HEADS Of the LECTURES on RHETORICK, AND BELLES LETTRES, In the University of Edinburgh, 1771.
HEADS Of the LECTURES on RHETORICK, AND BELLES LETTRES, In the University of Edinburgh,
By HUGH BLAIR, D. D.
1771.
EDINBURGH: Sold by A. KINCAID & W. CREECH. Price Sixpence.
I.
1.
TASTE is the power of receiving pleasure from the beauties of Nature and of Art.
It is an internal sense, in many of its exertions directed and assisted by reason.
It is common, in some degree, to all men; and is an improveable faculty.
It derives its improvement from exercise, and from the application of reason and good sense to the objects of taste.
Delicacy and correctness are the characters of taste in its most perfect state.
The general sense and feelings of mankind form the Standard of Taste.
2.
CRITICISM is the application of improved taste to the several fine arts.
[Page 6] The rules of criticism are founded on experience; or on the observation of such beauties as give the highest and most general pleasure to mankind.
3.
GENIUS is a higher power of the mind than Taste. Taste feels and judges; Genius invents and executes.
Genius is more limited in its sphere than Taste. Genius may in some cases be strong, where Taste is incorrect.
4.
The PLEASURES OF TASTE arise from various sources; chiefly from Grandeur, and from Beauty.
5.
The sensation of GRANDEUR, or SUBLIMITY, is produced, either by the view of certain external objects, or by the description of them.
6.
In external objects, Grandeur arises from vastness, or amplitude; from loudness of sounds; from the violence of the elements; in general, from all appearances of extraordinary force and might.
The awful assists the impression of the grand or sublime. Darkness, solitude, and silence promote it. Supernatural scenes are always sublime.
The Moral Sublime arises from sentiments of uncommon magnanimity or heroism.
7.
The description of grand or sublime objects in their proper colours, or the representation of sublime sentiments, constitutes Sublime Writing. This term has been often used in too loose a sense.
[Page 8] Simplicity, as opposed to a profusion of ornament, is an essential requisite to sublime writing.
Conciseness, as opposed to superfluous expression, is another requisite.
The proper selection circumstances is particularly necessary in sublime description. One mean or trifling circumstance destroys the emotion which was intended to be raised.
What is called a Sublime Style is commonly a very bad one. To be sublime is to express great conceptions in few and plain words.
The Frigid and the Bombast are the two opposites of the sublime.
8.
BEAUTY extends to a much greater variety of objects than grandeur.
It is ascribed to colour; to figure; to motion; to certain moral qualities; to the human countenance; to fitness and design in works of art; to certain kinds of writing.
9.
Novelty, Variety, Imitation, Harmony, Wit and Humour, are also sources of pleasure to Taste.
10.
Language possesses the most extensive power of exhibiting the objects which give pleasure to Taste.
II.
1.
LANGUAGE is the expression of our ideas by certain articulate sounds which are used as the signs of those ideas.
2.
Language in its early state was aided by expressive tones and gestures. Pronunciation among the ancients was more vehement than among the moderns.
Language in its early state was figurative and metaphorical, and advanced gradually to simplicity.
The arrangement of words in ancient languages followed most commonly the order of the imagination. Arrangement, in modern languages, follows the order of the understanding.
3.
Written characters are of two kinds: either representing objects, or representing words.
Pictures, Hieroglyphicks, and the Chinese characters, are of the former kind; and were the most ancient method of writing.
Alphabetical characters are of the latter kind; and were an improvement on the ancient method.
Written Language is more extensive and permanent than speech. Spoken Language has more force and energy than writing.
4.
The parts of language or speech may be divided into Substantives, Attributives, and Connectives.
5.
Substantives are general names of objects; and are particularised by the Article.
The most common affections of Substantives are Number and Gender.
Varieties in the use of gender occur in different languages. The English tongue possesses a considerable advantage in this respect.
Declension or Cases of substantives express relations which objects bear to one another.
The ancient tongues employed declension more than the modern.
6.
Attributives express the attribute, quality, or action, of some substance.
The Adjective is the simplest form of attributive words; the Verb, the most complex.
[Page 13] Every verb expresses an attribute, an affirmation, and time.
Conjugation is the manner of expressing the diversity of circumstances included in the verb, by a variation of syllables in the word. Conjugation is more regular and complete in ancient than in modern languages.
7.
Connectives join words and sentences together; and express the relations, connections, and dependencies of objects.
8.
The English Language is a derived and compounded language.
It is irregular in its structure.
It is a copious and expressive language, especially on the graver subjects.
It is flexible, or pssesses a considerable power of accommodation to different styles and manners.
It is not unharmonious
III.
1.
STYLE is the peculiar manner in which different men employ language for expressing their conceptions.
2.
Perspicuity is the first virtue of style.
Perspicuity, in the choice of words, requires Purity, Propriety, and Precision.
Purity is the use of such words and phrasses as belong to the idiom of the language which we employ.
Propriety is the selection of such words, belonging to the language, as the most authorised usage has appropriated to the ideas which we mean to express by them.
Precision is the expression of those ideas which we intend to convey, without [Page 15] any foreign or superfluous circumstance added to them.
The loose use of words reputed synonymous, is one great cause of want of precision.
There are few words in any language that are strictly synonymous.
3.
A SENTENCE is one complete proposition of enunciation of thought.
4.
Variety is to be preserved with regard to long and short sentences.
5.
In the Structure of a sentence, the principal things to be studied are, Clearness, Unity, Strength, and Harmony.
6.
Clearness consists in such a collocation of the words and members of a sentence as shall mark the relation of the several parts to each other without ambiguity.
This requires particular attention to the position of adverbs, of interposed circumstances, and of relative pronouns and particles.
7.
The Unity of a sentence requires the principal object not to be changed; the sentence not to be crouded with things slightly related to each other; parentheses to be seldom interposed; and no adjections to be brought in after the natural close of the period.
8.
The Strength of a sentence arises from [Page 17] such a disposition of the several words and members of it, as shall render the impression which the sentence is designed to make, most full and complete.
This requires all redundant words and members to be rejected; particular attention to be given to copulative and relative particles; the capital words to be disposed of in the most proper place, and to be kept clear from circumstances that would clog them; the members of the sentence to be made to grow in their importance; the sentence not to be terminated by particles, prepositions, or inconsiderable words; and objects compared or contrasted, to be expressed in resembling terms.
9.
The Harmony of a sentence consists either in agreeable sound being so ordered as to become expressive of the sense.
Agreeableness of sound depends, first, [Page 18] on the choice of words, and next on the arrangement of them.
The Greeks and Romans, for several reasons, attended to musical arrangement more than the moderns.
Musical arrangement is sensible chiefly in the distribution of the members, and rests, of a period; and in the close or cadence of it.
Monotony is always to be avoided. Sense is never to be sacrificed to sound.
Sounds may be rendered expressive of the sense, either by adapting it to the general tenor of the discourse; or by accomplishing a particular analogy between the sounds, the motions, and the sensations, which are described, and the words employed in describing them.
10.
FIGURES OF SPEECH convey our ideas to others in a particular dress, and with some circumstance added, which is designed to render the idea more strong and vivid.
[Page 19] They are a natural mode of language, prompted by the imagination and passions.
They take their rise partly from the barrenness of language, but more from the influence of imagination over the use of language.
They serve for the embellishment of style, by rendering it more copious, more dignified, more expressive, and more picturesque.
All the relations which objects bear to one another may be sources of figures. The most copious source of them is the relation of similitude or resemblance.
11.
Metaphor is the most frequent of all figures. It is an abridged comparison; and consists in substituting one object in place of another, on account of the close resemblance which is supposed betwixt them.
[Page 20] Metaphors ought to be suited to the strain of the subject. They ought to be taken from objects of some dignity. They ought to be founded on a resemblance which is clear, and not intricate or far-fetched. The metaphorical and the literal sense must not be confounded. Metaphors must not be mixed; nor crouded; nor too far pursued.
12.
Allegory is of the nature of metaphor, and subject to the same rules.
13.
Hyperbole is the effect of passion and heated imagination, which are always prone to exaggerate their objects.
Passionate hyperboles are more natural and proper than descriptive ones.
Frequent or strained hyperboles weaken style in place of strengthening it.
14.
Personification springs from a tendency in human nature to animate all objects when the mind is warmed. It is a figure of extensive use.
The lowest degree of it consists in ascribing to inanimate beings the qualities of such as have life; the next, in ascribing to them the actions of living creatures; the highest, in addressing ourselves to them as such, or representing them as speaking to us,
In this last degree, it is the boldest of all figures of speech; and is natural only when the mind is highly elevated, or much moved.
15.
Apostrophe is a direct address to persons who are absent or dead; and is much allied to personification.
16.
Comparison, or Smile, is suggested by imagination, not by passion.
All comparisons are intended, either to explain, or to embellish.
Embellishing comparison should serve to produce a strong impression of the primary object; should be founded on some likeness or analogy, neither too near and obvious, not too faint and remote; and trite and beaten subjects of comparison should be avoided.
17.
Antithesis is founded on the contrast and opposition of two objects.
The frequent use of antithesis renders style quaint and disagreeable.
18.
Interrogation, Exclamation, Vision, and Repetition, are figures of the passionate [Page 23] kind; and operate by means of sympathy.
19.
Improper and unsuccessful attempts towards high and passionate figures render a writer ridiculous.
20.
Amplification consists in the skilful employment of several figures; particularly of the Climax.
21.
Figurative Language does not constitute the principal beauty of composition.
Figures, unless they rise naturally from the subject, are blemishes, not ornaments.
They should not be employed too frequently.
[Page 24] They should never be attempted by a writer whose genius does not lead to them.
22.
Style and thought are intimately connected. Every man's peculiarity of thought imprints on his style a certain general character, which may be denominated his MANNER.
23.
The Diffuse and the Concise manner possess each their several advantages; are proper on different occasions; and each are faulty when carried to an extreme.
24.
The Feeble manner is always faulty; and the Nervous beautiful. But attention to strength alone may lead to a Harsh manner.
25.
The Dry, the Plain, the Neat, the Elegant, the Florid manner, express the several gradations of style with respect to ornament.
26.
Simplicity of manner denotes an easy and natural style, in opposition to Stiffness and Affectation.
A high degree of ornament is consistent with simplicity of manner. Simplicity is one of the greatest perfections of style.
27.
The Vehement and Bold manner belongs to the higher kinds of oratory.
29.
Style is to be improved, by studying to acquire clear ideas on the subjects concerning which we write; by the frequent practice of translating, composing, correcting; by attentive perusal of the best authors.
Servile imitation is to be guarded against.
Attention to style must not be allowed to detract from a higher attention to thought: Curam verborum, rerum volo esse Solicitudinem. QUINCTIL.
IV.
1.
ELOQUENCE in general is the art of speaking in such a manner as to attain the end for which we speak.
2.
Eloquence employed with reference to human action and conduct, is the art of persuasion.
3.
Persuasive eloquence will flourish most in free states, where reason and discourse are the instruments by which man acquires power over man.
4.
The Grecian republicks afforded the first and most remarkable field to eloquence.
The period of Grecian eloquence extended from the time of Pericles to the time of Alexander the Great.
The Rhetoricians and Sophists were the first corrupters of Grecian eloquence.
5.
DEMOSTHENES and CICERO.
6.
The period of Roman eloquence was of short duration; and during the middle ages corrupted taste prevailed.
7.
In modern times, eloquence, from a concurrence of causes, has not made so distinguished a figure as it did in the ancient republicks.
Ancient eloquence was vehement and pathetick; modern eloquence is temperate and cool.
8.
POPULAR ASSEMBLIES, the BAR, and the PULPIT, form the three principal divisions of publick speaking in modern times. Each of these have their distinct character and spirit.
9.
In Popular Assemblies, persuasion ought to be the object, and sound argument and reasoning the basis, of the discourse.
[Page 30] The speaker ought to be in earnest on the side which he espouses. One who does not utter his own sentiments, is seldom truly eloquent.
The matter and subject ought to be premeditated, rather than a set speech prepared.
The warmth and vehemence which publick debate admits, are to be subjected to proper restraints.
The style ought to be free and easy; the delivery determined and firm.
10.
At the Bar conviction is the object; and the understanding is chiefly to be addressed.
The state of the bar among the Greeks and Romans allowed more popular eloquence than the bar allows in Modern times.
Profound knowledge of the law, and diligent attention to the cause which is to be pleaded, are the most essential requisites.
[Page 31] Purity and neatness of style are to be studied. Verbosity is to be guarded against. Distinctness and order are of the highest importance.
Dignity of character is carefully to be supported.
11.
Gravity and warmth are the two chief characteristicks of the eloquence of the Pulpit.
A sermon ought to be a persuasive popular oration.
In a sermon, unity of subject should be preserved; tedious fullness avoided; an interesting manner studied: the style plain, expressive, animated.
No man can be a good preacher without being an useful one. The great end of preaching must in every sermon be kept in view.
12.
The parts that compose a regular formal oration are, the Introduction, the Division, the Narration or Explication, the Arguments, the Pathetick part, and the Conclusion.
13.
The Introduction ought to be easy and natural; plain, but correct; modest; for most part calm and temperate; proportioned to the discourse.
14.
The Division ought to be clear and simple. The partitions should exhaust the subject; should not be multiplied unnecessarily; should be expressed in the most concise terms.
15.
Narration ought to be perspicuous, probable, picturesque: Explication, profound, and distinct.
Arguments of a separate nature must not be blended together; they must be so arranged as mutually to support each other; they must, for most part, ascend from the weaker to the stronger; they ought to be stated without the appearance of art.
17.
The Pathetick is confined to no particular part of a discourse; and ought not to be introduced by any formal warning.
Passions are excited, not by showing the hearers that they ought to be moved, but by setting before them the [Page 34] circumstances which are proper for moving them.
The speaker must feel the passion which he endeavours to excite.
The language of passion is simple, unadorned, fervent, and broken.
An attempt to be pathetick beyond what is proper, extinguishes passion.
18.
The Conclusion or Peroration is designed to dismiss the hearers with a strong impression of the subject; and requires to be executed with spirit and dignity.
19.
PRONUNCIATION or DELIVERY is one of the most important parts of eloquence.
The first object in delivery is, to speak so as to be fully and easily understood; the next is, to speak with grace and force.
[Page 35] In order to be easily and fully understood, the voice must be pitched on a proper key; pronunciation must not be rapid and hurried; it must be distinct and articulate; it must be proper and correct in the sound given to words.
In order to speak with grace and force, the principal things to be attended to are, the Emphases, the Pauses, the Tones, and the Gestures, which belong to discourse.
These, in publick speaking, are to be founded on the manner in which nature leads us to express ourselves in animated conversation.
An artificial and affected delivery is of all others the worst. A manner that is natural is always forcible and persuasive
20.
Virtue is a qualification essential to an orator.
[Page 36] Extensive knowledge and learning are requisite, joined with the habits of industry.
Attention to the best models, and frequent exercise of composing, and of speaking in publick, are necessary means of improvement.
V.
1.
THE reputation of the ANCIENT CLASSICKS is justly established on the approbation which they have received from the general taste of mankind, throughout many ages, and among many nations.
The progress of knowledge has given the moderns an advantage in matters of learning and philosophy.
The study of the ancient classicks is highly favourable to good taste in every kind of writing.
2.
HISTORY is the record of past transactions, intended for the improvement of wisdom.
[Page 38] Fidelity, impartiality, and accuracy, are the fundamental qualities of a historian.
Unity of object should be preserved as much as possible in historical writing.
The most complete information should be given concerning every thing that relates to the subject of the history.
Historical narration should be perspicuous, dignified, descriptive, and interesting.
Annals, Memoirs, and Lives, are the subordinate parts of history.
3.
The principal requisite of Philosophical writing is to be clear and precise. It admits also of elegance and ornament.
4.
Dialogue writing ought to be formed on real animated conversation, and enlivened with a display of characters.
5.
Epistolary writing ought to be easy natural, and lively. Epistles composed with a view to publication are generally stiff and over-laboured.
6.
Fictitious history, if properly conducted, is both an improving and entertaining species of composition.
7.
POETRY is the language of enlivened imagination, formed, most commonly, into regular numbers.
Poetry and musick were at first always united; and are found in the earliest periods of society, amongst all nations.
The first compositions that were recorded by letters, or transmitted by [Page 40] tradition, in every country, are poetical compositions.
The most ancient poetical productions of all countries, though rude and artless, abound with fire and spirit.
The art of versification varies with the genius of different languages.
8.
Pastoral poetry is founded on the ideas of tranquillity and innocence which are ascribed to rural life.
In should display what is agreeable in rural life, but conceal what is mean or displeasing.
It requires simplicity of thought, and excludes all studied refinements.
Dramatick pastoral is the highest form of this species of poetry.
9.
Lyrick poetry, or the Ode, derives its peculiar character from its being designed [Page 41] to be sung, or to be accompanied with musick.
Hence the enthusiasm, fervour, abrupt transition, and neglect of method, which this species of poetry admits, of excuses, more than any other.
Obscurity and disorder are to be guarded against, as frequent faults in Lyrick poetry.
10.
Didactick poetry professes its intention of conveying instruction in a direct manner.
It may be carried on either in the form of a regular treatise on some useful subject; or in the more familiar style of Satire and Epistle.
11.
Descriptive poetry is not confined to any one kind, but runs through many different kinds of poetical composition.
[Page 42] Description is the great test of a poet's imagination.
Description is rendered lively by a proper choice of circumstances.
The circumstances selected for description must not be common and trite ones; but such as are new, striking, and convey a strong impression of the object.
A concise comprehensive style is more favourable to lively description than a diffuse one.
The choice of Epithets is of great importance in description.
12.
The SACRED POETRY of the Hebrews possesses some characters peculiar to itself.
It is formed into periods, each of which consists of two correspondent versicles, or members.
It is remarkably strong, concise, and figurative in the style.
The figures are derived from the natural objects of their own country; [Page 43] from the arts and employments of their common life; from the rites of their worship; and the noted incidents of their history.
The poetical composers of the sacred books are distinguished by a difference in their style and manner.
13.
An EPICK POEM is the recital of some great enterprise in a poetical form.
The end of Epick poetry is, to excite admiration of heroick actions and characters.
The Epick action must be one; must be great; must be interesting.
An Episode is a lesser action or incident subordinate to the principal one, and connected with it.
The subjects of Epick poetry ought not to be of a recent date.
The Marvellous, or Machinery, is not essential to the constitution of an [Page 44] Epick poem, but forms a proper ornament of it.
An Epick poem requires more strength and majesty in the composition than any other species of poetry.
14.
HOMER and VIRGIL.
Simplicity and fire are the characterristicks of Homer; elegance and tenderness of Virgil.
15.
Lucan's Pharsalia; Tasso's Jerusalem; Camoens's Lusiad; Fenelon's Telemachus; Voltaire's Henriade; Milton's Paradise Lost.
16.
TRAGEDY is an imitation of the manners and actions of men placed in those interesting situations which inspire pity or terror.
[Page 45] The end of tragedy is, to improve virtuous sensibility.
It is essential to tragedy, that the natural and the probable should reign in it.
For this end the conduct of the plot, and the due connection of the several parts, must be attended to with care.
The unity of Action is more important and necessary, than the unities, either of Time, or of Place.
Mixed characters are the most proper to be represented in tragedy; exhibiting the distresses which are brought upon men in consequence of their frailties and passions.
The natural language of passion is very different from the description of passion.
The style and versification of tragedy ought to be free, easy, and varied.
17.
The Greek Theatre.
The French Theatre.
The English Theatre.
18.
Comedy is a satirical exhibition of the improprieties and follies of mankind.
Its end ought to be, to render vice and folly ridiculous.
The subjects of comedy should be taken from living manners, and the present times.
Comedies of character are preferable to comedies of mere intrigue.
Ancient Comedy; French Comedy; English Comedy; Serious Comedy.
Though the design of comedy be useful and laudable, yet the execution is often licentious and immoral. It is grossly so among the English writers.