals, horse and hand-hoed.
• 7 Wheat, drilled from 9 to 12 ins. inter­vals, horse and hand-hoed.

Sandy and dry light loams,—after being ploughed out from grass,

• 1 Oats.
• 2 Turnips, drilled at 30 ins. intervals.
• 3 Barley or wheat, drilled from 9 to 12 ins. intervals, hoed and sown up with clover and grass-seeds, depastu­red with sheep, (and a small propor­tion of cattle) for three or more years.

This last rotation has been practised of late years, and is becoming more general, not only upon the turnip soils, but upon the strong clayey lands, substituting naked fal­lows, or beans drilled at 30 ins. intervals, instead of tur­nips; and those who have tried it on such strong lands, find, that after two or three years clover and grass seeds, depastured with sheep, the land will grow good crops of oats, which they could never get it to do under their old system.

Those who have practised the Norfolk system on thin light soils, find their crops grow worse, especially the tur­nips and clover, and many have been obliged to adopt this system, by which they find their lands renovated; [Page 65]and, instead of having to complain, that their soil was "tired of turnips and clover,' they now find, that it pro­duces abundant crops, and that every rotation brings it nearer its former fertility.

SECT. 4.—Crops commonly cultivated.

SECT. 5.—Crops not commonly cultivated.

Ruta Baga—has been tried by a few; but not so long as is necessary to draw any positive conclusions respecting its comparative merits. With us, it is not near so valua­ble as the common turnip. Hares are remarkably fond of it, and will not touch the other turnips while there is one of these in the field.

Rape—is seldom grown for feed, and perhaps not so often for sheep as it ought, on lands improper for turnips. Upon lands that have grown early oats, and are intended for fallow next year, it is sometimes sown in September, as spring seed for sheep, to supply the vacancy between turnips and clover. For this purpose a little rye is sown along with it.

Cabbages—were cultivated, but gave way again to tur­nips; it being thought that the latter answer as good a purpose, and are obtained with less trouble.

Carrots—have been frequently tried; but have hither-to made little or no progress, probably from the great trouble attending their cultivation, compared with pota­toes; which in some measure answer the same intention as food for horses.

Flax—was formerly cultivated in small quantities for family use, but is now in a great measure given up; it hav­ing been found, that land which had grown flax was so much impoverished, as to require an extra manuring, be­fore it could be brought to the same state of fertility as the rest of the field.

Woad, (Isatis Tinctoria.)—This plant, the leaves of [Page 94]which are so useful in dying,^* is cultivated at Newburn only, on the banks of the Tyne, by Messrs Rait, Pollock, and Dun.

The ground is ploughed with a deep furrow before Winter, and made as fine as possible against April, in which month it is sown, at the rate of 6 bushels per acre, broad-cast; in about a fortnight after it makes its appear­ance above ground, particular care is taken to keep it clear of weeds, which is done by boys and girls from 10 to 14 years of age;^† who have each a spade about 5 inches long and 4 inches broad, which they use with one hand to dig up the weeds, and with the other gather them; this pro­cess is repeated two or three times before cropping; which is done by wringing off the leaves of the plant with their hands, and putting them in baskets.—The first crop is generally gathered the latter end of July; the second, the last week in September, and the third in November; but this is only from off such parts where the second crop was gathered first: It is carried from the field in carts to the mill, where it is ground into a green paste, and made into balls about 3 inches diameter, when it is set upon ranges under sheds to dry, which is done in two or three weeks; after this it is put into the house or pen, and kept till all the fields are gathered, and afterwards manufactured.^‡

SECT. 6.—Corn Harvest.

The Corn Harvest—in the vale of Till, and upon Tyne­side near Hexham, frequently begins the first week in August; while upon the cold backward soils and situations, oats will be often uncut the latter end of October, or be­ginning of November; but the most general harvest is in September. Most of the corn is cut with sickles, by wo­men; seven of whom, with a man to bind after them, generally reap two acres per day—Oats and barley are sometimes mown.

Wheat is set up in stooks of twelve sheaves each: oats and barley are ("gated,") set up in single sheaves; and when dry, bound tight at the bottom, and led home, or set up in stooks of ten sheaves each. The stacks are most­ly round; but some of the best farmers set up their barley and wheat in long narrow stacks, which keep the corn much better and dryer: And the practice of placing corn upon stone pillars, with a cap or cover over them (to keep out the mice) and a frame of wood over all, is gaining ground, and cannot be too much recommended, as it not only prevents the mice getting to it, but keeps the corn dry and airy: It is an excellent method for grain that is to be kept until Summer; and one principal advantage is, that wheat may be led from the field and set upon those stands almost as soon as reaped — They are made both round and oblong, but most of the latter.

SECT. 1.— Natural Meadows and Pastures.

WHAT is generally understood by natural meadows, are such lands as are overflowed by rivers, and produce a crop of hay every year, without any returns of manure: Of this description of meadows we have very few in this county; what are called meadows here, are such old grass lands as are employed for growing hay almost every year, the greatest part of which are uplands: To enable them to stand this severe cropping, they are, or ought to be, manured on the surface, every third or fourth year: if this operation be neglected, they impoverish very fast. Where they cannot conveniently be dunged as above, they are depastured one year, and mown the other; or, what is better, depastured two years, and mown the third; the produce, from 1 to 1½ tons per acre, a fair crop; the aftermath (or "Fog") is frequently let from 10 to 15 shillings per acre, and is mostly consumed in fattening oxen and cows.

Lands that are intended for meadow, are "freed" (from being depastured with any kind of stock) at differ­ent times in the spring, from the beginning of April to the middle of May, as best suits the convenience of the occupier; particular attention is paid to the mole-hills, dung, &c. being "scaled," ^* and the stones and other matters that might obstruct the operations of the scythe, are carefully gathered off.

[Page 97] Natural Pastures, or old grass land, are most prevalent along the sea coast, these are depastured with both sheep and oxen; the general mode of stinting being two acres to an ox, and the same quantity of ground to 8 or 10 sheep, thro' the Summer, and from 1 to 2 sheep per acre thro' the Winter; the latter are either the store flock, or ewes for fat lambs.—Sometimes Cheviot wethers 3½ years old in good condition, are put in those pastures after the fat­ting cattle are taken out, and pay well if they get suffi­ciently fat to be sold to the butchers about Christmas.

SECT. 2.—Artificial Grasses.

The Artificial Grasses most commonly cultivated in this county are, red clover, (trifolium pratense,) white clover, (trifolium repens,) and ray-grass (lolium perenne:) with these some people mix rib-grass (plantago lanceolata) and upon sandy soils, hop-medic^* (medicago lupulina) is sown with success.—Few of these grasses are ever grown alone, except red clover, when intended to continue only one year; and even then, a small portion of ray-grass (from one to three gallons per acre) is generally sown with it, we think with much propriety, as it not only comes early in the spring, but thickens the crop, and facilitates mak­ing the clover into hay.

But when land is intended to continue for three or more years in grass, they are generally mixed in the pro­portion of eight or ten pounds of red clover, four pounds of white clover, and half a bushel of ray-grass per acre: to the above quantities are sometimes added three or four pounds of rib-grass, and hop-medic, as the soil suits. When red clover is grown alone, 10 or 12 pounds an acre are sown upon dry friable soils, and from 14 to 18 [Page 98]pounds upon strong loams or clays. They are sown in March, April, and May, upon lands fallowed the summer preceding for wheat, or turnips succeeded by barley, and ought always to be harrowed in, as well as rolled. Harrowing is particularly necessary upon strong lands growing wheat; and across the ridges is the best mode of performing the operation. We find, that where corn is drilled, and the intervals hoed, it pulverizes the soil, and makes the finest preparation for grass seeds of all others: where this is properly done, and harrowed once across, after the seeds are sown, they seldom or never miss; long experience having proved, that nothing requires a finer tilth than clover and grass seeds:—Upon the best soils, the clover and ray-grass mixed, are generally ready to depasture with fat sheep by the beginning of April, and from May, through the Summer, will carry six or eight sheep per acre, according to the luxuriance of the crop and fertility of the soil; the second and remaining years, they are depastured by the store flock. These pastures are frequently mown when the ray-grass begins to flow­er, which not only increases the bottom grass, but a quantity of excellent hay is obtained, of considerable value.

When the clovers are not depastured, but kept for hay, they are generally mown about the latter end of June; the average produce about 2 tons per acre. The second crop is rarely cut for hay, but depastured by cattle or sheep, chiefly the latter: When cattle are put into a fresh clover "fog," especially in wet weather, they sometimes hove, by the sudden fermentation of the clover; to pre­vent this inconvenience, cattle are put upon it in the mid­dle of the day, when it is free from dew or any moisture, they being first filled with natural grass, which hinders them from eating so greedily, as if put on hungry; if the clover once pass, they seldom take any harm after­wards: [Page 99]by using this precaution, we have not had any cattle hoven, for several years.—When very much swelled, an instrument is used, (similar to that used by sur­geons in tapping for the dropsy) it is so contrived, that after being thrust in between the hip and rib, (on the near side) one part pulls out, while a tube remains in the ori­fice, thro' which an amazing quantity of fetid air escapes, and relieves the animal; but they are very apt to hove again afterwards.

We have heard of hoven cattle being relieved, by giv­ing them an egg shell full of tar.

The practice of keeping horses in the house, sheds, or fold-yards, all Summer, upon cut clover, tares, &c. was introduced into this county, about the year 1770; it is now generally adopted by the best farmers, who find their horses thrive better; are cheaper kept than depas­turing at large; and also, that a quantity of manure is gained by this means, which otherwise would have been in a great measure lost, or of very little use; as the dung of horses, when dropped in pastures, is mostly destroyed by insects, in the Summer season.—An acre of good clo­ver used in this manner, will keep from 2 to 3 horses, from the beginning of June till the end of October, a­bout 20 weeks.

Saintfoin, Lucern, and Chicory, have been tried on a small scale, but do not seem to come into general use; the crops of clover being thought more valuable.

In order to draw any fair comparative value between the produce of old grass lands and artificial grasses, the soil and situation ought to be exactly alike, and experi­ments accurately conducted; for want of such data, no just conclusions can be made; but we believe, that gener­al observation and experience have established an opinion, that the same lands which in a state of old grass carried 3 sheep an acre, will, for the first year of clover and ray­grass, [Page 100]grass, depasture 5 or 6; on rich, old grazing pastures, the difference will probably not be so great, and what they fall short in Summer, will be made up by their superiority in Winter; on clayey soils, it would certainly be a dan­gerous experiment to convert those rich grazing pastures into tillage, as a certain portion of such is a valuable ac­quisition to every farm; but they are so rarely scattered, that few farms are so fortunate as to enjoy so desirable an appendage.

SECT. 3—Hay Harvest.

The hay harvest is seldom begun before the middle of June. The mowers cut from half an acre to three quar­ters a day, and that very ill; the hay-makers are equally indolent and inactive. After the grass is cut it is by some tedded, strewed, or spread abroad, and repeatedly turned till dry;^* others, the day after it has been tedded or strewed, put in into foot cocks (wappings) which can scarcely be too small; (if the weather keeps dry it is in two days more, put into large cocks;) if the weather proves wet, we know no mode by which it will save bet­ter, or waste the smell less, as the rain passes thro' them, and a small quantity of air or sun dries them again, or they are easily turned over.—In either mode, when suffi­ciently dry, it is put into ricklets (provincially pikes) of about half a ton each in the field; which stand there for two, three, or more weeks, until a convenient opportuni­ty offers for leading them home, to be put into one large stack. In these ricklets, the hay takes a first sweating, which prevents its heating when put into larger masses.

For the purpose of drawing it together to be put into pikes, or ricklets, it is either cocked, or put into large [Page 101]heaps, which are trailed in by one horse, yoked to the ends of a long rope, put round the bottoms of those cocks or heaps; upon the hind part of which, a boy gets with his feet, to keep it down, and prevent its slipping over the top of the hay; when arrived at the place want­ed, one end of the rope is taken off the hook at the horses shoulder, and being thus loosened at one end, the horse moves forward, when the rope draws thro' under the hay and leaves it.

When the hay is neither put into cocks, nor large heaps, but remains in a thick row, t [...]is then necessary to use two horses, viz.:—One yoked to each end of a strong sweeping rope; and two persons to get upon the rope with their feet, one on each side the row, who rest with their arms upon the hay, and step forward on the rope as the hay gathers. To prevent the hay from slipping off behind, a small cord is fastened to the hind part of the sweeping rope; and extended to each person's hand, which they let out as they step forward, or find other­wise necessary. By either of the above modes, the hay grown upon a field of 8 or 10 acres may be drawn to­gether in a few hours, and is much more expeditious than either fledges or carts.

When the large stack is made in the field, the "Pikes," are drawn to it, by putting a strong rope round their bot­tom, the two ends of which are fastened to the hind part of a cart, in which are yoked 3 or 4 horses.—This saves the trouble of forking and loading them in carts, and is done in much less time.

SECT. 4—Feeding.

O [...]n.—are mostly grazed in the eastern part of the county, and a few in the vicinity of Whittingham; they are bought in May or June, and sold as they become ready, to supply the large fleets of colliers and other trad­ing [Page 102]vessels belonging to Newcastle, Shields, Sunderland, Hartley, and Blythe.

Some few graziers buy only such oxen as are forward by having got turnips in the Spring: these generally go off in June, and are followed by cows, heifers, or kyloes;^* of which, those that do not get fat on the pas­ture, to be sold thro' the Summer, are put upon fogs (aftermaths) and sold in November and December. The cows are also bought in the spring months, and are chief­ly used for home consumption. The kyloes are bought at Falkirk-Trysts, ("meetings") or at Newcastle Fair, in the Autumn, and wintered upon coarse, rough ground or straw: (sometimes a few turnips are given in the Spring) and are sold all thro' the Summer, as they become fit for the butcher, to supply Newcastle and other markets. Those that are ready to go off in June, always leave the most profit; beef being frequently sold at that season for a shilling a stone more than the ordinary prices.

The profit of grazing, like all other speculations, varies with circumstances; but we believe we may venture to a­verage it at 3l. or 3l. 10s. for keeping on grass from May-day to Michaelmas. Cows, in general, leave more than oxen, in proportion to their weight; but they are subject to disorders of the udder, that frequently reduce the profit, and deter many people from grazing them.

Some few graziers follow the old custom of keeping on­ly one kind of stock upon the same ground; whilst others, we think with more propriety, intermix with oxen and cows, a few sheep, and two or three colts in each pasture; which both turn to good account, and do little injury to the grazing cattle: In some cases, sheep are a real benefit, by eating down and destroying the ragwort (Senecio [Page 103]Jacobaeo) which disgraces some of the best pastures in the county, where oxen only are grazed.

Sheep, that have been wintered upon turnips, are put to the earliest grass that can be obtained; the clovers and ray-grass are generally ready in April; the old grass lands not before May: In both situations they are continued till shorn, and sold off, from the latter end of May, thro' all June and part of July, from 2l. to 2l. 15s. each. In 1797 the prices were from 2l. 10s. to 3l. 10s each: The draft ewes, or shearling wethers intended for turnips next Winter, succeed them, and thus a regular rotation is kept up. Of late years, some farmers have sold their shearling wethers in July, (when only 15 months old) to the butch­ers, for as high prices, as from 30 to 35 shillings each. In 1796, they sold from 40 to 45 shillings each; and in 1797, as high as 50 shillings, after shearing a fleece worth 6 shillings.

A large portion of the lands of this county being liable to the rot, and unsafe for a breeding flock, the occupiers of such situations, venture ewes for fat lambs for one year; these are bought in the Autumn, put to tup early, (some in August) the lambs sold in May, June, and July; after which the ewes are fatted, and sold in October and Nov­ember.—Such lambs as are early, and go off in May, oft­en sell for 20 shillings each; but the others average at a­bout 12s. 6d. The price of fat ewes depends much on their being of a good or slow feeding sort, and will vary from 24 to 30 shillings: The average may be called 27 shillings.—The proceeds from long-woolled ewes will be:

The profits of those that have lambs, sold at 20s. will be 1l. 12s.

The Cheviot ewes are generally put to a large long-woolled tup, which increases the size of the lambs: The proceeds are:

Mr Hay of Lesbury, and Mr Watson of Waren, not having so ready a market for the great quantities of bran, pollard and oat-chimmings, which their extensive manu­factures of flour and oat-meal produce, have applied it to feeding different kinds of stock; they both agree that for feeding pigs, it is of little value; one of the gentlemen says, that from some experiments he had read, he was in­duced to enter largely on the business, and persevered in it, till he lost upwards of a thousand pounds.

For Horses—they both think it very valuable along with hay or straw, instead of corn; Mr Watson allows his horses 6 bushels of bran, or 4 bushels of pollard, and 2 of [Page 105]oat seeds per week, the average price of which is about 5 shillings; the horses are in high condition, and sleek as ravens, but not more so than those that have 2⅕ bushels of oats per week, the price of which at 2s. per bushel is equal to the value of the bran.

For Cattle—Mr Hay says, that "in the beginning of October, I tie up my cattle in sheds, and place before every beast a crib for bran, and another for turnips, and to each give a peck of pollard, morning and evening, with full allowance of turnips, well cleansed and topped; I fre­quently mix oat sheeling seeds and oat dust, which makes them fonder of the pollard, if stale or old kept. Three months stall-feeding in this way is equal to 6 months in the usual way."

In order to form some idea of the utility of the above mode, we must estimate the expence of the pollard, in ad­dition to the full allowance of turnips: pollard being a finer kind of bran, is sold for 2d. a bushel more; of course when bran is 10d. per bushel, pollard will be 1s. and al­lowing that an ox will fatten as much in 10 weeks with the above keeping, as he will in 20 by the common mode, the account will stand thus:

[Page 106]Hence it appears that feeding with pollard and tur­nips is not cheaper than the common mode, even allow­ing that it is done in half the time.

Mr Watson put 6 oxen into a fold-yard (with a shed in it) on the 20th of May; in 7 weeks they had eaten 360 bushels of bran and oat seeds mixed, with which they had for the first three weeks coarse hay, the other four, cut clover. With this their cribs were kept constantly full: The value of bran and oat seeds amounts to about 6s. per per week each beast; of the hay and clover no account was kept, but it cannot be estimated at less than 1s. which makes with attendance 7s. per week each beast; near double the expence of grass, and more than the improve­ment of the cattle would pay, tho' they were certainly in very thriving condition.

Mr Watson once attempted to keep two heifers on bran only; they grew worse and worse, and were obliged to have other food; when they got grass, they eat much more bran than when they got bran alone.

For Sheep,—these gentlemen allow 7 bushels per week per score, to their store ewes on grass, that is 5s. 10d. per week, or 3½d. per sheep besides grass.

Mr Hay wintered 150 ewes on 38 acres; they had 53 bushels per week of bran; but this land would have win­tered 70 ewes without any assistance, therefore the bran was applied to the support of the 80 additional ewes; of course the expences per week will be

which is near double the price usually paid for turnips.

[Page 107]Mr Watson is summering 175 ewes on Spindleston-Hill (a bare rocky pasture); to this flock he allows 16 bushels of bran per day, or 112 bushels per week, which at 10d. per bushel, is 6¼d. per week per sheep, besides the grass; they are in excellent condition, but it is a price for keep­ing store ewes that most farmers would state at.

To a flock of 65, year-old fat wethers, he gives 42 bushels of bran per week, which is near 6½d. per week per sheep; they are depastured upon good land, at the rate of about 7 sheep an acre, which is scarcely double the number the same ground would keep equally well with­out bran, of course these sheep cost above 1s. per week per sheep, a price that the appearance of the sheep does by no means promise to repay.

These are all the facts that have come to our know­ledge, respecting feeding with bran; from which it ap­pears that it is not so beneficial a practice as had been re­presented to the Board.

SECT. 1.—Draining.

DRAINING—is one of those improvements that has lately made its way into Northumberland, and is now mostly practised in the middle and northern parts of the county; the theory is pretty well understood in those dis­tricts, and the practice is becoming more prevalent every year. Hollow drains are generally used, filled with stones, where they can be got; where these cannot be obtained, [Page 112](but at a great expence) sod drains are the only resource, especially in the northern parts, where there is little wood.

SECT. 2—Paring and Burning.

Paring and Burning is not much practised in the eastern and northern parts of the county; in the midland and southern parts it is most prevalent, but even there it is confined to old swards, and coarse, rough, rushey and heathy lands; for the first breaking-up of such ground, it is certainly very convenient, and preferable to any other mode we have ever seen; but tho' we are fully con­vinced of its beneficial effects in such situations, yet we have our doubts whether it could be used with advantage upon lands that have lain a few years in grass, and that would produce good crops of grain immediately on being ploughed out, which is not the case with coarse, rough, heathy lands, or even very old swards on rich fertile soils; it being found that crops on the latter, are frequently very much injured by "leaping" for two or three years; which paring and burning entirely obviates, and ensures full crops to the farmer; who need not be under any ap­prehension of his soil being ruined by it, provided he pursues the following course:—

• 1. Turnips.—
• 2. Oats.—
• 3. Fallow, well limed for turnips.—
• 4. Barley,

sown up with clover and grass seeds, and depastured with sheep for three or four years, and afterwards (if not intended to lie in grass) continue it in the rotation mentioned page 64: It is the injudicious cropping, more than the ill effects derived from paring and burning, that has been the chief cause of bringing such an odium on this practice, which is certain­ly an excellent one in some situations, and properly conducted; but like the fermented juice of the grape, may be too oft­en repeated and improperly applied.

The popular clamour against this practice, "that it de­stroys the soil," we can by no means admit; and are inclin­ed [Page 113]to believe, that not a single atom of soil is abstracted, though the bulk of the sod or turf be diminished: this arises from the burning of the roots or vegetable substances, which, by this process afford a considerable portion of Alkaline Salts, phlogistic or carbonic matter, and pro­bably other principles friendly to vegetation; as we find those ashes produce abundant crops of turnips, which fatten, stock much quicker than those after any other dressing or manure we have ever seen, and the suc­ceeding crops of corn are so very luxuriant, as to tempt the injudicious cultivator to pursue it too far; and for the sake of temporary gain, may be said to rip it up, as the boy did with his goose that layed golden eggs.

SECT. 3.—Manuring.

In some parts of this county, where the turnip culture is carried to such extent, every exertion of ingenuity is practised to raise a large portion of Farm Yard Dung: for without this valuable article, it is well known that good turnip crops are not to be expected, and the farmers of strong soils are sufficiently sensible of the advantage of dung to their crops, not to use every endeavour to increase its quantity.

The farmers of turnip soils, in order to have their dung sufficiently rotted, lead it out of the fold yard in the win­ter, make it up in large dunghills in order to increase the putrefactive process, and prepare it for that state of disso­lution, by which its component parts are ready to be assimilated into new bodies; and in which state only, is can be of use in vegetation.

Upon the hill-farms around Cheviot, we have been oft­en surprized, to see at the doors of the shepherds' houses, such immense dunghills, the accumulation of unnumber­ed years, probably centuries: to avoid this increasing nuisance, many of them have ingeniously contrived to build [Page 114]their houses near a "Burn side" for the convenience of having it taken away by every flood: notwithstanding they have lands adjoining, upon which, if this manure was pro­perly applied, the greatest improvements would ensue, and considerable quantities of excellent hay be produced, for the support of the flocks in winter storms, in which seasons they are very often under the necessity of pur­chasing hay in the Lowlands, and of having it conveyed on horse-back to the top of these hills in the deepest snows, at a very great expence.^*

Lime—is found in many parts of this county, of an ex­cellent quality. In Bambro' Ward, where it has been long used, many intelligent farmers begin to doubt of its efficacy, and the propriety of continuing to lay it upon their old tillage lands. Upon the dry soils in Glendale Ward, where it has not been used much above 40 years,^† its effects are more conspicuous, especially upon such lands as have been seldom or never limed. In its natural state, the soil of this district is dry, duffy, light, full of fibrous, roots, and when in fallow, on passing over it, you sink to the ancles; after being sufficiently limed, the fibrous roots disappear, the soil becomes denser, firm to the tread, retentive of moisture, and produces better and more abun­dant crops of grain than before: when laid to grass, the effects of the lime appear to an inch, by the superior ver­dure [Page 115]which takes place as far as it has gone.^* Many of these dry soils, after being limed, grow white clover na­turally; where not limed, it seldom appears; but they cover principally with agrostis capillaris (fine bent,) which is seldom eaten by any kind of stock, if they can get o­ther food: When land has been sufficiently limed, this plant disappears; and wherever it is found, it may be safely concluded, that the soil on which it grows has not had its due quantity of lime.

About seven years since Mr George Reed, of South-Middleton near Wooler, cleared from broom, 30 or 40 acres of light, dry, channelly soil, that had never been limed, which was sown with rye; the rye stubble was ploughed in the Autumn, and the worst part of it limed at the rate of 100 bushels per acre; next Summer the whole was drilled with turnips (dunged &c. as described page 89) which came up all alike, and continued to do e­qually well for three or four weeks; but little or no rain falling in that period, and the weather continuing droughty, those turnips upon the land which had no lime, [Page 116]died away; whilst those upon that part which was limed were discernible to an inch, flourished with unabated vigour, and produced an excellent crop, (for such land) worth at least 4l 10s. an acre; many similar instances might be produced, but this is the most striking we re­collect to have noted.

The made of burning lime, in this county, is mostly in draw-kilns, of the form of an inverted cone, with two or three eyes or mouths for drawing out the lime, and ad­mitting air: These kilns are kept burning and drawing perpetually. Some of the large sale kilns will afford 40 or 50 cart load a day: A cart load of coals is reckoned to burn two cart loads of lime.

The Price, at the kilns, is from 3s. to 4s. 6d. for 25 upheaped bushels.

The Quantity, laid upon an acre, is from 75 to 150 bushels.

The general practice of using lime, is to lay it up in heaps of three or four cart loads each; and as soon as the clods are fallen, slacked, or reduced to the state of quick-lime, it is spread evenly upon the land, and harrowed and ploughed in as soon as possible after: sometimes, instead of laying it up in heaps of 3 or 4 cart loads each, it is laid upon the land in the clod state, in little heaps of about a bushel each, which are covered with earth until sufficient­ly flacked or fallen, and then spread abroad.

In either mode, or in whatever manner lime is applied, it certainly has the greatest effect, when both it and the soil are in the most pulverized state.

Upon the turnip soils where very large quantities of lime are used, it would be extremely difficult to get a sufficiency in the early part of Summer, previous to the turnip season; in such situations, it is usual to lead as much as possible thro' the Summer and Autumn, which [Page 117]is laid up in very large heaps (from 50 to 150 loads each) and before Winter covered with sods, or thatched with straw, to prevent the rain from penetrating it: If well se­cured, it is found in a very quick state, in the Spring, some­times a great portion of it remaining unslacked.

The opinions respecting the good or ill effects of lime, are exceedingly various; some asserting that it can never be used in too large a quantity; whilst others contend, it is of no use whatever: Our own practice authorizes us to say, that upon some soils, the application of lime, (or calca­reous earth in some other form) in considerable quantities, is absolutely necessary, in order to bring them to their most fertile state, and to prepare them for the action of other manures; whilst upon other soils, lime produces no sen­sible effect, and if used in large quantities, will prove very detrimental.—Thus may one of the most valuable appli­cations we know, for the improvement of many soils, be condemned, by those who draw positive conclusions, from partial observations of facts. The practice of paring and burning, we believe, owes the opprobrium, which some have thrown upon it, to a similar mode of reasoning.

Stone Marl, has formerly been used in considerable quantities, near Tweedside, but the more immediate effects of lime have entirely set aside the use of stone marl.

Shell Marl is used with great advantage, at the rate of 20 or 30 cart loads an acre, on the farms of Wark, Sun­nylaws, and Learmouth.

Sea Wrack, Sea Ware, or Marine Plants—driven a­shore by the tide, are used with great effect, wherever they can be had. Of these the fucus vesiculosus, and its rela­tives F. serratus and inflatus, (Skeir Ware) are not held in much estimation, and when used, require to be laid up in large heaps to putrify. If laid upon the land, as the others [Page 118]are, when taken immediately from the shore, they dry, and turn to a black coriaceous substane. The fucus digitatus (Wassels) is the great favourite, and another species called May-weed, which we cannot point out by its Linnaean name, not having had an opportunity of seeing it, but from the descriptions we have heard, suspect it to be the young plants of the fucus digitatus.

Coal Ashes—are chiefly used in the vicinity of the prin­cipal towns, as a dressing for grass land; for this purpose they are found of considerable benefit, especially upon strong, coarse, and wet lands.

SECT. 4.—Weeding.

Weeding corn is universally practised; the broad cast crops are hand-weeded, in which operation the thistles (be­ing rather unpleasant to handle) are in some parts drawn by a pair of large pliers ("nippers") with flat cheeks; in others they are cut over by a weeding hook, made in the form of a Λ, with sharp edges on the inside; but this mode of cutting is only a temporary relief, as they spring again very soon after: pulling up by the roots ought cer­tainly to be practised in every instance, as there is not a weed the farmer has to contend with, more difficult to eradicate than the corn thistle, (Carduus Arvensis.)

The drilled crops, are both horse and hand hoed, at least twice each, and with so much attention, that no kind of weeds are sussered to remain; the whole being kept in the cleanest and compleatest garden-like culture.

The most prevalent weeds, that give the Northumbrian husbandman the greatest trouble, are: [Page 119]

• Triticum repens— Couch Wheat. These all go under the general names of Quickens, Couch, or Twitch grass; the Holcus principally on light dry soils.
• Avena elatior— Tall Oat. ^* These all go under the general names of Quickens, Couch, or Twitch grass; the Holcus principally on light dry soils.
• Holcus mollis— Soft Holcus. These all go under the general names of Quickens, Couch, or Twitch grass; the Holcus principally on light dry soils.
• Seratulae arvensis, or Corn Thistle.
• Carduus arvensis.^† Corn Thistle.

• Sinapis arvensis— Wild Mustard. Charloc.
• Sinapis Alba— White Mustard. Charloc.
• Raphanus Raphanistrum— Wild Radish. Charloc.
• Avena Fatua— Wild Oat.

Those of less note, and more partial visitants, are

• Galeopsis Tetrahit Hemp dead nettle
• Spergula arvensis Corn Spurry
• Anthemis Cotula Stinking Camomile
• Polygonum Persicaria Peachwort
• Ranunculus arvensis Corn Crowfoot
• Lythospermum arvensis Corn Gromil
• Veronica arvensis Corn Speedwell
• Scandiae Pecten Veneris Shepherd's needle.

SECT. 5.—Watering.

Watered Meadows—were first introduced into this county by Messrs Culley, about 26 years since; and not­withstanding the manifest advantages of this operation, yet so slow is knowledge in making its way, that it was near 20 years before any other person ventured to pursue the practice, and profit by the example: It is now begin­ning [Page 120]to spread in the neighbourhood, and we hope in a few years will be adopted in every situation that can de­rive benefit from it

Sir William Lorrain, with a spirit that marks his wish for improvement, brought two men from Leicestershire, to drain his grounds at Kirkharl. This business they seem to have understood and executed well; but we think they have misled the worthy Baronet, in telling him they understood laying out land for watering. We were sorry to see a first attempt executed in so bad a style, which may tend more to discourage the practice, than forward its introduction.

SECT. 6.—Embankments.

In the vicinity of Wooler, a large tract of low flat ground (called Haughs) adjoining the rivers Till and Glen, being subject to be frequently overslowed, an at­tempt was first made to embank them at Yevering, in the year 1787 which answered the purpose, and soon after was adopted on the haughs of Turvilaws, Doddington, Ewart, &c by which the lands that could not be let for more than 15s. per acre (from the great hazard of losing the crop) are now let for more than double the sum.

The height of these banks is from 3 to 5 feet; the form is represented by a section fig. 6, pl. 5, where the height CE is 4 feet, the base BA 15 feet, BC 5 feet, and the slope next the water CA, 13 feet. The side BC was faced up with sods the green side out, cut from the ditch D, out of which was dug the materials for forming the bank;^* and [Page 121]the side CA, covered with green sods pared from the base BA, previous to throwing up the earth.

The expence from 2s. to 3s. per rood of 7 yards.

SECT. 1.—Cattle.

THE different kinds of cattle bred in this county are the short horned—the Devonshire—the long-horned—and the wild cattle.

The short horned kind have been long established over the whole county, the other kinds are found only in the hands of a few individuals, who have introduced them with a laudable view of comparing their merits with the established breed of the country.—They differ from the o­ther breeds, in the shortness of their horns, and in being wider and thicker in their form, consequently feed to the most weight; in affording the greatest quantity of tal­low when fatted, in having very thin hides, and much less hair^* upon them than any other breed (the Alderneys excepted); but the most essential difference consists in the quantity of milk they give beyond most other breeds: there being instances of cows giving 36 quarts of milk per day, and of 48 firkins of butter being made from a dairy of 12 cows: but the more general quantity is 3 fir­kins per cow in a season, and 24 quarts of milk per day: [Page 122]Their colour is much varied, but they mostly are an agreeable mixture of red and white. From their being in many places called the Dutch breed, it is probable they were originally brought from the Continent.

They have been much improved of late years, by the exertions and attention of enterprising breeders; who have already improved them so far, as to be sold fat to the butchers at 3½ years old. The weight of the carcase is in general from 60 to 80 stone, (14 lb. to the stone) but there are instances of individuals attaining much greater weight.

Sir H. Grey bred and fed two seven-years old oxen that weighed 152 stone 9 lb. the four quarters only; and a spayed heifer, 132 stone, 6 lb. ditto. Mr Smith of Togstone, a cow, 127 stone 11 lb. ditto.

But large size is not now considered as an excellence: Quick seeders, that lay their sat upon the most valuable parts, and have the least offal in the coarse parts, are the kind which every enlightened breeder wishes to be possess­ed of.

The long Horns have been introduced from the improv­ed stocks of the Midland counties, at different times and by different breeders; but have in most instances given way again to the improved breed of short horns.

The Devonshire breed is only in the possession of Walter Trevelyan, Esq. of Nether Witton, who introduced them about three years since; their offspring has not yet got to a proper age to form a judgment of their comparative merits.

The Wild Cattle—are only found in Chillingham Park, belonging to the Earl of Tankerville; and as it is probable they are the only remains of the true and genuine breed of [Page]

[Page 123]that species of cattle,^* we shall be more particular in our description.

Their colour is invariably white, muzzle black; the whole of the inside of the ear, and about one third of the outside from the tip, downwards, red; horns white, with black tips, very fine, and bent upwards. Some of the bulls have a thin upright mane, about an inch and an half, or two inches long. The weight of the oxen is from 35 to 45 stone, and the cows from 25 to 35 stone, the four quarters; 14 lb. to the stone. The beef is fine­ly marbled, and of excellent flavour.

From the nature of their pasture, and the frequent agitation they are put into, by the curiosity of strangers, it cannot be expected they should get very fat; yet the six years old oxen are generally very good beef. From whence it may be fairly supposed, that in proper situa­tions, they would feed well.

At the first appearance of any person they set off in full gallop; and, at the distance of two or three hundred yards, make a wheel round, and come boldly up again, tosting their heads in a menacing manner; on a sudden they make a full stop, at the distance of forty or fifty yards, looking wildly at the object of their surprize; but upon the least motion being made, they all again turn round, and gallop off again with equal speed, but not to the same distance: forming a shorter circle, and again returning with a bolder, and more threatening aspect than before; they approach much nearer, probably within thirty yards, when they make another stand, and again gallop off: this they do several times, shortening their [Page 124]instance, and advancing nearer; till they come within a few yards, when most people think it prudent to leave them, not chusing to provoke them further, as it is pro­bable, that in a few turns more they would make an at­tack.

The mode of killing them was, perhaps, the only mo­dern remains of the grandeur of ancient hunting. On notice been given, that a wild bull would be killed upon a certain day, the inhabitants of the neighbourhood came mounted, and armed with guns, &c. sometimes to the number of an hundred horse, and four or five hundred foot, who stood upon walls or got into trees, while the horsemen rode off the bull from the rest of the herd, un­til he stood at bay; when a marksman dismounted and shot. At some of these huntings, twenty or thirty shots have been fired before he was subdued: on such occa­sions, the bleeding victim grew desperately furious, from the smarting of his wounds, and the shouts of savage joy that were echoing from every side: from the number of accidents that happened, this dangerous mode has been seldom practised of late years; the park-keeper alone generally shooting them with a rifled gun, at one shot.—When the cows calve, they hide their calves, for a week or ten days, in some sequestered situation, and go and suckle them two or three times a day. If any person come near the calves, they clap their heads close to the ground, and lie like a hare in form, to hide themselves. This is a proof of their native wildness, and is corroborated by the following circumstance, that happened to the writer of this narrative, who found a hidden calf, two days old, very lean, and very weak; on stroking its head, it got up, pawed two or three times like an old bull, bellowed very loud, retired a few steps, and bolted at his legs with all its force; it then began to paw again, bellowed, step­ped back, and bolted as before: but knowing its inten­tion, [Page 125]and stepping aside, it missed me, fell, and was so very weak, that it could not rise, though it made several efforts; but it had done enough, the whole herd were alarmed, and coming to its rescue, obliged me to retire; for the dams will allow no person to touch their calves without attacking them with impetuous ferocity.

When any one happens to be wounded, or grown weak and feeble through age or sickness, the rest of the herd set upon it, and gore it to death.

Dairy.—This county cannot boast of its dairies; those who live in the vicinity of Newcastle, and other populous places, make a handsome return by the sale of milk, fresh butter, &c. but upon most of the large farms in this coun­ty, dairies are not held in much estimation.

Breeding young cattle—is practised in almost every part of the county. Upon the large farms, cows are kept more for this purpose than the profit of dairying: there are in­stances of 50 or 60 calves being brought up in one season, by one farmer, who did not milk more than fifteen cows. Calves are certainly best reared with milk, but where such numbers are bred, many different things have been mixed with, or substituted for, this nutritive and natural diet; oats and b [...]an meal, oil cake, lintseed, boiled turnips, &c. are used, and have their various advocates; but lint­seed is most approved; eggs are excellent for mixing in the calf's food; when cheap in the Spring, perhaps they cannot be better employed. In the Summer the calves are turned to grass, and in the first Winter get turnips and straw. After being a year old, they are kept in Sum­mer on coarse pasture; and in Winter on straw only.

Hiring Bulls—for the season, is practised in this coun­ty; as high as 50 guineas have been paid for a bull of the short-horned breed, for one season, and from 3 to 5 guineas given, for serving a cow; but the more common premium is a guinea.

SECT. 2—Of Sheep.

In this county there are three distinct breeds.—The Cheviot sheep, the Heath sheep, and the long-wooled sheep.

The Cheviot sheep—are hornless, the faces and legs in general white.^* The best breeds have a sine open coun­tenance, with lively prominent eyes; body long, fore quarters wanting depth in the breast, and breadth both there and on the chine; fine clean small boned legs; thin pelts, weight of carcase when fat, from 12 to 18 lb. per quarter; fleeces from 2½ to 3½ lb each, and sold in 1792, for 11d. per lb. The wool is not all sine, there being in a fleece of 3 lb. weight, only 2 lb. of sine wool, worth one shilling per lb. (when the whole fleece sells at 10d. per lb.) and one pound of coarse, worth only 6 d. per lb.

They are bred only upon the hilly districts in the north­west part of the county, and do not extend much farther south than Reedwater.

The best kind of these sheep are certainly a very hardy and valuable mountain sheep, where the pasture is mostly green sward, or contains a large portion of that kind of herbage; which is the case with all the hills around Che­viot, where these sheep are bred; for as to the mountain of Cheviot itself, no kind of sheep whatever are bred up­on it; and we find it an universal practice, amongst the most experienced sheep farmers, to depasture the heathy [Page]

[Page]

[Page 127] districts with old sheep, (gimmers and wethers) but they never attempt to keep a breeding flock upon them.^*

Blindburn is probably the highest and coarsest pasture in this county where this kind of sheep are bred. We examined the herbage, and found, that the ewe-pasture had a considerable portion of green sward, the coarsest parts of which consisted of

• Nardus stricta Wirebent ^†
• Juncus squarrosus Stoolbent
• Scirpus caespitosus Deer hair
• Eriophorum vaginatum the leaves Ling. ^‡
• Eriophorum vaginatum the flowering
• Eriophorum vaginatum stem, Moss.
• Erica vulgaris Heath or Hadder.

The shape of this breed of sheep has been much im­proved of late years; but all those who have been aiding in making such improvements, readily acknowledge, [Page 128]there is still much to be done; especially to the fore quar­ter, which they all agree is very defective; but we hope it will not long remain so, as we think we see a spirit of in­vestigation arising amongst these breeders, that in a few years will remedy not only this defect, but will discover others, which at present they are not willing to admit. But as knowledge is progressive, we cannot expect the perfection of this breed of sheep can be obtained at once; it must proceed by slow gradations, as every other im­provement hath done; it is a great point gained, that we admit defects, and are desirous to amend them.

That breed of sheep which brings the most profit to the farmer, will always be pursued by him, whatever his situation; but that object, we presume, is not to be ob­tained in this district from fine wool alone. Perfect moun­tain sheep should be active, hardy, well formed, and quick seeders: these qualities will always recommend them to the grazier, who will never purchase a slow feeding ani­mal, while he can get one of a different sort, though at a considerable advanced price. But if to these qualities, so essential to the sale of a mountain farmer's stock, can be added a fleece of fine wool, a breed of sheep would then be obtained, the properest for a hilly district of any we have yet seen. There is little doubt but this may be accomplish­ed by proper selection; and probably the best kind of Cheviot sheep, from their hardiness, and producing a portion of fine wool, are the properest stock for laying the founda­tion of so desirable an improvement.

Mr Robson, of Belford, (now of Chatto) says, he im­proved the shape of his sheep very considerably; particu­larly the fore-quarter, and the wool, in having less but­tocks; by using three rams which he purchased in Lin­colnshire, thirty-three years since; and we know other in­stances of improvement, by using tups of ⅓ or ¼ Dishley [Page 129]blood. In all these cases, we do not find the sheep less hardy, or wool of less value; but the carcase materially improved.^*

Mr Readhead, of Chatto, is of opinion, that there are some situations amongst the Cheviot-hills, where the South Down sheep might be successful; those who are possessed of such, would do well to make a fair experi­ment; should it succeed, a very great improvement of the Cheviot wool, in point of fineness, would be derived by crossing with this breed: but probably what it gained in fineness, it would lose in weight, for it is not the value per pound which constitutes the farmer's profit, but the value per fleece; or rather, that breed is the best, which brings the most profit in fleece and carcase jointly, ^† from the same ground, in equal times. Opinions and conjectures will never decide this matter; it can only be done by fair experiments, conducted by persons of judgment and im­partiality.

The Mode of Management—amongst the sheep farmers of these hills, is to divide their flock into different parcels, viz. lambs, hogs, gimmers, ewes, and wethers, and each parcel kept on such pasturage as is thought most proper for them. Every parcel is attended by a shepherd, who is bound to return the number of sheep delivered to him, either alive, or in his account of dead sheep, which are in [Page 130]general sold at different prices, according to their good­ness.

The ewes are 2½ years old before they are put to the tup; and are kept till five or six years old: the loss of lambs is sometimes very considerable, not only on being dropped, but also from other disorders, as the "milk-ill," which attacks them from 3 to 7 days old, the "quarter-ill," &c. which Mr Chisholm of Clennel estimates at not less than 15 per cent. taking one year with another. And Mr Smith of Woodhall says, that "altho' the Cheviot breed be as healthy as perhaps any, yet there can hardly be an instance adducible of any of the different sheep flocks coming all to the shears, much less the hogs; out of which it is common to allow two out of each score."

The Heath Sheep—have large spiral horns, black faces and legs, a fierce wild-looking eye, and short firm carcasses (weighing from 12 to 16 lb. per quarter) covered with long, open, coarse shagged wool. The fleeces weigh from three to four pounds each; and sold, in 1792, for six­pence per pound. They are an exceedingly active and hardy race, and seem the best adapted, of all others, to high exposed heathy districts; such as we find them in possession of here, from the western parts of the county of Durham, to North Tyne.

Mr Hopper, of Blackhedley, buys year old wethers of this kind of sheep for 10s. 6d. each, and two-year olds for 14s. which he depastures upon a heathy moor of 4000 acres; from whence he takes them at 3½ years old to tur­nips; and sells, the May following, from 28 to 32 shil­lings each: he has tried the Cheviot sheep in the same manner, but thinks the other a hardier and better feeding sheep.^*

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[Page 131]The breeders of this kind of sheep on the south west corner of the county, are very confident, that they are a much hardier sheep than the Cheviot breed; and upon their high exposed heathy mountains, where there is very little green herbage, much more profitable; while the Cheviot farmers assert, that theirs are equally hardy, and that the greater value of the fleece gives them a decided superiority. We have before stated that the fineness of wool is not a proper criterion, by which the merits of a breed of sheep are to be determined; it can only be done by fair experiment, in which all the circumstances of the case are included; but we do not find that this has ever been done by either party, and tho' it is only opinion a­gainst opinion, yet both parties are so positive, that they are ready to quarrel with any person who happens to ex­press an opinion of his own: we shall therefore content ourselves with stating, that the question can only be pro­perly decided by a parcel of each kind of ewes (suppose 100) being depastured and kept in every respect equally alike, upon some of those high, exposed situations, the height of which is much more elevated, and the herbage much coarser than the Cheviot pastures; and almost to­tally covered with Heath or Hather (Erica Vulgaris.) And at the end of five, six, or seven years, that breed which has brought the greatest number of sheep to mar­ket, and made the most profit, will deservedly be deemed the hardiest, best, and most eligible, for such situations.

Until some experiment of this kind determine the matter; we hope, we shall not give offence to either party by stating, that we have seen the heath sheep bred with advantage upon higher and coarser pastures than Common Burn, or those others around Cheviot, which are deemed improper for a breeding flock of the Cheviot kind; and that it may probably turn out, that each breed is particu­larly adapted to particular situations, the one to coarse expos­ed [Page 132]mountains, where the luxury of green herbage is thinly scattered, or rarely to be found: the other, to hilly pastures, where considerable portions of verdant surface predomin­ate, such as characterize the pastoral districts around Cheviot.

The long-woolled sheep,—which formerly occupied the lower district of this county, were called Muggs, probably from their faces being covered with a muff of wool, close to their eyes. These being a slow feeding tribe, have given way to the Dishley breed, which were first intro­duced into this county in the year 1766,^* and by their superior merit have so far made their way against every prejudice and opposition, that it is probable in a few years there will be a difficulty in finding a flock that is not more or less related to the Dishley blood.

The improved breed of long-woolled sheep—are distinguish­ed from other long-woolled kinds by their fine lively eyes, clean heads, straight broad flat backs, round barrel-like bodies, very fine small bones, thin pelts; and that sin­gular property of making fat at an early age, perhaps more than any thing else, gives them a superiority over the other breed in this island.

The weight of the carcase in general is, ewes three or four years old, from 18 to 26 lb. per quarter; the wool upon an average, 7½lb. a fleece; the length from 6 to 14 inches; sold in 1792, at 10d. per lb.

The most approved mode of management of this breed of sheep is as follows: The ewes generally lamb in March, when we give them a few turnips to increase their milk. The latter end of June or beginning of July the lambs are weaned, and sent to middling pasture; but a good pasture would certainly be a more eligible practice. The ewes are milked two or three times to ease their udders, and such [Page]

[Page 133]as are not intended to be continued for breeding, are cul­led or draughted out, and put to clover: when this fails, they get turnips, and are sold about Christmas to the butchers, very fat; the price from 34 to 40s. each; fre­quently measuring four or five inches thick of fat on the sides, and two or three inches down the back, all the way from head to tail. And though this breed be not emi­nent for much tallow, yet ewes under such circumstances have been known to produce from eighteen to twenty-four pounds of tallow each.

The lambs, after being weaned, take the name of Hogs. They are generally put to turnips the beginning of Novem­ber, and continue at them till the middle of April or be­ginning of May; when the wether hogs are put upon good pasture, or second year's clover. The second Win­ter they have turnips until the clovers are sufficiently grown to receive them, which is generally about the middle of April: they are clipped or shorn about the middle of May, when we begin to sell them, and are most­ly all sold by the middle or end of June. Morpeth is our best market, where the two shear wethers are generally sold for from forty to fifty shillings a head; in 1797, they sold for 3l. per head on an average. At this age they are equally fat as the ewes before described:

Of late years it has been customary to fell the shearling wethers, in June or July, to the butchers, fatter than most other breeds will be at two or three years old; the weight of these shearling wethers is from 18 to 21 lb. per quarter.

We generally reckon one third of the ewes to have twin lambs. They are put to the tup, so as to have lambs at two years old, and kept for breeding until three or four years old, except such as are of particular good forms, or have other valuable properties: these we keep as long as ever they will breed. Such as are defective in [Page 134]shape, suspected of being slow feeders, or other unprofit­able qualities, we never put to the tup, or attempt to breed from them.

Letting Tups—to serve ewes for the season, has been a practice in this county for near 30 years, and is becoming more prevalent daily; the prices vary from five to one hundred guineas, for the use of one sheep; and ewes are frequently taken in to be served by a favourite ram, at as high rates as from 3 to 5 guineas each. The number of ewes to be served by a shearing tup, is generally stipulat­ed not to exceed 80, and for an aged sheep 120.

At the first introduction of this breed of sheep, a great prejudice was raised against them, and clamorous outcries made, that their adoption would be the ruin of the country, and no means were left untried to depreciate their value: but every obstacle has been overcome by their superior merit, which seems now to be universally acknowledged, as may be judged from the following cir­cumstance.

In October 1795, Mr Thompson of Chillingham Barns, having quitted a farm, he advertised to sell by auction, 500 ewes, in lots of 5 each.

Several lots of the gimmers sold for above 35l. each lot, one in particular for 38l. or 7l. 12s. each sheep.

The highest lot of ewes was 28l or 5l. 12s. each.

The purchasers amounted to upwards of 50, amongst whom were several, that a few years before, were the most violent, and loudest exclaimers against any "change or innovation," in the established breed of the country.

Breeding Sheep—of the long-woolled kind, to be sold to [Page 135]graziers to fatten, is practised by the occupiers of such farms as do not afford a sufficiency of turnips, or such as do not produce any: those who are in the latter predica­ment, either take turnips for wintering their hogs, or put them upon good old grass pastures. The wethers are generally sold in September and October, being then shearlings, for, from 22s. to 26s. each; and the ewes three and a half years old, from 18s. to 24s. each; in 1796, they were as high as 2l. each.

There are few or no sheep bred in those parts of the county, called Castle-Ward, Bedlingtonshire, and the south east corner of Morpeth Ward.

The modern maxims of breeding were introduced in­to this county by one of Mr Bakewell's first disciples, up­wards of 30 years since; previous to which, "big bones" and "large size" were looked upon as the principal cri­teria of excellence, and a sacred adherence to the rule of never breeding within the canonical degree of relation­ship; but those prejudices are at this period, in a great measure, done away; and the principal farmers of this district may now be classed amongst the most scientific breeders in the kingdom, who have pursued it with an ardour and unremitting attention that have not failed of success.It is this knowledge of breeding, and the nice discrimination of selecting proper stock for grazing, added to their improved mode of cultivation, that gives them a celebrity of character, for their extensive knowledge in rural affairs, and that has for some years back made this district a School for Agriculture, where pu­pils from various parts have come to be instructed.

Salving—was formerly universally practised, and it was thought the sheep could not do well without it. In the lower districts it is now almost totally disused; and some of the hill farmers have laid it aside, and find their flocks do equally well as before; and the wool sells for a much better price than when it is salved; but it is of less weight, [Page 136]as may be naturally expected, from the want of near ¾ of a pound of salve upon each fleece.

This salve is composed of 12 lb. of butter, and 4 quarts of tar, mixed well together while warm, which quantity serves 24 sheep, the number a man will salve in a day.

Milking.—It used to be a general practice through all this county to milk ewes after the lambs were weaned, for six, eight, or ten weeks; from this milk great quantities of cheese were made, and sold for about 3d. per pound. When kept to three or four years old, it is exceedingly pungent, and on that account some people prefer it to cheese of a much better quality.

To milk ewes two or three times after the lambs are weaned is a useful practice; but when continued to eight or ten weeks, it becomes very detrimental, keeps the ewes lean, and ill prepared for meeting the severities of Winter.

This custom has been long disused by the intelligent farmers in the lower districts; and we are glad to sind it much laid aside by the most considerable hill farmers. The profit of milking ewes for six or eight weeks is esti­mated at 8d. per ewe; and it is generally agreed they are decreased in value, at least 1s. 6d. per head; of course there is a loss of about 1s. per head by milking. In one in­stance of milking long-woolled ewes, last Summer, there was a loss of at least 3s. per head.

SECT. 3.—Horses.

The best draught horses used in this county are brought from Clydesdale, in Scotland; they are in general from 15½ to 16 hands high; strong, hardy, remarkable good and true pullers; a restive horse being rarely found a­mong them.

Those bred in the county are of various sorts, descend­ed from stallions of different kinds, from the full blood [Page 137]racer, to the strong, heavy, rough-legged black. From the full blood stallions and country mares, are bred excel­lent hunters, road and carriage horses; and from the o­ther kinds of stallions are bred the draught horses, which in general, are middle sized, active animals, well adapted to the husbandry of the country.

We have before observed, that since the price of horses had been so very high, several oxen had been used for the draught; but whether with propriety or advantage, will appear from

SECT. 4.—Swine.

The Berkshire pigs, and the large white breed, were formerly the most prevalent in this county; but the small black Chinese breed has in a great measure supplanted them, especially upon the large farms; and these are likely to give way to a small white breed lately introduced, remark­ably quiet, inoffensive animals; on which account they are principally preferred to the Chinese breed.

SECT. 5.—Rabbits.

Rabbits are found in considerable numbers among the sand hills along the coast, and are probably the most eligi­ble stock for such situations, having been sold of late years for 25. per couple.

SECT. 4.—Goats.

Goats—are kept in small numbers, on many parts of the Cheviot hills, not so much as an object of profit, but the shepherds assert, the sheep slocks are healthier where a few goats depasture. This probably may be the case, as it is well known, that goats eat some plants with impunity, that are deadly poison to other kinds of domestic animals.

The chief profit made of these goats, is from their milk being sold to invalids, who come to Wooler in the Sum­mer season.

SECT. 7.—Poultry.

Poultry,—in a district like this, where they are sold so low, are the most unprofitable stock kept upon a farm; the value of the corn consumed by them, being generally double to what they are sold for; and the labouring people are so well convinced of their inutility, that they con­stantly and universally sell them, knowing from experi­ence, that if the value received for them be laid out in either beef or mutton, it will be much more serviceable; and this piece of economy is so well understood, that we believe there is scarce an instance of a labouring person ever making use of poultry for his own family; they are always considered as articles purposely bred to pamper luxuty.

SECT. 1—Labour, &c.

THROUGH the greatest part of this county, and es­pecially upon the large farms, there are very few ser­vants kepts in the house; seldom more than two men and two maids: but the ploughman, carters, barnmen, shep­herds, &c. have each a house and garden or yard to them­selves, and are generally married. The conditions of servitude for one year are:

They are bound to sind a woman labourer to work for the following wages: for harvesting 6d. per day, for hoe­ing [Page 146]turnips,^* hay-making, scaling, weeding corn, &c. used to be 4d. per day, but was last year raised to 6d. per day.

In addition to the above conditions, the shepherd gen­erally has as many sheep kept as are worth four or five pounds a year; but, if he has any under-shepherd to keep to assist him, the number is increased accordingly. In the hilly districts, their sheep sometimes amount to hun­dreds, besides six or eight neat cattle.

An overseer or head servant has, in addition to the a­bove, as much money as to make his place worth from 20l. to 30l. a year.

Threshing is mostly done by the piece; a twenty-fifth part of the corn threshed, being the general custom, if the straw be taken away unfolded; but if the thresher folds the straw, he has a twenty-first part, and finds a woman to dress the corn, and to work at all other work, for the same wages as the others; he has straw for his cow in Winter, but pays for her Summer's grass.

The yearly wages of house servants are, for men, from 8l. to 12l. for women, 3l. to 5l.

The wages of day labourers, without victuals or any al­lowance of beer, are,

Upon some of the large farms, a carpenter and smith are hired by the year.

The hours of working are from six in the morning to six in the evening, when the length of lay will permit, with the following intervals of rest:

SECT 2.—Provision.

The price of grain in this county fluctuates very much: betwixt the markets of Newcastle and Hexham, and those of Alnwick, Berwick, and Wooler, there is always a considerable difference;^* the prices in the northern parts being in general the lowest, on amongst the lowest, in the kingdom, owing to the produce being so much greater than the home consumption. This surplus affords large quantities to be yearly exported from Berwick, Ale­mouth, and other places along the northern part of the coast

The average prices of grain at Berwick, in 1792, were,

Fat stock being easily driven from one place to another, keeps the price of butcher's meat more upon an equality in all the markets of the county.

The average price of butcher's meat is from threepence-halfpenny to fourpence-halfpenny per pound; but in May and June it generally gets to fivepence, and the two last years has been sixpence and sevenpence.

SECT. 3.—Fuel.

Upon the edges of the moors, towards the western parts of the county, a few peats are burnt; but in every other part, we believe, coals are universally used.

The quantity consumed by a poor family, is from 5 to 7 cart loads a year.

SECT. 1.—Roads.

THE turnpike roads are mostly in good order; those that have an opportunity of getting whinstone, or limestone, are the best; but they certainly would be better if the surveyors would order the stones to be bro­ken smaller and the roads made wider. One great ob­jection to some of these roads is the many steep banks they are disgraced with, some of the worst might have been avoided; but it seems the original setters-out of these roads had a predilection for climbing and descend­ing steep banks: this is notorious on both the roads up­on Rimside-Moor, without even the plea of being near­er; as the leveller road would have been nearer, travelled in much less time, and with far less fatigue. Some similar cases appear on the post road, which we hope will be remedied in the next application to Parliament for a new act.

The township roads are in some places good, but by far the greatest-part are deserving of a different appellation; the cause of this deficiency is in most cases to be attributed to the neglect and manner of performing the statute-work.

One mode of remedying this neglect, would be to ap­point a surveyor, with a small salary, who should be em­powered to collect the composition due for statute-work, [Page 150]and [...]mploy th [...] money for repairing the road where most necessary for the public in general, without having regard to the convenience or influence of individuals.

A book should be kept by the surveyor, and yearly ex­amined, settled, and signed by a committee of inhabitants, before it went to the magistrates. We know from expe­rience, that by this means the road would be much bet­ter made, and in near double the quantity: for when a farmer sends his cart to perform statute-duty, it seldom carries more than half a load, and the servants practise every manoeuvre to put off time, and do as little as possi­ble which would not be the case with hired carts, as every inhabitant would be ready to report any mal-practices.

SECT. 2—Canals.

In this county there are no Canals; and notwithstand­ing heir manifest utility to a district like this, where such immense quantities of heavy articles are to be conveyed; yet we believe, no attempt was ever made, or even so much as a canal projected, in any part of the county before 1792, when some gentlemen on Tweedside had it in con­templation to make a navigable canal, from the collieries and lime works near Berwick, to Kelso in Scotland, and from thence up the Tweed and Tiviot; but a survey be­ing made by Mr Whitworth, it was dropt, probably on account of the great expence.

The next public notice we can trace, was given by Mr Dodd, in 1794, of a canal from Newcastle to Carlisle, or M [...]ryport, in Cumberland, to join the east and west seas. This was to pass on the south side of Tyne: but Mr Chap­man proposed a line to pass on the north side of Tyne, the peculiarity of which was, that it should come from Hay­don-Bridge, to the upper parts of Newcastle, upon one level without a lock, and the goods conveyed from thence [Page 151]to the river, either by a kind of stair-case of locks, or in waggons on an inclined plane. By this proposal, the principal supporters of the grand canal were divided into-two parties; the consequence of which was, that the money to compleat the great design of uniting the two seas, could not be raised, and of course it was given up; one on the north side, proposed to stop at Haydon-Bridge, and another on the south side at Hexham. The subscriptions for defraying the expence of the north line, we were informed were filled; and application was made to Parliament in 1797, to obtain an Act for making a canal on the north side, but it met with so strong an opposition from the land owners, that it was thought pro­per to withdraw it.

The subscribers for a canal on the south of the river still persevere in their endeavours to accomplish the line to Hexham, or Haydon-Bridge; and we have not heard that any opposition to the measure is intended by the pro­prietors of lands, through which it is to pass.

SECT. 3—Fairs.

The principal Fairs in this County are:

• 4th—Wooler—for a few cattle, sheep, horses, hiring servants, &c.
• 10th.—Allendale—for cattle.
• 12th.—Alnwick.—A large show of both fat and lean cattle.
• 14th.—Haltwhistle—for cattle, chiefly cows for graz­ing.

• Tuesday before Belford.—A few cattle and sheep.
• Whitsuntide. Belford.—A few cattle and sheep.
• Wednesday before Morpeth—for fat cattle, sheep, &c.
• Whitsunday. Morpeth—for fat cattle, sheep, &c.
• [Page 152]Whitsun Eve.—Stagshaw-Bank, (near Corbridge)—so cattle, sheep, horses, &c.
• Whitsun-Tuesday—Whitsun Bank, (near Wooler.)—A large fair for cattle, horses, and great numbers of sheep, principally long-woolled hogs, and ewes and lambs; and a hiring for servants.
• Friday in Trinity week. Berwick—a few lean and fat cattle.

• 4th—Stagshaw Bank, (near Corbridge.)—This is one of the largest sheep fairs in the north of England;^* principally of the black-faced heath sheep, which mostly come from the south west of Scotland: there are also great numbers of cattle, horses, and swine.
• Wednesday be­fore the 22d.Morpeth—for fat cattle, sheep, &c.
• Last Monday,—Alnwick,—fat and lean cattle.

• 5th.—Hexham—Cattle, horses and sheep, chiefly lambs both of the Cheviot and heath kind; from the vicinity of Langholm, (in Scotland.)
• 12th.—Newcastle—holds 9 days for horses; and for fat and lean cattle, on the last or 12th.
• 23d.—Belford—A few cattle and sheep.
• 24th.—Whittingham.—for fat and lean cattle, and a few horses. The best show of fat cattle of any fair in the county.^†
• 26th.—Elsdon,—a few cattle.

• Saturday af­ter the 15th Bellingham,—a few cattle, chiefly small cows.
• [Page 153]19th.—Harbottle,—for a few cattle, mostly steers and heifers.
• 27th—St. Ninians, (near Wooler)—a very large show of sheep and cattle, with a few horses.—The sheep are-mostly draft or cast ewes, and shearing wethers.

• First Tuesday—Alnwick—for fat and lean cattle.
• 2d.—Rothbury,—for cattle, mostly for steers and heifers.
• 17th.—Wooler,—for very great numbers of sheep, of the Cheviot and long-woolled kinds: a few cattle and horses.
• 29th.—Newcastle,—for horses, cattle, and swine.

This is one of the largest fairs in the north of England. The horse fair begins nine or ten days before the 29th, and continues every day in the town, where great num­bers of remarkable sine horses, for the field, the road, and the carriage, are sold daily. The abundant choice of e­very kind, brings great numbers of dealers from London and various other distant places: its celebrity has increas­ed very much of late years, and we believe it may be just­ly classed amongst the first horse fairs in the kingdom.

The show of cattle is also very great, not only for the breed of the country, but also for large droves of kyloes, (Scotch cattle) which are purposely driven from the High­lands, to be sold at this fair.—The fair on the 29th, is held on the Town-moor, and is called the Cow-hill fair.

• 1st.—Rothbury—for young cattle.
• 8th—Hexham.—Cattle.
• 14th.—Allendale.—Cattle, mostly small cows.
• 22d.—Newcastle.—Fat cattle, chiefly cows: this fair is held in the town, and is called the "Stones fair."
• 22d.—Haltwhistle.—A few fat cows, and lean cattle for wintering.

SECT. 4.—Markets.

Tuesday.—Hexham,—for corn and other provisions.

Ditto—Belford.—The chief support of this market, is the sale of corn, great quantities of which are sold by sam­ple, for exportation.

Ditto.—Newcastle,—a small market for provisions of various kinds.

Wednesday.—Morpeth,—for corn, butcher's meat, butter, &c and for fat cattle and sheep: of the former on an average not less than 80 weekly; and of sheep, and lambs 1600;^* which are bought up for the consump­tion of Newcastle, Shields, Sunderland,^† &c.

Thursday.—Wooler,—principally for corn, considerable quantities of which are sold by sample, mostly for expor­tation.

Friday.—Rothbury.—This market is little more than nominal, there being only one butcher who sells a few carcases, and which constitutes nearly the whole of the market.

Ditto.—Allendale,—for corn, butcher's meat, and con­siderable quantities of potatoes and garden stuff from Hexham; all for the supply of the mining district to the westward.

[Page 155]Saturday.—Newcastle.—A very large market, and well supplied with corn, butcher's meat, fish, poultry, but­ter, &c.

Dr Hutton, in his Plan of Newcastle, in 1772, states the annual consumption of this place to be 5000 catttle, 10000 calves, and 147000 sheep and lambs.

Ditto.—Alnwick,—a large market for corn and pro­visions of various kinds.

Ditto.—Berwick,—for corn, butcher's meat, and other articles of provisions; at both this market and Alnwick, considerable quantities of corn are sold by sample for ex­portation.

SECT. 5.—Commerce.

The commerce of this county is derived principally from the coal trade: the ships belonging to the port of Newcastle, in 1772, are stated by Mr Pennant, to be 3948, their tonnage, 758214—The principal exports are coals, lead, lead shot, wrought iron, grindstones, pottery, glass, &c.

The exports from Berwick, are chiefly corn, flour, oat­meal, shilled barley, potatoes, fish, eggs, wool, &c. coast­ways; which has increased very much of late years: the foreign trade is chiesly to the north of Europe.

The number of vessels belonging to this port is about 40, making upwards of 3000 tons: the receipts of the customs are, upon an average, about 3000l. per ann.

The port of Alemouth also employs a few vessels in ex­porting corn, flour, &c.

And a few vessels are employed in the Summer season, in carrying lime, from the neighbourhood of Bambro', to different parts of Scotland.

SECT. 6—Manufactures.

This county is not distinguished by any staple manu­factures; [Page 156]the principal are derived from, or connected with the coal trade and mines; as ship-building, roperies, forges, founderies, copperas, coal tar, soda, or marine alkali, white lead, potteries, glass works, &c.

Hexham has been long famed for its manufacture of gloves, which employs about 300 hands.

To establish manufactures of Woollens, two or three essays have been lately made at Alnwick, Mitford, and Acklington; and a cotton Mill has been lately erected at Nether-Witton; all of which, from present appearances, we hope are doing well.

There is one species of manufacture carried on in this district, with an agricultural production of small value, viz. that of straw, which is not only made use of as a covering for the heads of the wives and daughters of the humble cottager, but has also lately been converted into orna­ments that might accompany the richest and most splen­did dress, which the palace or the drawing-room ex­hibits; and, for the honour of the plough, has not only been converted into buttons for the men, but also into rings and ear-rings for the ladies.

Agriculture is certainly benefited by manufactures in the consumption of its produce, by the great number of people employed: but we do not find any new modes of practice or improvements in agriculture, introduced in their vicinity, or resulting from the exertions of those connected with them.

SECT. 7—Poor.

We do not find any mode of managing the poor in this county, different from that generally used in other districts.

In those townships where they are collected and main­tained in poor houses, the rates are easier, than where they are relieved at their own houses. We are inclined to be­lieve [Page 157]that work-houses, under proper regulations, would not only considerably lessen the rates, but the poor might be supported more comfortably.

SECT. 7.—Population.

Of the population, we could not collect sufficient da­ta, from whence even a tolerable guess could be made.

SECT. 1.—Agricultural Societies.

THERE never was any Agricultural Society in this county; and if any ever had existed, it probably would have been soon dissolved, if we may judge from the ex­periments that have been made in some neighbouring dis­tricts, where we find, that after a few years continuance, they have been given up; but whether from a radical de­fect in the institutions, the non-attendance, and indiffer­ence of members, or the injudicious distribution of prizes, we are not prepared to say; but think that public farms are much more likely to promote improvements in the Science of Agriculture.

SECT. 2.—Weights and Measures.

Weights and measures—are in a sad state of confusion; a pound, a stone, a bushel, a boll, are rarely the same in different markets, and frequently vary in the same mar­ket for different articles.

[Page 160]A stone of wool in some parts is 24 lb. in others 18 lb.; and a stone of every other article is 14 lb.

The Board of Agriculture could not do the public a greater service, than by bringing forward a regulation of weights and measures. One weight, and one measure, derived from the same root, and increasing or decreasing in a ten fold ratio, would introduce such simplicity, ease, and perspicuity, into all transactions of business, (where calculations are necessary) as would prevent the number­less mistakes and errors which are daily happening.

Preparations for remedying this great inconvenience, have been made at different times; and we believe here are sufficient materials for perfecting the measure, when­ever it is thought proper to bring it forward.

SECT. 3.—Vermin.

Moles and rats—are two species of vermin which we think capable of being in a great measure extirpated, or so far reduced, as to render their depredations of little consequence. In Cumberland, a mole is rarely to be seen: this is in consequence of every occupier of land contribut­ing his due proportion towards their destruction. A similar plan established in this county for destroying ver­min, we believe, would readily be complied with by every good farmer; and the bad ones ought not to have it in their power to injure their more industrious neighbours.

Crows—of late years, have become a very great nui­sance, not only for rooting up wheat, and other grain, in a sprouting state; but clover and protatoes, corn stacks, and young plantations, are greatly injured by them. Last Spring, a collection of sixpence a plough was made by a few farmers in Glendale Ward, for pulling down their nests. Many thousands were destroyed by this means; and we hope the practice will be continued until they are found less pernicious.

[Page 161] Foxes—are very numerous, and very destructive to young lambs, in a district like this, where so many sheep are bred; but while they are so anxiously preserved for the chace, we despair of seeing any regulations take place for reducing the numbers of this mischievous animal.

Dogs—in every place are swarming: two thirds of them at least are kept by people who have no manner of use for them; and are constantly complaining of their ina­bility to obtain food for their families. It would be do­ing these people an act of justice, to exempt them from doing statute duty on the high-ways, on condition they did not keep a dog; and to supply the deficiency by lay­ing a tax upon dogs, which tax should be applied towards repairing the roads.^*

SECT. 1.— Situation and Extent.

THE county of Cumberland is situated between the latitudes of 54 deg. 6 min. and 55 deg 7½ min. North; and the longitudes of 2 deg. 13 min. and 3 deg. 30 min. West from London. Its length from St. Bee's Head, in a N. E. direction, to Butter Burn, is 58 miles; and its mean breadth, in a N. W. direction, is 30 miles.

and contains 1516 square miles, or 970240 acres.

SECT. 2.—Divisions.

This county is divided into five wards, viz.:—Cumber­land Ward; Eskdale Ward; Leath Ward; Allerdale Ward above Derwent; and Allerdale Ward below Der­went.

SECT. 3.—Climate.

In a county like Cumberland, enjoying such an extent of sea-coast, and where so large a portion is occupied by mountains, and those reckoned amongst the highest in the kingdom,^* the climate must be various. Along the coast, and for a considerable way up the rivers, the snow sel­dom lies above twenty-four hours; but upon the moun­tains the snow will continue for six or eight months: of court, the lower parts of the county are mild and tem­perate, while on the higher grounds, and upon the moun­tains and their vicinity, the air is cold and piercing; but the whole is healthy, though subject to great and frequent falls of rain, particularly in the Autumn, which makes their harvests very precarious and expensive. This excess of wet, we believe, is more or less the case upon the whole of the western coasts of the island.

[Page 173]We have been favoured with the following Table, shewing the perpendicular height of rain that has fallen at Keswick, the last seven years; by the ingenious Mr P. Crosthwaite, owner of the curious museum there.

SECT. 4.—Soil and Surface.

The soil is various, but may be classed under four diffe­rent heads.

1st. Fertile clays, or rather rich strong loams, occupy but a small portion of this county: formerly this kind of soil was generally employed in grazing, or the dairy; but since the introduction of growing wheat, it has been con­verted into tillage, and produces excellent crops of grain.

2d. Dry Loams, including the various degrees from the rich brown loam, to the light sandy soils. This is the most prevalent, occupying a greater portion of the county than any other; not only the lower districts, but the fteep sides of the mountains, are in general of this soil; and in many places, even their summits are covered with a dry sound earth, producing green sward, with little [Page 174]heath: we suppose at least one half of the lower, or cul­tivatable district, is of this valuable soil, excellently adapt­ed to the culture of turnips, artificial grasses, the various species of grain, and of breeding and feeding the most improved kinds of stock, particularly sheep, it being per­fectly sound, or safe from the rot.

3d. Wet Loam, generally on a clay bottom. The fer­tility of this soil is various, depending on the thickness of the staple, and the nature of the clay below: it is danger­ous for sheep, but may be applied with advantage to keep­ing cows for the dairy, breeding young cattle and horses, and to the culture of wheat, oats, clover, and ray grass.

4th. Black Peat earth, is most prevalent on the moun­tainous districts, particularly those adjoining Northumber­land and Durham: it is also found on moors or com­mons, in the lower parts of the county; in some places only a few inches thick, upon a white sand, well known, by those whose lot it has been to cultivate it, to be an ungrateful and unprofitable soil.

The surface is beautifully diversified with level plains, and rising eminences; deep sequestered vales, and stupen­dous mountains; open, braky, heathy commons, and ir­regular inclosures, in some parts enriched with tufted groves and rising plantations; the whole watered with innumerable streams and extensive lakes, abounding with fish of various denominations, which, with plenty of game, add to the recreation and luxury of the inhabitants.—It naturally divides into two districts; the mountainous, incapa­ble of being improved by the plough; and the cultivatable, or all such parts as have been, or can be improved by tillage.

The mountainous districts are separated into two divi­sions, one of which bounds the east side of the county, and is the highest part of that ridge of mountains, that divide the eastern and western coasts of the island, from Derbyshire in England, to Linlithgow in Scotland. Cross-fell, [Page 175]Hartside-fell, Geltsdale-forest, and Spadeadam-waste, are the names of that portion of the ridge which passes through this county. These mountains are composed of strata of different kinds of stone, and are rich in coal, lime, and lead-ore; but are no way remarkable for any striking irregularities of surface.

The other division of mountainous district occupies the south-west part of the county, known by the names of Skiddaw, Saddle-back, Helvellin, Wreynose, Hardknot, Sca-fell, &c. &c. remarkable for their steep, broken, rocky sides, and romantic shapes; and are in ge­neral one mass of that kind of stone, which produces the beautiful blue slate, so much and so deservedly esteemed for covering the roofs of houses. They are destitute of coal, lime, or metallic ores; but in some measure repay this defect, by affording such valuable slates; and produc­ing that singular mineral substance, blacklead, which is found in Borrowdale, and, it is said, no where else in the southern part of the kingdom.

The height, ruggedness, steepness of the sides, (in some places ornamented with wood and projecting rocks) the varied forms, sublime assemblage, and picturesque beauty of these mountains, and the lakes they environ, form scenes that few other places, if any, in the island can equal; and have at different times exercised the pens of many descriptive writers:—it comes only within our province to remark, that this kind of slaty stone appears to be very friendly to vegetation: the soil which covers the steep sides of these mountains, and found in considerable depth at their bases, is in great part decayed slate; and the most fertile soils in the vales, we suspect, have a large portion of this slaty matter in their composition; this is the case in the vale of Keswick, and particularly at Mill-beck, and along the western base of Skiddaw.

From a map of Cumberland, published by Messrs Hodg­kinson [Page 176]and Donald, laid down from a scale of two miles to an inch, we calculate, that

SECT. 5.—Minerals.

This county abounds with coal, lime, and lead-ore; it also produces blacklead, copper, gypsum, lapis caliminaris, and excellent slate.

Coal.—as observed in the last section, is found in many parts of the eastern mountains; and, with not many ex­ceptions, all along that tract (extending in different degrees of breadth,) from Sebergham to Whitehaven, and along the coast to Maryport, forming a district of about 100 square miles.—Cannel coal is got in large quantities in the parishes of Caldbeck and Bolton.

Limestone—abounds in most parts of the eastern moun­tains, and in the parishes of Graystock, Dacre, Penrith, Broad field Common, &c. and in the neighbourhood of Egremont and Whitehaven.

Gypsum—is got in the parishes of Wetheral, and St. Cuthbert's, Carlisle; but has never been applied there as manure.

Lead-Ore—is got in great abundance in Alston Moor; and, in a lesser degree, in the parishes of Caldbeck, and Melmerby.—In the lead mines is also found the lapis ca­liminaris.

Copper-Ore—is found also at Caldbeck, Melmerby, and [Page 177]at Hesket, but at present not worked with that success which formerly attended them.

Black-Lead,—is found only in Borrowdale, a few miles west of Keswick.

Blue Slates—of an excellent quality, are gotten in Bor­rowdale, and inferior sorts in some of the neighbouring mountains.

Freestones—abound in most parts of the county; some of which split into good slate: but are more heavy, less durable, and require stronger timber to support them, than the blue slate, and are also more subject to imbibe moisture.

SECT. 6—Waters.

Tho' this county enjoys an extent of 67 miles of sea­coast, yet it cannot boast of its navigable rivers; the tide flowing not more than two or three miles up the greatest part of them; even the Eden, by much the largest, is perplexed with shoals, and its navigation cannot be said to reach beyond Sandsfield, though the tide flows a few miles further.

There are few places where water is so abundant and good, as this district is blessed with; for besides the large rivers Eden, Derwent, Esk, &c.—every village, and al­most every farm, enjoys the benefit of a pure spring, or is visited by a rivulet. The larger rivers abound with Sal­mon, Trout, and various other kinds of fish, and the smaller brooks with Trouts and Eels. It is also orna­mented with many beautiful and extensive lakes; which, with their pleasing accompaniments, have of late years made the tour of the lakes a fashionable amusement, and from whence considerable emoluments have resulted to the neighbouring inhabitants.

SECT. 1.—Estates.

THERE are probably few counties, where property in land is divided into such small parcels as in Cumberland, and those small properties so universally occupied by the owners; the annual value of these tenements, varies from 5l. to 50l. a year: but the generality are from 15l. to 30l. some few extend to 100l. or a little more.

The rental of the largest estate in the county, is said to amount to about 13,000l. per annum.

SECT. 2.—Tenures.

By far the greatest part of this county is held under lords of manors, by that species of vassalage, called custom­ary tenure; subject to the payment of sines and heriots, on alienation, death of the lord, or death of tenant, and the payment of certain annual rents, and performance of various services, called Boon-days; such as getting and lead­ing the lord's peats, ploughing and harrowing his land, reaping his corn, haymaking, carrying letters, &c. &c. whenever summoned by the lord.

We cannot pretend to be accurate, but believe, that two-thirds of the county are held by this kind of tenure, prin­cipally in those small tenements described in the last chap­ter. —The remaining part is mostly freehold, which has increased with the inclosure of commons, and sometimes whole parishe [...], or manors, have been enfranchised on these occasions. Copyhold and leasehold, are rarely met with.

SECT. 1.—Houses of Proprietors.

DESCRIPTIONS of Gentlemen's seats, we presume, come more under the notice of a topographical survey, than an agricultural one; we therefore must refer to different tourists, and more particularly to Hutchinson's History of Cumberland, now publishing.

SECT. 2.—Farm Houses, &c.

Through the greatest part of this county, the farm-houses are remarkably well built of stone;^* the blue slate roofs, and white dashed walls, give them a look of neat­ness, that is peculiarly pleasing, and prepossess a stranger with a favourable idea of the cleanliness of the inhabitants; an idea which he finds well-founded, on further investi­gation.

These houses have, for the most part, a kitchen and a parlour in front, a toofall, back-kitchen, and milk-house behind, with four or five lodging rooms above; the front contains five middle sized sash-windows, two below stairs, and three above.

Where farms are so very small, no great extent of farm-offices [Page 180]are wanted; a barn, a byer for housing their cattle in winter, and a small stable, are in general all that is ne­necessary: no regular plan for the form or scite, seems to have been adopted, every one building according to what he thinks the most convenient for his stock and situation; but they are mostly built at each end of the farm-house. Fold-yards, surrounded by proper offices, with a shed for cattle, are very rare in many parts of the county; we be­lieve they are most prevalent in the parish of Hesket, and its vicinity; the best and largest we noticed was at Lord Muncaster's.

We observed, in some parts of the county, a singular practice of covering the perpendicular walls of their houses with blue slate, to prevent (we suppose) any kind of mois­ture from penetrating them.

Repairs are generally made at the joint expence of landlord or tenant; the former supporting walls, doors, and timber; and the latter thatch, slate, glass, &c.

SECT. 3.—Cottages.

Of this description of buildings, there are not many purposely erected for labourers in agriculture, very few of that class being wanted in this county: as the farms are so small, the occupiers and their families are generally sufficient for the work without any foreign aid.

SECT. 1.—Size of Farms.

ON the large estates, there are some farms from 100l. to 150l. a year, few reach 200l. and we only heard of four or five, that got as high as 3 or 400l. a year, and one of 600l.; but the most general size of farms in this coun­ty, is from 15l. to 50l. a year.

Cumberland farmers may be divided into three classes: the occupiers of large farms; the small proprietors, (pro­vincially "Lairds or Statesmen;") and the small farmers.

It is to the first class, and the gentlemen farmers, that this district owes the introduction of any of the modern improvements in agriculture; and we were glad to find a spirit of enterprize arising amongst them, for the adop­tion of new modes of culture, and improved breeds of stock.

To the small Proprietors,—agriculture, we presume, is little indebted for its advancement: these "statesmen" seem to inherit with the estates of their ancestors, their notions of cultivating them, and are almost as much at­tached to the one as the other: they are rarely aspiring, and seem content with their situation, nor is luxury in any shape an object of their desires; their little estates, which they cultivate with their own hands, produce almost every necessary article of food; and cloathing, they in part manufacture themselves; they have a high character for sincerity and honesty, and probably few people enjoy more ease and humble happiness.

[Page 182] The small Farmer—is obliged to raise such crops as will pay him best for the present, and avoid every expence, of which he does not receive the immediate advantage, by which means, his farm, and himself, are always kept in a state of poverty: many of these small farmers are also mechanics, and agricultural labourers, that farm from 5l. to 10 or 12l. a year.

SECT. 2—Rent.

In the vicinity of towns, land lets from 2l. to 4l. an acre; farm; at a distance from towns, from 5 to 30s. per acre; in general the average may be stated at about 15s per acre; rent is almost universally paid in money.

SECT 3—Tithes.

Tithes are mostly taken in kind; a few parishes pay a modus in lieu of tithes, and others are tithe-free, in con­sequence of a portion of common being given to the im­proprietor.

SECT. 4—Poor Rates.

At Carlisle, 2s 0d.—Wigton, 2s. 6d—Aldston, 3s. 0d—Harnington. 1s 6 [...]—Kirkoswald, 1s 8d.—And in m [...]ny of the country parishes, they vary from 6d. to 10d. per pound.

SECT. 5.—Leases.

The noblemen and gentlemen who enjoy the most con­siderable landed property in this county, let no leases; some have verbal contracts for seven years, which are next to none; and of those who let leases, the term is on­ly for five, seven or nine years; besides the usual reser­vations of mines, wood, &c. the tenant convenants to pay [Page 183]the rent, cesses, taxes, and to keep all in repair; some are confined to a certain quantity of tillage, and to fallow one-fourth yearly; others are under no restraint of this kind; a few others are consined to lay on a certain quan­tity of lime, and to sow with white clover and hay-seeds, the lands that are laid to grass: these are the principal covenants that affect agriculture. To enumerate such as are of a local nature, respecting the performance of cus­stoms, services, grinding corn, payment of chickens, &c. would add little to the improvement of agriculture, or enlargement of rural Science.

SECT. 6.—Expence and Profit.

For the mode of investigating this subject, we must re­fer to the Northumberland Report, page 33.

SECT. 1.—Tillage.

TILLAGE-LAND is here commonly ploughed by horses; a team of oxen, we believe, is not to be found in the county: the horses are yoked double, and driven with cords by the ploughman. An acre is accounted a good day's work; and on light soils, an acre and a half.

The ridges are very narrow, from 5 to 7 feet, being the common breadth, whether in corn or in grass.

Fallows for wheat or turnips,—are ploughed once in the Autumn, by the best cultivators, and four or five times in the course of the succeeding Summer.

Barley—is sown on one ploughing after turnips: but after a white crop, (as in rotation first) they plough twice, and manure with 20 or 30 cart-loads of dung: some add lime.

Oats—are always sown on one ploughing.

SECT. 2—Fallowing.

Fallowing for wheat and turnips, is practised in many parts of this county; four or five ploughings and harrow­ings, is the general practice: we saw some very clean, and well managed, gathered up into neat narrow ridges, on which the wheat was looking very healthy.

SECT. 3.—Rotation of Crops.

The most prevalent system, through a great part of this county, is, to have a crop of white corn every year [Page 189]while in ploughing: such cultivators make no fallows, except ploughing twice, and manuring for barley, can be deemed such.

Where a field is ploughed out from grass, they have oats—oats,—barley,—oats; or, oats,—barley,—oats,— oats, &c. &c. for nine or twelve years, and then left to grass for seven or nine years. Some few sow hay-seeds and a little white clover; but the greatest part leave it to nature.^*

Where they fallow for wheat, the rotation is,

• 1 Fallow
• 2 Wheat
• 3 Oats, or Barley
• 4 Oats,—for 3 or 4 rotations, and then left for grass, for seven or nine years; some few sow clover and hay seeds.

In those places where the turnip culture is practised, the rotation is,

• 1 Turnips
• 2 Barley
• 3 Clover
• 4 Ditto
• 5 Oats.
• 6 Ditto.

Or,

• 1 Turnips
• 2 Wheat
• [Page 190]3 Barley
• 4 Clover
• 5 Ditto
• 6 Oats.

We are glad to find, that two or three individuals have adopted the idea of not taking two white crops in suc­cession, and pursue the excellent rotation of turnips,— barley,—clover two years,—then oats, or wheat.

SECT. 4.—Crops commonly cultivated.

Wheat is a modern production here; a general opinion used to prevail, that wheat could not be grown in many parts of this county. We were informed that it is not much more than 40 years, since Summer fallows for wheat were first used; and it is not twenty years since Lord Muncaster introduced Summer fallows, and the cul­ture of wheat, in the neighbourhood of Ravenglass, where it is now grown in great abundance, as well as all along the coast to Scotland, and in the neighbourhood of Car­lisle. The wheat that is sown after turnips or clover, is trifling, the main supply is from Summer fallows; they generally sow two bushels and a half per acre, in Septem­ber or October, as the season suits, and they reap from sixteen to thirty bushe's per acre.

Barley and Oats, being the grains from which the bread of the inhabitants is made, were probably the first, and only corn, grown in this county for many centuries; bigg or bear, with four rows of grains on the ear, was the kind of barley formerly cultivated; but lately, the common early sort, with two rows, has been introduced. They sow two and a half bushels per acre, in April or May, and reap twenty-one bushels on an average.

The Common Oat, was the only variety grown in this county, and is now by far the most prevalent; but of late [Page 191]years, a few enterprising individuals have introduced the early varieties of this grain, with great advantage; they are distinguished from the common oat by the name of layland oat, and are the Dutch or Friesland oat.^*

The quantity sown,—is from four to six bushels per acre.

The time of sowing,—March or April.

The Produce—from 15 to 40 bushels per acre; but the average of the county was stated to us, to be only 20 bushels per acre.

Pease.—In a climate where so much rain falls, and where the harvest is so precarious, the culture of pease would be attended with so many chances of loss, and so few of gain, that we were not surprised to find them so generally neglected. The difficulty of harvesting them, has probably first suggested the idea, of building their stacks in the cloughs ^† of trees, and afterwards in slender high pyramids round the boles of tall trees, to prevent them from blowing over: by this method, they can also lead and stack them, in a damper or moister state; and as they do not come near the ground by five or six feet, they are seldom troubled with mice. The greatest diame­ter of the stacks is not more than six or seven feet; the height of many twelve or fifteen; if the tree has not a sufficiency of convenient branches to bear the bottom, they nail a stick or two across, to form a base. When finished, they have a very singular appearance.

Turnips, were first cultivated in this county, to any ef­fect, for the use of cattle, by Philip Howard, Esq of Cor­by [Page 192]in the year 1755: his first essay was drilled at four feet distance; the crop amazingly good; the weight on an average, 10 lb. each turnip; some weighed 25 lb; he afterwards continued to grow them at two feet, and two and a half feet distance, with constant success, for eight or ten years, before any farmer followed the example; at last, Mr Collins, of Wetherall, made a trial, and suc­ceeded; others soon followed him

It is, therefore, about thirty years since a few farm­ers first began to cultivate turnips; and considering with what tardiness new modes of practice generally make their way amongst that useful class of society, it is no wonder that the growing of turnips should, in a great measure, be still confined to the vicinity where their cultivation originated, and we suppose, by the mode of practice, that from this source may be traced the various patches of turnips we observed at Netherby, Burgh, Dalton, and a few other places.

The land, after being made sufficiently fine by repeated ploughings and harrowings, is set up in one-bout ridges^* at 30 inches distance; the dung is put in the bottom of the hollow intervals, and covered with earth by the plough; the top of the one-bout ridge is flattened by trailing a piece of wood over it, and on the flattened top the turnip seed is sown by a drill, which a man pushes be­fore him like a wheel-barrow.

The drilled turnips are hoed, and set out a about eight or nine inches distance in the rows, which are ploughed between by a small plough.

Hoeing broad-cast turnips is not understood; if any are sown this way, they go unhoed; and if too thick, are [Page 193]hand-weeded. Mess. Williamson and Monkhouse paid 20s. per acre this year, (1793) for hand-weeding their broad-cast turnips.

The value of this excellent vegetable is not sufficiently understood in this county, otherwise it must have made a more rapid progress. Probably this may be owing to its being applied to feeding their own breed of sheep. We saw several acres of turnips this year, that were sold for, from 3l. to 3l. 10s. per acre, which a Northumberland grazier would have thought worth five or six pounds an acre, for feeding the improved breed of long-woolled sheep.

Potatoes are cultivated in one-bout ridges, by almost every farmer, not only for the use of their own families, but for sale, where the situation is not too distant from a good market. It is only upon the estate of Sir James Graham, at Netherby, that they are applied to feeding cattle and swine: and by Lord Muncaster, to feeding cattle, who also gives them to his horses; Mr Lamb and Mr Blalock favoured us with the following particulars:

Mr Blalock feeds cows, and says, that 120 bushels of potatoes, with 16 stones of oatmeal, will fatten a cow in three months, equally well as turnips, of 3 or 4l. value.

The small farmers apply potatoes to feeding swine: thirty bushels of potatoes and ten of corn, made in­to meal, will fatten a swine of eighteen or twenty stones weight, equal to corn of 1l. 15s. value. The potatoes are boiled, and meal mixed with them.

From these data, the value of potatoes may be nearly estimated:

From the above it appears, that potatoes for feeding cows, or swine, are worth no more than 4d. per bushel. They estimate a fair average crop of potatoes to be 240 bushels per acre; the value at 4d. per bushel, is only 4l. out of which the seed ought to be deducted, the other expences attending the cultivation of potatoes and turnips being much upon a par

The land on which these potatoes are grown, is a most excellent turnip soil, and would produce turnips, almost any year, worth 5l. per acre for feeding cattle or sheep.^* From the above statement it appears, that an acre of po­tatoes is of less value, than an acre of turnips for feeding cattle. Mr Lamb has been long convinced of this, and says, that the practice of applying potatoes to feeding cattle and swine, is every year losing ground, and the cul­ture of turnips, which was pretty general here twenty years since, (but gave way to potatoes) is now, in its turn, regaining the situation it so justly deserves.

SECT. 5.—Crops not commonly cultivated.

Beans—we were informed are seldom cultivated with success; the failure may probably be owing to their being sown broad cast, without manure, and not hoed: we would recommend, to some spirited cultivator, to try them in drills at 30 inches intervals, so as to admit of be­ing [Page 195]horse-hoed, and ploughed between; this mode we can recommend, on the successful practice of several years.^*

Cabbages—have been cultivated by Lord Muncaster' Dr Harrison of Penrith, and a few others in that vicinity.

Carrots—have also been tried by Lord Muncaster, who found them a very troublesome and expensive crop, owing to the abundance of weeds, occasioned by the great rains and moisture of the climate.

Flax—is cultivated in small quantities, on the northern extremities of the county, for family use; but much less now than formerly

SECT. 1.—Natural Meadows and Pastures.

NATURAL meadows are generally found in narrow strips by the sides of rivers. "The largest tract of na­tural meadow, in this county, is in the parish of Scaleby, which lets for 28s. per acre: also between the lakes of Keswick and Bassenthwaite, there is a considerable extent of natural meadow.

Natural pastures are not very numerous in the cul­tivateable districts of the county; unless such may be called natural pasture, which is left to nature to cover with herbage after having been exhausted with growing corn. If by natural pastures be understood such as have [Page 196]never been disturbed by the plough, there will be found great abundance in this county; as not only all the com­mons in the cultivateable districts, but the mountains may come under that denomination.

SECT. 2.—Artificial Grasses.

Artificial Grasses, are here confined to a small number —red clover, (trifolium pratense) white clover (trifolium repens) common hay-feeds, with a little rib grass (plan­tago lanceolata) and ray-grass, (lolium perenne.)

We were informed, that in 1752, no person in the county had thought of sowing a field down with clover, or even hay-seeds; and that Philip Howard, Esq. of Cor­by, was the first who sowed a field with clover, and taught his countrymen the use of artificial grasses; yet it is but a few that have benefited by his laudable exertions.

Red Clover, is principally sown where the turnip culture, and summer-fallowing for wheat, are practised, and the land continues only two years in grass: it is generally mown the first year, and depastured the second. The great objection to growing this valuable grass, is the hov­ing of cattle, which may be obviated by depasturing it with sheep, or by a little caution in having the cattle pretty full, before they are turned into it, and to take care to put them to it on a dry day. Some object to it, because they have taken a fancy that it impoverishes the soil. Old Ellis says, "Clover is the mother of corn." We believe that, could the Cumberland farmers be induced to make an experiment, they would be of the same opinion, and would find their profits so superior to what they are at present, that they would become converts to the cause. We hope we do not exaggerate when we say, that the profits of red clover for two years, would be double to that derived from the same quantity of ground sown with [Page 197]white clover, rib grass, and hay-seeds; and that the pro­fits of the succeeding crop of corn would be nearly in the same ratio.

White Clover, has many advocates, and is certainly a valuable plant, where land is intended to continue in grass for a few years, which is generally the case here; and by those who sow any kind of grass seeds, it is in great repute; it is seldom or never sown alone, but ac­companied by what is here called common hay-seeds, which are generally harmless, from the heat they mostly get in the stacks, and their vegetative powers thereby destroyed: where that is not the case, we fear more weeds than use­ful plants would be the produce; for when it is consider­ed, that of the useful plants which compose a good mea­dow, scarce two of them flower and ripen at the same period; and as the time of mowing is governed more by the weather, or other circumstances, than the collection of useful seeds, it may happen, that not one valuable plant may then have its seeds in that state of perfection, which is necessary for the reproduction of its species; at the same time it is probable, that you may obtain the seeds of many plants, which you would wish to avoid.

Rib Grass, is sown in some places where land is intend­ed to continue in grass.

Ray-grass, has here but few advocates; a general pre­judice against this plant seems to have taken place, we think unjustly, for we are convinced, from long experi­ence, that under proper management, it is a valuable grass; it grows in all soils, and in all situations; early in the Spring, and late in Autumn; and even thro' Win­ter, on dry soils and in open weather: the only reason­able objection we know of, is the great propensity it hath to run to seed; but this may be easily obviated, by eating it bare with cattle, or by mowing the pasture just before [Page 198]it begins to flower, which increases the eatage, by the quantity of bottom grass it sends forth after the opera­tion.

It is the properest grass we know, to sow along with red or white clover; and we would beg leave to recom­mend it, instead of common hay-seeds, so universally sown in this county, with clover, both red and white.

SECT 3.—Hay Harvest.

The hay harvest is here in the months of July and August; the modes of management various, according to the nature of the grass, weather, and notions of the farm­er: we do not find any thing peculiarly excellent in their practice; the only singularity is, that the occupiers of small farms, in some parts of the county, put the whole of their hay into barns; the larger farmers stack their's at the door.

SECT. 4—Feeding.

The most general system of grazing is,—on the richest grounds, cattle with a few sheep; on the less luxuriant, sheep only.

The kinds of cattle usually fatted are the native coun­try breed, and Scotch cattle, both Kyloes and the Gal­loway kind. Of these, they sind the Kyloes the quickest feeders, the Galloway next, and their own country breed of long horns the slowest.

The prosits of grazing cattle depend much on the skill of the buyer, in selecting the quickest feeders; and, when fat, in selling them for their full value; also, not unfre­quently, on the state of markets.

The best grazing lands we saw were at Pap Castle, near Cockermouth, let at 3l per acre; and the holm lands on both sides the Eden, near Carlisle, let at 2l. 10s. per acre, for the purposes of grazing only. Mr Tealson, of the [Page 199]former place, buys in oxen and heifers in October, keeps them all Winter upon the pastures out of which his fat stock has been recently sold, and gives them a little hay in bad weather. After keeping them near twelve months, they leave, on an average, a profit of 5l each; their weight, from fifty to sixty stone. But this interligent gentleman was candid enough to confess, that he thought sheep, mixed amongst cattle, a more profitable system; and we were glad to find this mode practised by all the best gra­ziers in the county.

Of Sheep-grazing, there are two branches; first, feed­ing wethers; and, secondly, ewes for fat lambs: they are both bought in the Autumn, are kept on grass the whole time, and get no other food, except hay in stormy wea­ther.

There are a few who buy in wethers, to feed upon tur­nips, [Page 200]and sell them in the Spring, to Manchester and Liverpool.

The kinds of sheep grazed are, the country breed, the true black-faced heath sheep, and the Cheviot sheep. The most experienced graziers all agreed, that the true black-faced heath sheep were quicker feeders, and a hardier race, than the Cheviot.^*

SECT. 1.—Draining.

DRAINING, is one of those improvements which has been introduced of late years into the northern counties; and where it is done with judgment, is, in many situa­tions, of the greatest consequence.—Cumberland has not been behind its neigbours in adopting this beneficial mea­sure: we were glad to observe, in many places, great ad­vantages gained, both by hollow and surface drains; some done with great art, by one or more hollow drains run­ning in the direction of the outburst of water, and cut deep enough to get through the bed of sand or gravel in which the water runs, and by that means arrest the source, which drowns the land below it; but the like intelligence has not in all places prevailed, for we often saw the drains running in parallel directions, perpendicular to the source, and at such distances, as the drainer thought the nature of the soil required; this is more particularly the case, where surface drains are used. The hollow drains are [Page 205]filled with stones when they can be got, otherwise with sods.

SECT. 2.—Paring and Burning.

This operation is seldom performed in this county, ex­cept on heathy, or coarse grounds: the expence about 15s. per acre.

SECT. 3.—Manuring.

Farm-yard dung, is here, as in most other places, the chief resource of the farmer: where turnips are grown, it is wholly applied to their culture; where they are not grown, it is used for the various purposes of dressing grass land, and for the barley and wheat crops.

Lime, is found in great abundance in many parts of this county, and of an excellent quality. The quantity laid upon an acre varies from sixty to an hundred and fifty bushels; we found it a general opinion, that lime did lit­tle good to land that had been long accustomed to it; and that those who had used the large quantity of 150 bushels per acre, found their lands greatly exhausted, and were now fully convinced of their error in continuing it so long, especially in such large quantities. We have had many opportunities of observing the abuse of lime, which, most probably, is one of the best manures known, for particular soils and situations, and under peculiar circum­stances, and proper restrictions; yet, like many other good things, a superabundance may be prejudical; or rather, we are sensible, that too often repeated, and in large quantities, it becomes hurtful.

Lime is mostly laid on, while the land is in a state of fallow; but in some places, we found it laid upon the grass land, one or two years before they intended to plough it out. We doubt the propriety of the latter mode.

[Page 206] Tangle, or Sea-Weed, is used along the coast, wherever it can be got; the quantity per acre is fifty or sixty cart-loads. This is known to be a valuable manure, either for corn, turnips, or grass, wherever it can be had.

Slake or Mud, left by the tide, is used in the neighbour­hood of Ravenglass, with good effect, on the grass lands, fifty or sixty cart-loads per acre.

Muscles, are also used in the neighbourhood of Raven­glass, for manure, after the rate of five or six cart-loads per acre; they are got on the sands adjoining the coast.

Sea Sand.—An accidental experiment of Lord Muncas­ter's shewed its utility in destroying moss, but it is not used as a manure.

Compost.—It seems a general practice through every part of the county, to make a compost of lime and earth, in the proportion of one cart-load of lime, to four or five of earth; they use it as a top-dressing to their grass lands, and find it very beneficial.

SECT. 4.—Weeding.

All kinds of grain are sown broad-cast; the only weeding it gets is by hand: hoeing a crop of corn, we be­lieve, was never once practised in the county. Turnips and potatoes are the only crops in which weeds are de­stroyed by hoeing.

SECT. 5—Watering.

The only attempts we saw of this species of improve­ment, that had the least resemblance to a watered meadow laid out by art, was at Bleatarn (about six miles east of Carlisle,) belonging to Mr Richardson of Rickerby, to whom his country is highly indebted, for the spirited ex­ample he has set in many other improvements. We were [Page 207]sorry to find, there was little more water than what was collected by rains; the ridges narrow and long; the trenches small, and inadequate to carry a sufficient quan­tity of water, for the purpose intended. It is unfortu­nate, that the first attempt should have been made in such a situation, and under such circumstances, in a county so pregnant with favourable situations, and the water of such an excellent quality, uncontaminated with mineral particles, or infusions that are suspected to be inimical to vegetation.

SECT. 6.—Improving Heath Lands.

The best mode of improving peat earth, being a desi­deratum of great consequence, the more facts that can be collected upon this head, the more light will be thrown on the subject, and the more likely we shall be to obtain the object sought for.

At Bleatarn, Mr Richardson has made great improve­ment, on a poor black moory soil, growing very short heath, in its original state, not worth sixpence per acre. He ploughs in Autumn, and lets it lie till the Autumn following; then ploughs across; and the next Summer makes a complete fallow, which he limes, after the rate of one hundred and fifty bushels per acre; and in April or May following sows it with grass-seeds (without corn) in the following proportion per acre: white clover, 8 lb.; red, 4 lb.; rib-grass, 4 lb.; ray-grass, 1½ bushels; and common hay-seeds, 6 bushels.

Another mode is to plough up in the Winter, and leave it in that state thro' the Summer, to rot, until next Spring, when it is ploughed across, and made sufficiently fine by repeated harrowings, ploughings, and burning of the sods, to sow with turnips in June: to the above quantity of lime is added 30 single-horse cart loads of dung. On a part of the fallow this year, we saw some drilled turnips, [Page 208]worth 3l. an acre: in addition to the lime, they had fifty single-horse cart-loads of dung per acre: but as dung is rarely to be procured for improvements of this kind, we think, that a crop of rape might be got for Spring seed, without dung, which would certainly be better than a naked fallow, as in the first mode. The lands that have been laid down two years, were full of grass,^* and excellent pasture for sheep; but to make them thus pro­ductive, they are loaded with the following expences, which, according to Mr Richardson's estimate, including the various ploughings, harrowings, lime, dung, grass-seeds, interest of money, &c. amount to 11l. 11s. 6d. per acre: from which taking the value of the turnips 3l. leaves 8l. 11s. 6d. the expence per acre, on the grass.

Near Naward Castle, Mr Ramshay has made great ex­ertions in reclaiming peat-moss, by throwing it up with a spade, into round ridges seven yards wide; the top being from twelve to eighteen inches higher than the furrow, which is cut deep enough to act as an open drain. In this state it lies all Winter: In the Spring following, he covers it nearly an inch thick, with a compost, formed of five loads of earth, to one of lime; and upon this dress­ing, sows,

Where the land is dry enough, they plough; and, to the above quantity of grass-seeds, add a few pounds of white clover.

Mr Ramshay uses few hollow drains. Those that re­quire to be three or four feet deep, he slopes off at the [Page 209]into which the furrow drains empty. We saw some lands that had been done two years; the ray-grass and rib-grass growing well; the woolly holcus (holcus lanatus) in abundance: it comes naturally on all such soils; but is a grass that few kinds of stock will eat, un­less compelled by hunger.

Mr Ramshay informed us, the expences of making these improvements amounted to 10l. an acre; of course, both this and Mr Richardson's, to pay common interest for the money expended, ought to let at 10s. an acre for a term of 21 years.

SECT. 1.—Cattle.

THE Cattle, are a small breed of long horns, with a few exceptions of the Galloway breed intermixed, particularly along the coast from Whitehaven to Carlifle.

This breed of long-horns is not distinguished by any pe­culiar good qualities, which is not to be wondered at, when it is considered that, probably at this time, there is not one person in the county that pays any attention to its improvement. Twenty years ago Mr Hazle, of Dale­main, had made some progress in this business, and gain­ed a very useful breed of long-horned cattle; but his suc­cessors neglected them, and the labours of the good old man are totally lost.

[Page 210]The long-horned, and the Galloway polled cattle, are probably the best adapted to this county of any other; but the kind of long-horns that occupy it at present, may certainly be much improved, by paying proper attention, to breed always from the best males and females that can be selected. This end would be the readiest attained, by getting good bulls and heifers from the midland counties, where the long-horned breed are brought to great per­fection.

The Dairies are small, and mostly employed in making butter, of an excellent quality. Those that are situated in the vicinity of towns, sell it weekly, by the pound, to supply the consumption of the inhabitants. In other situations, it is put into firkins of 56 lb each, and sent to distant markets.

The average quantity of butter from one cow, is generally estimated from one to two firkins: some cows will give twelve quarts of milk at a meal, and make seven pounds of butter per week; but the most general average is, seven or eight quarts of milk at a meal, and from 3 to 5 pounds of butter per week, through the Summer.

Skimmed milk cheese, is the principal kind made here, and chiefly consumed at home.

On those farms that have a right of common, the grass lands are employed through the Summer in growing hay, depasturing their cows, and sometimes young cattle; but the latter are more generally summered on the commons, and in Autumn brought into the old inclosures, till the approach of Winter, when all the cattle are housed.

SECT. 2.—Sheep.

The sheep bred in this county are only of two kinds, [Page]

[Page 211]and these two are probably something related; one of them is peculiar to that high, exposed, rocky, mountain­ous district, at the head of the Duddon and Esk rivers, more particularly known by the names of Hardknot, Sealefell, Wrynose, &c.

Of this breed of sheep, (commonly called Herdwicks,) the ewes and wethers are all polled or hornless, and also many of the tups; their faces and legs speckled; but a great portion of white, with a few black spots on those parts, are accounted marks of the purest breed, as are also the hornless tups; they have sine, small, clean legs. We were told that the lambs, when dropt, are well covered; the wool is short, and form as thick matted fleece, much finer than that of the black-faced heath sheep; with which variety they seem to have been crossed, as we sus­pect, from some of the rams having spiral horns, and from some kemps or hairs being intermixed amongst some fleeces of the wool: they are a lively little animal, well adapted to seek their food amongst these rocky mountains, in many places stony and bare; and where covered, the soil is thin, but the herbage mostly green, though heath is found on their summits. They have no hay in Win­ter, and support themselves in the deepest snows, by scratching down to the heath, or other herbage; indeed it seldom happens, but that some parts of the mountains are blown bare, which the sheep find out. They do not face the coming storm as reported, but, like other sheep, turn their backs on it; and, in such weather, they gener­ally gather together, and keep stirring about; by which means they tread down the snow, keep above it, and are rarely over-blown.

The loss per cent per ann. is of hogs ^* from 5 to 10.— Ditto ditto of old sheep—2 to 5.

[Page 212]The ewes are kept as long as they will breed lambs, and are often from ten to fifteen years of age before they are sold: the wethers go off at four and a half years old. Both ewes and wethers are sold from these mountains, and killed without being put on any better pasture: we saw a carcase of one of the wethers at Ravenglass, very good mutton, which weighed 11 lb. a quarter, and had 10 or 12 lb. of tallow. The ewes weigh from 6 to 8 lb. a quar­ter; the fleece weighs 2 lb. and soid last year at 6d. per lb. which we think much below its value.

The mountains on which these sheep are bred, happen not to be common, but belong to Lord Muncaster; as do also the stock that depasture them, which have, time im­memorial, been farmed out to herds, at a yearly sum. From this circumstance, these farms (three or four in number) have obtained the name of Herdwicks; that is, the district of the herds; and the sheep, the appellation of Herdwick sheep. They have obtained such a character for hardiness of constitution, that Mr Tyson,^* who farms the principal flock, sells a number of tups every year into va­rious parts of the county, to improve the hardiness of other slocks; the price is often as high as two guineas and a half.

The sheep, through the whole of this county (except the Herdwicks) have been descended from the black-faced, coarse-woolled, heath sheep; but by crossing with some o­ther kind, (probably the Herdwicks) many of them have acquired a large portion of white on their faces and legs; some have those parts speckled, and others totally black; they are in general horned, high shouldered, narrow back­ed, flat sided, strong boned, and many with thick, rough, hairy legs. The wool is coarse and long, but falls short in [Page 213]both these respects to what is produced by the black-faced sheep from Mossat and Linton in Scotland, and the Kent­more sheep in Westmoreland; the fleece weighs from 3 to 4 lb. which sold in 1793 for 5½d. per pound.

The management of sheep, over all this county, is very similar; through the Summer the whole flock is depas­tured on the commons, and range at large without any person to look after them: in November, the whole are gathered together and salved;^* the old sheep are turned again upon the common, but the hogs are kept in the old inclosures; some part of which has been kept uneat­en, to support them through the Winter: on the approach of snow, the old sheep are brought to the inclosures, or to some part of the common adjoining, and are daily fod­dered with hay, while the storm continues. Those who have not a sussiciency of inclosed ground for wintering their hogs, take wintering for them, in those parts of the low country where they do not breed sheep; the price, 2s. per head, to have hay in bad weather.

In Eskdale and Mitredale, they formerly kept their hogs in the house all Winter on hay, and drove them to water once a day; but this practice is now laid aside, and they winter them upon the inclosed grounds, which are previously kept fresh for that purpose. They give no hay to their sheep here, which are a good deal of the Herd­wick blood.

The sheep are sold in Autumn, to graziers. The price of those from the eastern part of the county, are,

We have no hesitation in saying, that the breeds may be improved, for there are few places where they have been more neglected. At Penruddock we observed some singularly rough legged, ill-formed sheep; on asking an old farmer, from whence they had that breed, or where they got their tups? He innocently replied, Lord, Sir! they are sik as God set upon the land, we never change any! The latter pare of this simple statement we readily believe; but that God set upon the land such ill-formed, unprosita­ble animals, we cannot so readily assent to; and rather think, they have acquired their present ill-form, and bad properties, by the indolence and ignorance of the owners. We wish we could avoid adding, that the same practice which guides the men of Penruddock, is too prevalent in every part of the county

We found, in general, that the sheep breeders here, like those in most other countries, are very much attach­ed to their own breed. As they have never tried any o­ther, they cannot be admitted as proper judges, of the comparative merit of different kinds of sheep; but sup­posing, for the present, their own breed to be well adapt­ed to their situation, why not improve them, by selecting the best males and females, and rear a better offspring of their own kind? or, by hiring, or buying, some of Mr Tyson's BEST FORMED and FINEST WOOLLED Herd-wick tups, instead of getting tups from Kentmore in Westmoreland, which appeared (from what we saw) to have nothing to recommend them, (in our opinion) but size and c [...]rseness. The shape of these sheep is, in every res­pect, the reverse of what it ought to be; the back nar­row, [Page 215]the carcase long and thin, supported upon large rough legs, with coarse hairy wool hanging down from their throats all the way to their breast, which, on a wet day, gives them as much the appearance of goats as sheep.

Within the last three years, a few long-woolled sheep have been introduced into this county, from the York­shire Wolds, by Lord Muncaster; from Northumberland, by Mr Blacklock, of Corby; Mr Richardson, of Rickaby; Mr Porter, Carlisle; Mr Falder, near Roes Castle; Mr Lamb, Netherby; and probably a few others:—and since our visiting this county in 1793, to the above names we are happy to add those of Mr Graham, of Barrock Lodge; Mr Losh, of Woodside; Mr Stalker, of Lambsknow, &c.; who have not only hired tups at considerable prices, but even purchased ewes at as high prices, as from 4l. to 5l. each.

SECT. 3.—Horses.

The Horses are middle sized, from fourteen to fifteen and a half hands high, of various colours; but bays and chesnuts seem the most prevalent; for a small farm, where horses must answer for both draught and riding, they are probably most suitable; but certainly might be improved, by stallions from the North-Riding of Yorkshire, the best breed of horses we know for the double purpose above-mentioned.

About 70 or 80 years since, teams of oxen, or oxen yoked with horses, were very common; from that pe­riod, draught oxen gradually decreased; and for some years past we were informed, there has not been an ox team in the county.

Almost every small farmer breeds his own horses, and generally more than are necessary, for the cultivation of his farm; these are often purchased by dealers, for the pur­pose of supplying the light horse regiments.

SECT. 4.—Swine.

Swine are bred and fed here in considerable numbers; every farmer fattens one or more of these animals, and most labourers and mechanics rear and feed each a pig; at about 10 months old they are confined in the sty for the purpose of fatting on barley or oatmeal, and potatoes: their weight is from 15 to 20 stone.

SECT. 5.—Rabbits.

Some narrow tracts of light sandy ground along the coast, from Harrington to Abbey-holm, are occupied by rabbits. There are also warrens in the parishes of Wyber­thwaite, Drig, and Heskit.

SECT. 6—Poultry.

The minute division of landed property occasions a­bundance of poultry: the numerous waters, lakes and commons, facilitate the keeping of large flocks of geese; which are fed on the stubbles, and supply the market plentifully, from the latter end of October, to Christmas.

SECT. 7.—Pigeons,

Are rarely found with the farmers; they are principally kept and bred by gentlemen of property, as articles of luxury.

SECT. 8—Bees,

Are found thro' every part of the county, and in some situations are very profitable. It is a prevailing opinion, that they thrive best in the vicinity of Heath (erica vulga­ris) Hence it would appear, that this plant abounds with their favourite food; but as it is late of flowering, they should also be in the neighbourhood of a sheltered [Page 217]early situation, to enjoy the benefit of the Spring flowers: where these cannot be united, it would probably be right to remove them from one to the other, to suit the sea­sons.

SECT. 1.—Labour.

FROM the number of small farms, there is an uncer­tainty of a day labourer meeting with constant employ­ment; as the occupiers want assistance only on particular occasions.

On this principle we account for the high wages given in this county; through the whole of which, there is an universal custom of giving the labourers victuals, both men and women; the wages are,

For men, per day, 10d. and victuals; in harvest, 1s. and victuals—For women, hay-making, 8d. and victuals;—harvest, 10d. and victuals.—The hours from 6 to 6.

The victuals are estimated at 8d. per day for men, and 6d. for women. Servants kept in the house, are only hired for half a year, to prevent gaining settlements.—Their wages for that time are, a man, from 5l. to 7l.—Women, 2l. to 3l—Masons, without victuals, are from 1s. 8d. to 2s. per day; Carpenters, 1s. 6d.

When work is done by the piece, the prices are as fol­lows:

SECT. 2—Provisions.

Grain of all kinds is generally very high; the average price in 1793, was,

Poultry—A stubble goose, 2s.—duck 8d. a fowl 6d.—eggs from 3d. to 6d. per dozen.

Fish.—Salmon, 6d. per lb.—trout 3 d.

We suspect the butchers' meat, through all the markets of the county, is not overloaded with fat: what we saw at Carlisle and Whitehaven was lean indeed!—At the latter place, we did not see one carcase of decent mutton,—the greatest part of it would not have be [...]n suffered to appear in Newcastle, and many other markets, that are accustom­ed to see good mutton; a joint of lean Whitehaven mut­ton, is deater at 3d. p.r. lb than the same joint of a good sat sheep is at 5d. on account of the greater proportion of hone to eatable meat, in the former, to what it is in the latter.

The bread, geneally used in this county, is made of bar­ley, or a mixture of bar­ley and rye; oatmeal is made into [Page 219]hasty-puddings, and eat with butter, treacle, milk, or beer, for breakfast, and often for supper.

Potatoes, for several years, have been in general use, as a principal article of food; few families dine without them; and we believe many a dinner and supper are made of potatoes, with a little butter, or cream, for sauce; and in many cases, only milk, or, where this cannot be had, a little salt.

SECT. 3.—Fuel.

Coals are cheap and plentiful in most parts of the coun­ty; in several places from 15s. to 30s. will procure a year's fuel, for a small family.

Peat and turf also abound, and are used instead of coals in some districts.

SECT. 1.—Roads.

THE roads are in general very good, both parochial and turnpikes, except the road from Carlisle to Newcastle; some parts of which are very bad, and very different to what the same road is, immediately on entering Nor­thumberland.

The materials are excellent; in general lime-stone; but, in almost every instance, not broken small enough by one half. If these hard stones were broken so small, [Page 220]as to pass through a ring two inches in diameter, and the roads made wider, and flat, or very nearly so, few coun­ties in the kingdom would be able to vie with Cumber­land for excellent roads.

SECT. 2.—Canals.

There are no canals in this county; in 1795, one was projected from Maryport by Carlisle, to Newcastle, but did not take place; owing to a difference of opinion, whether the canal from Newcastle, should pass on the North or South side of Tyne.

SECT. 3.—Fairs.

• 20th.—Wigton,—for horses.

• 5th.—Wigton,—for cattle.
• 24th—Penrith,—for cattle.
• 25th.—Boon Wood,—for cattle.

• First Wednesday, and every fortnight till Michaelmas. —Cochermouth,—for cattle.
• 1st, 2d, and 3d Fridays.—Hesket-New-market,—for cattle.
• 28th.—Aldston,—for cattle.

• 3th.—Ravenglass,—for cattle.
• Tuesday before Whitsuntide.—Abbey-holm,—for cat­tle and horses.
• Whitsun Monday, the Monday fortnight, and Mon­day month after.—Ross [...]y-hill.—A very great fair for cattle and horses: and cattle are shewn here every fortnight after, till Michaelmas.
• [Page 221]Whitsun-Tuesday: and every fortnight after.—Pen­rith,—for cattle.
• Second Wednesday after Whitsuntide.—Brampton, —for cattle, horses, and sheep.

• 4th.—Ravenglass,—for cattle.
• 26th.—Carlisle,—for cattle and horses.

• 2d. Wednesday.—Brampton,—for cattle, horses, and sheep.
• 18th.—Egrement,—for cattle.
• 19th.—Carlisle,—for cattle and horses.
• 26th, 27th.—Penrith,—for cattle.

• 10th.—Cockermouth,—for cattle and horses.
• 1st, 2d, 3d Saturdays, after Old Michaelmas—Car­lisle,—for cattle and horses: these are called Emptons, probably from the cattle being bought to drive to the great fair of Hempton Green, in Norfolk, held the 22d of November.
• 29th.—Abbey-holm,—for cattle and horses.

• 21st.—Wigton,—for cattle and Christmas cheer, from whence it is commonly called "Wallet-fair."

SECT. 4.—Markets.

Monday.—Cockermouth,—for corn, butchers' meat, &c.

Tuesday.—Penrith.—A large market for corn, and all kinds of provisions.

• Wigton,—for corn, butchers' meat, &c.
• Brampton.—A small market for corn and o­ther provisions.

[Page 222]Wednesday.—Workington.—A large market for all kinds of provisions.

Thursday.—Whitehaven,—for corn and provisions: a large market.

Longtown,—butchers' meat and butter; no corn.

Kirkoswald.—A small market for butchers' meat, &c.

Friday.—Maryport,—for provisions all kinds.

Hesket-New-market.—A small market for corn, butcher's meat, &c.

Ravenglass.—A small market for provi­sions.

Saturday.—Carlisle.—A very large market for corn, cattle, swine, butchers' meat, and provisions of all kinds.

Keswick.—A small market for butchers' meat, butter, &c.; and a few oats and barley.

Egremont,—for corn, and other pro­visions.

SECT. 5.—Commerce.

The Commerce of this county consists, principally, in the exportation of coals from Whitehaven, Workington, and Maryport, to Ireland, &c. The number of vessels employed in this trade amounts to upwards of 300, from 60 to 120 tons burden. This lucrative trade has arisen to its present importance, within the last hundred years; it originated at Whitehaven, from the exertions of Lord Lonsdale's ancestors, to whom the coal in that neigh­bourhood principally belongs.

Mr Curwen is the principal coal-owner at Workington, and Mr Senhouse at Maryport. At all those places, coal cannot be wrought fast enough to supply the demand; vessels have frequently to wait six or eight weeks before [Page 223]they can get a loading; a certain sign of an increasing trade.

"We have not been able to ascertain at what period navigation was advanced in Cumberland. A survey was taken by commission from the crown, in the year 1566, of the trade and shipping of this county, (inter alia;) Whitehaven was then so far from promising it would ever arrive at its present wealthy and flourishing state, that it consisted only of six cottages, scattered on the beach, and hidden in the creek from the eye of an enemy, and to this dejected port one small bark only belonged, of nine or ten tons burthen. Nay, it is not more incredible than true, that there was at that time only one vessel ap­pertaining to the whole county, that was of ten tons bur­then. The whole exports of this extensive county, were nothing but a small quantity of herrings and cod fish; and the inhabitants knew so little of the luxuries and enjoy­ments of life, that the whole of this great coast receiv­ed no other imports than a little salt.

About the year 1582, the Earl of Lincoln being Lord High Admiral, caused an account to be taken of the ships and mariners within this county; when all the vessels a­mounted only to twelve, and not one carried eighty tons. The number of mariners and fishermen were 198, of whom many had never navigated a vessel superior to an open boat.

In 1607, Workington was the chief haven, and the place from whence certain criminals, sentenced to banish­ment, were exported to Ireland.^*"

Maryport, in the year 1752, consisted of only one farm-house; in that year another house was built. It is now a neat, well built, middle-sized market-town, with a small and good harbour, inclosed by two piers; and in [Page 224]1793, contained 3445 inhabitants, which increase about 100 yearly. The ground upon which the town is built, belonged to Humphry Senhouse, Esq. To encourage set­tlers, he sold off house and yard steads, reserving a ground rent. The land around it lets for 2 or 3l. an acre, which would not have been worth more than 1l. had things re­mained as they were in 1752.

The quantity of coals exported from these ports, taken on an average of 11 years, (from 1781 to 1792) is as fol­lows:

The receipt of customs at Whitehaven, from 17th June 1794, to 5th January 1795, (29 weeks) was 19832l. 17s. 8d.

The duty on coals exported from these ports, is 1s. 2d. per chaldron to Ireland, and 5s. to foreign ports.

Butter, bacon, and hams of an excellent quality, form a part of the commerce of this county. The article of butter, is said to amount to 30000l. per ann: the whole chiefly for the London market; to which place, also, con­siderable quantities of fresh salmon are sent from Carlisle.

SECT. 6.—Manufactures.

The Manufactures are not extensive: printing cottons at Carlisle, and a check manufacture (on a small scale) in most of the market towns, with four or five cotton mills, erected of late years near Carlisle, Dalston, and Corby, with a small factory of corduroys at the latter place, is all this county has to boast of.

[Page 225]Whether the coal trade and manufactures have occa­sioned any improvements in the agriculture of the county, is doubtful; but they certainly have encouraged it, by making a very increased demand for its produce.

The lead mines on Aldston-moor affect the agriculture of this county very little, being more intimately connected with Northumberland.

SECT. 7.—Poor.

In most of the country parishes, the poor-rates are low, from 6d. to 9d. per pound; which, we believe, is partly owing to a sort of pride existing amongst the lower classes, of not applying for parochial relief, till they can­not possibly subsist without it; and also to the number of Friendly Societies, which have been established, and we hope are still increasing. Such useful institutions are de­serving of encouragement, by every person whose proper­ty is chargeable with poor-rate.

SECT. 8.—Population.

In Messrs Nicholson and Burn's History of Cumber­land, published in 1777, the number of houses are esti­mated at 20,000, and the inhabitants at 100,000: by Houseman's notes, in Hutchinson's History of Cumber­land, now publishing, they amount to 97,200.

SECT. 1.—Agricultural Societies.

THERE are none in this county, nor we believe has any attempt ever been made to form any.

SECT. 2.—Weights and Measures.

The same confusion in weights and measures prevails here, as in many other parts of the kingdom.

• A Carlisle bushel, is 96 quarts^*
• A Penrith bushel, is 64 ditto, for wheat and rye.
• A Penrith bushel, is 80 ditto, for barley, oats, and potatoes.
• A stone of tallow, wool, yarn, or hay, is 16 lb.
• Ditto of butcher's meat 14 lb. but in many places 16 lb.

The pound is 16 ounces; by which butter, and various other articles are weighed.