CHAP. I. I. The Introduction. II. The Original of Languages. III. The first Mother-tongues. IV. Their several Off-springs.

IN the handling of that subject,§. I. I have here proposed to treat of, I shall digest the things which to me seem most proper and material to be said upon this occasion, into four parts; according to this following Method.

In the first Part I shall premise some things as Pracognita, concerning such Tongues and Letters as are already in being, particularly concerning those various defects and imperfe­ctions in them, which ought to be supplyed and provided against, in any such Language or Character, as is to be invented according to the rules of Art.

The second Part shall contein that which is the great foundation of the thing here designed, namely a regular enumeration and description of all those things and notions, to which marks or names ought to be assigned according to their respective natures, which may be styled the Scientifical Part, comprehending Vniversal Philosophy. It being the pro­per end and design of the several branches of Philosophy to reduce all things and notions unto such a frame, as may express their natural order, dependence, and relations.

The third Part shall treat concerning such helps and Instruments, as are requisite for the framing of these more simple notions into continued Speech or Discourse, which may therefore be stiled the Organical or In­strumental Part, and doth comprehend the Art of Natural or Philoso­phical Grammar.

In the fourth Part I shall shew how these more generall Rules may be applyed to particular kinds of Characters, and Languages, giving an instance of each. To which shall be adjoyned by way of Appendix, a Discourse shewing the advantage of such a kind of Philosophical Chara­cter and Language, above any of those which are now known, more par­ticularly above that which is of most general use in these parts of the World; namely, the Latine.

Lastly, There shall be added a Dictionary of the English tongue, in which shall be shown how all the words of this Language, according to [Page 2] the various equivocal senses of them, may be sufficiently expressed by the Philosophical Tables here proposed.

I begin with the first of these.

§. II.The design of this Treatise being an attempt towards a new kind of Character and Language, it cannot therefore be improper to premise some­what concerning those already in being; the first Original of them, their several kinds, the various changes and corruptions to which they are ly­able, together with the manifold defects belonging to them. This I shall endeavour to do in the former part of this Discourse.

There is scarce any subject that hath been more throughly scanned and debated amongst Learned men, than the Original of Languages and Letters. 'Tis evident enough that no one Language is natural to mankind, because the knowledge which is natural would generally re­main amongst men, notwithstanding the superinduction of any other particular Tongue, wherein they might be by Art. Nor is it much to be wondred at, that the ancient Heathen, who knew nothing of Scri­pture-revelation, should be inclined to believe, that either Men and Languages were eternal; or, that if there were any particular time when men did spring out of the Earth, and after inhabit alone and dispersedly in Woods and Caves, they had at first no Articulate voice, but only such rude sounds as Beasts have; till afterwards particular Families increasing, or several Families joyning together for mutual safety and defence, under Government and Societies, they began by degrees and long practice to consent in certain Articulate sounds, whereby to communicate their thoughts, which in several Countries made several Languages, according to that in the Poet,

But to us, who have the revelation of Scripture, these kind of scru­ples and conjectures are sufficiently stated. And 'tis evident enough that the first Language was con-created with our first Parents, they immedi­ately understanding the voice of God speaking to them in the Garden. And how Languages came to be multiplyed, is likewise manifested in the Story of the Confusion of Babel. Gen. 11.1, 6. How many Languages, and which they were that sprang up at that Confusion, is altogether uncertain; whe­ther many of them that were then in being, be not now wholly lost; and many others, which had not the same original, have not since arisen in the world, is not (I think) to be doubted.

The most received Conjecture is, that the Languages of the Confusi­on were according to the several Families from Noah, which were 70 or 72. though there be very strong probabilities to prove that they were not so many, and that the first Dispersion did not divide mankind into so [Page 3] many Colonies. But now the several Languages that are used in the world do farre exceed this number.Nat. Hist. lib. 6. cap. 5. Strabo, lib. 11. Pliny and Strabo do both make mention of a great Mart-Town in Colchos named Dioscuria, to which men of three hundred Nations, and of so many several Languages, were wont to resort for Trading. Which, considering the narrow compass of Traf­fick before the invention of the magnetic Needle, must needs be but a small proportion, in comparison to those many of the remoter and un­known parts of the world.

Some of the American Histories relate,Mr. Cambden's Remains. that in every fourscore miles of that vast Country, and almost in every particular valley of Peru, the Inhabitants have a distinct Language. And one who for several years travelled the Northern parts of America about Florida, Purchas Pilg. lib. 8. sect. 4. chap. 1. and could speak six several Languages of those people, doth affirm, that he found, upon his enquiry and converse with them, more than a thousand different Lan­guages amongst them.

As for those Languages which seem to have no derivation from, or de­pendance upon, or affinity with one another,§. III. they are styled Linguae ma­trices, or Mother-tongues. Of these Ioseph Scaliger affirms there are ele­ven, and not more, used in Europe;Diatribe de Europaeorum linguis. whereof four are of more general and large extent, and the other seven of a narrower compass and use. Of the more general Tongues.

1. The Greek was anciently of very great extent, not onely in Europe, but in Asia too, and Afric, Brerewood's Enquiries, chap. 1. where several Colonies of that Nation were planted; by which dispersion and mixture with other people it did de­generate into several Dialects. Besides those four that are commonly noted, the Doric, Ionic, Aeolic, Attic, Herodotus doth mention four several Dialects of the Ionic. The inhabitants of Rhodes, Cyprus, Crete, had each of them some peculiarity in their Language. And the present Coptic or Aegyptian seems, both from the words and the character, to be a branch of this family, and was probably spred amongst that people in the days of Alexander the Great, upon his conquering of them: Though some conceive that there were at least 30000 families of Greeks planted in that Country long before his time.

2. The Latin, though this be much of it a derivation from the Greek, (of which the now French, Spanish, and Italian are several off-springs and derivations) had anciently four several Dialects,De honesta disciplina, lib. 3. cap. 3. as Petrus Crinitus shews cut of Varro.

3. The Teutonic or German is now distinguished into Vpper and Low­er. The Vpper hath two notable Dialects. 1. The Danish, Scandian, Verstegan, chap. 7. or perhaps the Gothic, to which belongs the Language used in Denmark, Norway, Swedeland, and Island. 2. The Saxon, to which appertain the several Languages of the English, the Scots, the Frisians, and those on the North of Elve.

4. The Slavonic is extended, though with some variation, through many large Territories, Muscovia, Russia, Poland, Bohemia, Vandalia, Croa­tia, Lithuania, Dalmatia;Gesuer. Mi­thridates, cap. 21. and is said to be the vulgar Language used a­mongst 60 several Nations.

The Languages of lesser extent are, 1. The Albanese, or old Epirotic, now used in the mountainous parts of Epirus.

2. The Europaean Tartar, or Scythian, from which some conceive our [Page 4] Irish to have had its original. As for the Turkish Tongue, that is original­ly no other but the Asiatic Tartar, mixed with Armenian and Persian, some Greek, and much Arabic.

3. The Hungarian, used in the greatest part of that Kingdom.

4. The Finnic, used in Finland and Lapland.

5. The Cantabrian, used amongst the Biscainers, who live near the Ocean on the Pyrene hills, bordering both upon France and Spain.

6. The Irish, in Ireland, and from thence brought over into some parts of Scotland. Though Mr. Camden would have this to be a derivation from the Welsh.

7. The old Gaulish or British, which is yet preserved in Wales, Corn­wall, and Britain in France.

Enquiries, chap. 4.To this number Mr. Brerewood doth add four others, viz.

• 1. The Arabic, now used in the steep mountains of Granata; which yet is a Dialect from the Hebrew, and not a Mother-tongue.
• 2. The Cauchian, in East-Friseland.
• 3. The Illyrian, in the Isle of Veggia.
• 4. The Iazygian, on the North side of Hungary.

Besides this difference of Languages in their first derivation, every particular Tongue hath its several Dialects.§. IV. Though Iudaea were a re­gion of a very narrow compass, yet was it not without its varieties of this kind: witness the story concerning Shibboleth and Sibboleth; and that of the Levite, Judges 12. Judges 18.3. Matth. 26.73. who was discovered by his manner of speech; and S. Pe­ter's being known for a Galilaean. 'Tis so generally in other Countries, and particularly with us in England, where the Northern and Western inhabitants do observe a different dialect from other parts of the Nati­on, as may appear from that particular instance mentioned by Verstegan. Whereas the inhabitants about London would say, I would eat more cheese if I had it. A Northern man would speak it thus, Ay sud eat mare cheese gyn ay had et. And a Western man thus, Chud eat more cheese an chad it.

Every one of these reputed Mother-tongues, except the Arabic, (and perhaps the Hungarian) was used in Europe during the time of the Ro­man Empire. But whether they were all of them so ancient as the Con­fusion of Babel, doth not appear; there wants not good probability to the contrary for some of them.

Georg. Hornii Epist. in Box­hornii Origi­nes Gallic.It hath been the opinion of some, particularly Boxhornius, that the Scythian Tongue was the common mother from which both the Greek, Latin, German and Persian were derived, as so many Dialects; and 'tis said that Salmasius did incline to the same judgment. And Philip Cluverius conjectures, that both Germans, Gauls, Spaniards, Britans, Swedes and Norwegians, did anciently use one and the same Language. One princi­pal argument used for this is, the agreement of those remote Nations in some radical words. Ioseph Scaliger observes that the words, Father, Mother, Brother, Bond, &c. are used in the Persian tongue, with some lit­tle variety, in the same sense and signification as they are used with us. And Busbequius relates, that the inhabitants of Taurica Chersonesus have divers words in the same sense common with us,In Epist. as Wine, Silver, Corn, Salt, Fish, Apple, &c. But this might be merely casual, or else occasioned by a mixture of Colonies, and will not argue a derivation of one from [Page 5] another. So there are several words common to the Turks, Germans, Boxhorn. Ori­gin. Gallic. cap. 6. & 8. Greeks, French, sometimes of the same, and sometimes of several signifi­cations; which is not sufficient to argue that all these were of the same Original.

Besides these Europaean, there is likewise great variety of Languages in other parts of the world. As for the Hebrew Tongue, which is by many learned men supposed to be the same that Abraham learnt when he came into Canaan, to which that expression Isai. 19.18. The language of Ca­naan, is thought to allude; this is supposed to be the first Mother tongue amongst all those that are now known in the world, from which there are sundry derivations, as the Chaldee, Syriac, Punic, Arabic, Persian▪ Aethiopic.

When the Iews were in Captivity at Babylon, mixed with the Chalde­ans for 70 years,Brerewood's Enquiries, chap. 9. in that tract of time they made up a Language distinct from both, which is sometimes called Syriac, and sometimes Chaldee, and sometimes Hebrew. Those passages in the Gospel, which are said to be in the Hebrew tongue, as Talitha Kumi; Elohi, Elohi, Lamma sabachthani, John 5.2. & 19.13, 17. Acts 21.40. Bochart. Geog. l. 1. cap. 15. are properly Syriac; onely they are called Hebrew, because that was the Language which the Hebrews then used. A great part of this Syriac tongue is for the substance of the words Chaldee, and Hebrew for the fa­shion, so degenerating much from both. After the Captivity the pure Hebrew ceased to be vulgar, remaining onely amongst learned men, as appears by that place in Nehem. 8.7, 8. where we find the Priests, upon reading of the Law to the people after their coming out of Babylon, were fain to expound it distinctly to them, and to make them understand the meaning of it; the common people, by long disuse, being grown strangers to the Language wherein 'twas written. So in our Sa­viour's time, the unlearned Iews, whose vulgar Tongue the Syriac was, could not understand those parts of Moses and the Prophets read to them in Hebrew every Sabbath-day. Which was the reason of those public speeches and declarations of any learned men, who occasionally came into the Synagogues, after the reading of the Law:Luke 4.15, 16. Acts 13.15. though neither Priests, nor Levites, nor Scribes, yet was it ordinary for them to expound unto the people the meaning of those portions of Scripture that were appointed to be read out of the Hebrew, which the people did not un­derstand; and to render their meaning in Syriac, which was their vul­gar Tongue.

As for so much of the pure Hebrew as is now in being, which is onely that in the old Testament, though it be sufficient to express what is there intended, yet it is so exceedingly defective in many other words requi­site to humane discourse, that the Rabbins are fain to borrow words from many other Languages, Greek, Latin, Spanish, &c. as may appear at large in Buxtorf's Lexicon Rabbinicum, and a particular Discourse written to this very purpose by David Cohen de Lara. And, from the several defects and imperfections which seem to be in this Language, it may be guessed not to be the same which was con-created with our first Parents, and spoken by Adam in Paradise.

What other varieties of Tongues there have been, or are, in Asia, Afric, or America, I shall not now enquire.

CHAP. II. I. Concerning the various changes and corruptions to which all vulgar Languages are obnoxious. II. Particularly concerning the changes of the English tongue. III. Whether any Language, formerly in use, be now wholly lost. IV. Concerning the first rise and occasion of new Languages.

THere are three Queres which may deserve some farther disquisiti­on.§. I. 1. Whether the purest of those Mother-tongues, which yet remain, be not now much changed from what they were at the first Con­fusion. 2. Whether and how any of the Mother-tongues have been quite lost since the Confusion. 3. Whether and how other new Langua­ges have since arisen in the world.

1. To the first, Besides the common fate and corruption to which Lan­guages as well as all other humane things are subject, there are many other particular causes which may occasion such a change: The mix­ture with other Nations in Commerce; Marriages in Regal Families, which doth usually bring some common words into a Court fashion; that affectation incident to some eminent men in all ages, of coining new words, and altering the common forms of speech, for greater elegance; the necessity of making other words, according as new things and in­ventions are discovered. Besides, the Laws of forein Conquests usually extend to Letters and Speech as well as Territories; the Victor com­monly endeavouring to propagate his own Language as farre as his Dominions; which is the reason why the Greek and Latin are so uni­versally known. And when a Nation is overspread with several Colo­nies of foreiners, though this do not alwaies prevail to abolish the former Language, yet if they make any long abode, this must needs make such a considerable change and mixture of speech as will very much alter it from its original Purity.

Those learned Languages which have now ceased to be vulgar, and remain onely in Books, by which the purity of them is regulated, may, whilst those Books are extant and studied, continue the same without change. But all Languages that are vulgar, as those learned ones for­merly were, are upon the fore-mentioned occasions, subject to so many alterations, that in tract of time they will appear to be quite another thing then what they were at first.

Brerewood's Enquiries, chap. 2. & 6.The Liturgies of S. Basil and S. Chrysostom, which are yet used in the Greek Churches in their publick worship, the one for solemn, the other for common days, have been a long time unintelligible to that people; so much is the vulgar Greek degenerated from its former purity.

Histor. lib. 3.And Polibius testifies, that the Articles of truce betwixt the Romans and Carthaginians could scarce be understood by the most learned Ro­man Antiquaries 350 years after the time of their making.

§. II.If any English man should now write or speak as our forefathers did about six or seven hundred years past,Alex. Gill Lo­gonom. An­glican. Pre­ [...]ace. we should as little understand him as if he were a foreiner; of which it were easie to give several proofs [Page 7] by instance, if it were not inconsistent with my present design of brevity. What the Saxons Language was at their first arrival into England about the year 440, doth not appear; but 'tis most probable that the changes and differences of it, have been somewhat proportionable in several Ages.

About the year of Christ 700 the Lord's Prayer in English was thus rendred:

Uren fader thic arth in heofnas, sic gehalgud thin noma:Cambden's Remains, pag. 23. to cymeth thin ric: sic thin willa sue is in heofnas and in eortho. Uren hlaf ofer wirtlic sel us to daeg; and forget us scylda urna, sue we forgefen scyld­gum urum; and no inlead usith in custnung. Ah gefrig urich from ifle. Amen.

About 200 years after, it was changed thus:

Thu ure fader the eart on heofenum. Si thin nama gehalgod. Cum thin ric. Si thin willa on eorthen swa, swa on heofenum.Lisle's Saxon Monuments. Syle us to daeg urn daegthanlican hlaf. And forgif us ure gyltas swa, swa we forgifath tham the with us agyltath. And ne led the us on costnung. Ac alys us from yfle. Si it swa.

About the same time it was rendred in the Saxon Gospels, said to be Translated by King Alfred, after this manner.

Faeder ure thu the earth on heofenum, si thin nama Gehalgod to be cume thin Rice, Gewurthe thin willa on eorthan swa swa on heofnum, urne ge daeghwanlican hlaf syle us to daeg. And forgyf us ure gyltas, swa swa we forgivath urum gyltendum. And ne gelaedde thu us on cost­nung. Ac Alyse us of yfle.

About 260 years after, in the time of King Henry the 2^d, it was ren­dred thus, and sent over by Pope Adrian, an English-man, turned into meter, that the people might more easily learn and remember it.

And about a hundred years after, in the time of Henry the third, it was rendred thus:

[Page 8]About two hundred years after this in the time of Henry the VI. (as appears by a large manuscript Velume Bible in the Oxford-Library, said to have been this Kings, and by him to have been given to the Carthusi­ans in London;) It was rendred thus.

Oure fadir that art in hevenes, halewid be thi name, thi kingdom come to thee, be thi wil don in eerthe, as in hevene, give to us this day oure breed over othre substanc, and forgive to us oure dettis, as we forgiven oure dettouris, and lede us not into temptation, but delivere us from ivel. Amen.

In another M. S. of Wickliffes Translation, who lived in Richard the 2^ds time, it is rendred with very small difference from this.

About a hundred years after this, In a Bible set forth with the Kings licens, translated by Thomas Mathew, and printed in the year 1537, it was rendered thus:

O oure father which arte in heven halowed be thy name. Let thy kingdome come. Thy will be fulfilled, as well in erth, as it is in heven. Geve us this daye oure dayly bred. And forgeve us our treaspases, even as we forgeve oure trespacers. And lead us not into temptacion, but de­lyver us from evyll. Amen.

After the same manner it is rendered in the Translation of William Tyndall, with some little differences in the spelling.

This one instance may sufficiently manifest by what degrees this Lan­guage did receive its several Changes, and how much altered it is now from what it hath been, and consequently what is to be expected in fu­ture times. Since Learning began to flourish in our Nation, there have been more then ordinary Changes introduced in our Language: partly by new artificial Compositions; partly by enfranchising strange forein words, for their elegance and significancy, which now make one third part of our Language; and partly by refining and mollifying old words, for the more easie and graceful sound: by which means this last Centu­ry may be conjectured to have made a greater change in our Tongue, then any of the former, as to the addition of new words.

And thus, in all probability, must it have been with all other vulgar Languages. So that 'tis not likely that any of these Mother-tongues now in being, are the same that they were at the first Confusion. So true is that of the Poet:

And a little after,

2. As to the second Quere, Whether any of the Ancient Languages be now quite lost;§. III. it may be answered, That if in some few hundreds of years a Language may be so changed as to be scarce intelligible; then, in a much longer tract of time it may be quite abolished, none of the most radical and substantial parts remaining: For every change is a gradual corruption.

[Page 9]Before the flourishing of the Roman Empire, there were several native Languages used in Italy, France, Spain. Ludov. Vives Annot. in Au­gust. Civ. Dei, lib. 19. cap. 17. In Italy we read of the Messapi­an, the Hetruscan, the Sabine, the Oscan, the Hetrurian or Tuscan Langua­ges; which are now thought by Learned men to be utterly lost, and no­where to be found in the World.

'Tis probable that there was not onely one Language in so vast a Ter­ritory as France, but that several Provinces spake several Languages:Brerewood's Enquiries, chap. 6. But what those Languages were, or whether yet extant, is uncertain. As for the Celtae, who, inhabiting the inner part of the Country, were less sub­ject to forein mixtures, 'tis most probable that their Language might be the British or Welsh, which is yet spoken in some parts of France. De Bello Gal­lico, lib. 6. Caesar reports that the Gauls were wont often to pass over into Britain, to be instructed by the Druids, amongst whom there was then no use of Books or Writing, and therefore they must communicate by Discourse. And Tacitus affirms that the Speech of the British and Gauls, differed but little.

It is conceived that one of the ancient Tongues of Spain was the Cantabrian, which doth now there remain in the more barren mountain­ous, inaccessible parts, where Conquerors are less willing to pursue, or desirous to plant; as our British doth in Wales. But 'tis probable that there might be several other Languages besides this in so great a Continent, as well as in Italy, which are now wholly lost and unknown.

3. As to the third Quere, concerning the first Rise and occasion of new Languages, § IV. that may be sufficiently answered by what was before suggested, concerning those many particular emergencies which may contribute to the introducing a change in Languages.

Some think that the Italians, Spaniards and French, after they were to­tally subdued by the Romans, and planted with their Colonies, did, after a certain space of time, receive the Latin Tongue as their most vulgar Speech, and retained it; till afterwards, being several times overrun by the Northern barbarous Nations, the Goths and Vandals, and other Tribes of the Germans, who mixed with them, and after several Conquests resi­ded amongst them, sometimes 20, 60, 200 years together; this afford­ed time enough for such a thorough coalition betwixt them and the Na­tives, as could not but introduce a great change in the common Lan­guage, whilst the Nations were forced to attemper their Speech for the mutual understanding of one another.

Others conceive that those Countries did not at first perfectly receive the Latin from the Romans, but did onely make use of the most principal radical words; neglecting the Grammatical rules of composition and in­flection, and withall varying the way of pronunciation, according to the unusualness and difficulty of several sounds to several Countries: And that this was the first and chief occasion of those various Medleys or se­veral Dialects now in use; which were afterwards somewhat farther changed from their Originals, by those several Inundations of the Bar­barians

'Tis not much material to dispute, which of these causes had the prin­cipal influence in the extraction of these modern Tongues, so long as 'tis granted that both of them might contribute and suffice for this effect. As for our present English, this seems to be a mixture of the British, Ro­man, [Page 10] Saxon, Danish, Norman, according to the several vicissitudes of Plantations and Conquests,Cambden's Remains. that this Nation hath undergone. And ac­cording as such Conquests have been more or less compleat and abso­lute, so have the Languages been more or less generally altered: which is the reason why the Saxon Tongue was by our progenitors more fully introduced in England, then either that of the Franks amongst the Gauls, or that of the Goths or Lumbards in Italy, or that of the Goths, Vandals or Moors in Spain.

Linschotten vo [...]age, chap. 18.That which seems to be the newest Language in the World, is the Ma­layan, which is now as general and common amongst the Natives of the East-Indies, as Latin or French is in these parts of the World. 'Tis said to be but of late invention, occasioned by the concourse of Fishermen from Pegu, Siam, Bengala, and several other Nations, who meeting toge­ther at a place convenient for Fishing, and finding that it was by situati­on exceeding commodious for Traffick from several parts, did agree to settle there a Plantation; and accordingly built the Town of Malacca, which hath since, for many years, been governed by the Portuguez, and is now under the power of the Hollander. And, for the more facil con­verse with one another, they agreed upon a distinct Language, which pro­bably was made up by selecting the most soft and easy words belonging to each several Nation. And this is the onely Language (for ought I know) that hath ever been at once invented; if it may properly be styled a distinct Language, and not rather a Medley of many. But this being invented by rude Fishermen, it cannot be expected that it should have all those advantages, with which it might have been furnished by the rules of Philosophy.

Additamen­tum de Reg­no [...]atayae.I know that the Learned Golius doth affirm the China Language to be invented by Art; but, upon the best discovery to be made of it at this distance, from those who have lived many years in that Country, and pre­tend to understand the Language, it appears to be so exceedingly equivo­cal, and in many respects so very imperfect, that there is little reason to be­lieve it had any such Original.

CHAP. III. I. The Original of Letters and Writing. II. That all Letters were de­rived from the Hebrew. III. The use of Letters is less ancient, and the kinds of them less numerous, then of the Languages themselves. IV. Of Notes for Secrecy or Brevity. V. Of real Characters. VI. Of Alphabets in general.

HAving laid down this brief and general View of Languages, 'tis re­quisite that something should be also premised concerning Letters, §. I. the Invention of which was a thing of so great Art and exquisiteness, that Tully doth from hence inferr the divinity and spirituality of the hu­mane soul, Tuscul. Qu. lib. 1. and that it must needs be of a farr more excellent and abstract­ed Essence then mere Matter or Body, in that it was able to reduce all articulate sounds to 24 Letters.

[Page 11]Though the Scripture doth not mention any thing concerning the in­vention of these; yet 'tis most generally agreed, that Adam, (though not immediately after his Creation, yet) in process of time, upon his ex­perience of their great necessity and usefulness, did first invent the anci­ent Hebrew Character: whether that which we now call the Hebrew, or else the Samaritan, is a question much debated by several Learned men, which I shall not now inquire into, or offer to determine.

As for those particular Alphabets which are by some ascribed to Adam, Enoch and Noah, mentioned by several Authors,Coelum Ori­entis. and in a late Discourse by Thomas Bangius, they have so little foundation in any probable reason or story, that I shall not so much as make any farther mention of them.

It hath been abundantly cleared up by many Learned men, that the ancient Hebrew Character hath the priority before any other now known;§. II. which is confirmed by the concurrent testimony of the best and most an­cient Heathen Writers. And 'tis amongst rational arguments none of the least, for the Truth and Divine Authority of Scripture,Grotius de Veritate Re­lig. lib. 1. to consider the general concurrence of all manner of evidence for the Antiquity of the Hebrew, and the derivation of all other Letters from it.

Pliny affirms in one place,Nat. Hist. l. 7. cap. 56. Lib. 5. cap. 12. that the first invention of Letters ought to be ascribed unto the Assyrians; and in another place he saith, that under the name of Syria he understands the Regions which were styled Pale­stine, Iudaea and Phoenicia; and in the same Chapter he ascribes the inven­tion of Letters to the Phoenicians. So doth Lucan likewise;Bell. Pharsal. lib. 3.

With these agree Terpsicho­re. Herodotus, Strabo, Symposiac. lib. 9. Plutarch, Histor. lib. 4. Curtius, Mela, &c. who all consent, that the Grecians did first receive their Letters from the Phoenicians by Cadmus, who lived about the time of Ioshua. And that the Punic or Phoenician Tongue was the Canaanitish or the Hebrew, though somewhat altered from its original pronunciation,Scaliger. Ap­pendix de E­mendat. Temp. Brerewood's Enquiries, chap. 7. Geograph. l. 2. (as is wont in tract of time to befall Colonies planted far from home, amongst stran­gers,) is sufficiently manifested from the remainders of it that are ex­tant in Plautus and other prophane Authors, as they are cited by the learned Bochart. And that the Phoenicians were Canaanites hath proof also in Scripture, because the same woman who in Mark 7.26. is styled a Syrophoenician, is said Matth. 15.22. to be a Canaanite.

That the ancient Greek Character was of very near affinity to the Samaritan, and that the Latin Letters were of such an affinity to the Greek, and derived from them, being in a manner the same with the an­cient Ionic Letters, is made very plain by Scaliger, Animad vers. in Eusebium, Anno 1617. Nat. Hist. lib. 7. cap. 56. Histor. lib. 1. Annal. 11. and owned by Pliny and Dionysius Halicarnassensis. And Tacitus doth acknowledge that the ancient Latin Characters were in their shape and figure almost the same with the Greek. And as for the other Letters that are known, namely, the Syriac, Arabic, Aethiopic, Armenian, Coptic, Illyric, Georgian, Gothic, there is this cogent Argument to prove them to be of the same Origi­nal, because their Alphabets do generally observe the same order of Let­ters, which, being in it self exceedingly irrational, cannot probably have any other reason but imitation. Except onely that of the Arabs, De Origine Scribendi, cap. 5. saith Her­mannus Hugo, who, that they might not seem to have borrowed Letters [Page 12] from others, did purposely disturb the order of the Alphabet; to which he might have added the Aethiopic and Armenian.

§. III.There are two general things to be observed concerning these deri­ved Letters. 1. That they are not of so great Antiquity. 2. That they are not so numerous as Languages are.

1. They are not so ancient, many Nations remaining a long while be­fore they grew so far civilized as to understand the use of Letters, which to this day are not known amongst many of the American Nations, nor the Inhabitants of Lapland: and after they have been known, and of some public use, it hath been yet a considerable space, before persons have written any Discourse in their own Language. 'Tis observed by Tschudas of the German, Enquiries, chap. 5. and by Genebrard of the French Tongue, (saith Mr. Brerewood) that 'tis not much above 400 years, since Books began to be written in those Languages.

2. And because the use of Letters in particular Countries is not so an­cient as Language, therefore are they not of so numerous kinds; several Nations taking up the use of Letters from their neighbours, and adapting them to their own Tongue. Thus the Spanish, French, Italian, German, British, English, Irish, &c. do all of them use the same Latine Character, it being probable that they had none of their own, before they learnt this of the Romans. The Coptic or Egyptian Character, ever since Egypt came under the Dominion of Macedon, hath been the Greek, excepting only seven Letters proper to their Tongue, which the Greek Alphabet did not sufficiently express; The Muscovites likewise and the Russians, the Georgians and Iacobins, do use the Greek Character; the Persians and Turks use the Arabick: though the Letters of any Tongue do not al­waies remain the same, but are subject to the like fate and mutability, to which Languages are exposed.

Besides this common way of Writing by the ordinary Letters, the An­cients have sometimes used to communicate by other Notes, §. IV. which were either for Secrecy, or Brevity.

1. For Secrecy: such were the Egyptian Hieroglyphicks, (as they are commonly esteemed) being the representation of certain living Crea­tures, and other Bodies, whereby they were wont to conceal from the vulgar the Mysteries of their Religion. But there is reason to doubt whether there be any thing in these worth the enquiry, the discoveries that have been hitherto made out of them being but very few and in­significant. They seem to be but a slight, imperfect invention, sutable to those first and ruder Ages;Vid. Purchas book 5. chap▪ 7. sect. 1. much of the same nature with that Mexi­can way of writing by Picture, which was a mere shift they were put to for want of the knowledge of Letters. And it seems to me questionable, whether the Egyptians did not at first use their Hieroglyphicks upon the same account, namely, for the want of Letters.

Those waies of writing treated of by the Abbot Trithemius, were likewise for occult or secret communication: And though some Learn­ed men have suspected and accused him to have thereby delivered the Art of Magic, or Conjuring; yet he is sufficiently cleared and vindicated from any such prejudice in that very learned and ingenious Discourse de Cryptographia, under the feigned name of Gustavus Selenus, [Page 13] by which the noble Author, the Duke of Lunenburg, did disguise his true name of Augustus Lunaeburgicus.

2. For Brevity: There were single Letters or marks, whereby the Ro­mans were wont to express whole words. Ennius is said to have inven­ted 1100 of these; to which number Tullius Tyro, Cicero's Libertus, (o­thers say Cicero himself,) added divers others,Trithemius de Polygraphia, to signifie the particles of speech; after whom Philargyrus the Samian and Macaenas, added yet more. After these Annaeus Seneca is said to have laboured in the regu­lating and digesting of those former notes; to which adding many of his own, he augmented the whole number to 5000, published by Ianus Gruterus; though amongst his there are divers of a later invention, re­lating to Christian institutions, which have been added since (as 'tis said) by S. Cyprian the Martyr. The way of writing by these did require a vast memory and labour; yet it was far short of expressing all things and Notions, and besides, had no provision for Grammatical varia­tions.

Of this nature is that Short-hand-writing by Characters so fre­quent with us in England, and much wondered at by Foreiners; which hath a great advantage for speed and swiftness in writing; those who are expert in it being able this way to take any ordinary discourse verbatim.

Besides these, there have been some other proposals and attempts a­bout a Real universal Character, that should not signifie words, §. V. but things and notions, and consequently might be legible by any Nation in their own Tongue; which is the principal design of this Treatise. That such a Real Character is possible, and hath been reckoned by Learned men amongst the Desiderata, were easie to make out by abundance of Testi­monies. To this purpose is that which Piso mentions to be somewhere the wish of Galen, Histor. Nat. Indiae, lib. 4. c. 3. That some way might be found out to represent things by such peculiar signs and names as should express their natures; ut Sophistis eriperetur decertandi & calumniandi occasio. There are se­veral other passages to this purpose in the Learned Verulam, in Vossius, De Augment. lib. 6. cap. 1. Orig. scriben­di, cap. 4. in Hermannus Hugo, &c. besides what is commonly reported of the men of China, who do now, and have for many Ages used such a general Chara­cter, by which the Inhabitants of that large Kingdom, many of them of different Tongues, do communicate with one another, every one understanding this common Character, and reading it in his own Lan­guage.

It cannot be denied, but that the variety of Letters is an appendix to the Curse of Babel, namely, the multitude and variety of Languages. And therefore, for any man to go about to add to their number, will be but like the inventing of a Disease, for which he can expect but little thanks from the world. But this Consideration ought to be no discourage­ment: For supposing such a thing as is here proposed, could be well established, it would be the surest remedy that could be against the Curse of the Confusion, by rendring all other Languages and Characters useless.

It doth not appear that any Alphabet now in being, was invented at once or by the rules of Art; but rather that all, except the Hebrew, §. VI. were [Page 14] taken up by Imitation, and past by degrees through several Changes; which is the reason that they are less complete, and liable to several ex­ceptions. The Hebrew Character, as to the shape of it, though it appear solemn and grave, yet hath it not its Letters sufficiently distinguished from one another, and withall it appears somewhat harsh and rugged. The Arabic Character, though it shew beautiful, yet is it too elaborate, and takes up too much room, and cannot well be written small. The Greek and the Latin are both of them graceful and indifferent easie, though not without their several imperfections.

As for the Aethiopic, it hath no less then 202 Letters in its Alphabet; namely, 7 Vowels, which they apply to every one of their 26 Conso­nants, to which they add 20 other aspirated Syllables. All their Cha­racters are exceedingly complicated and perplexed, and much more dif­ficult then those proposed in this following Discourse for the expressing of things and notions.

Martinii At­las Sinensis.This is said likewise of the Tartarian, that every Character with them is a Syllable, having each of the Vowels joyned to its Consonant, as La, Le, Li, &c. which must needs make a long and troublesome Alphabet.

But it is not my purpose to animadvert upon these Tongues that are less known, so much as those with which these parts of the world are bet­ter acquainted.

CHAP. IV. I. The Defects in the common Alphabets, as to their true Order. II. Iust Number. III. Determinate Powers. IV. Fitting Names. V. Pro­per Figures of the Letters. VI. The Imperfections belonging to the Words of Language, as to their Equivocalness, variety of Synonymous words, uncertain Phraseologies, improper way of Writing.

ONe special Circumstance which adds to the Curse of Babel is that difficulty which there is in all Languages, §. I. arising from the various Imperfections belonging to them, both in respect of 1. their first Elements or Alphabets, 2. their Words.

1. For Alphabets, they are all of them, in many respects, liable to just exception.

1. As to the Order of them, they are inartificial and confused, without any such methodical distribution as were requisite for their particular na­tures and differences; the Vowels and Consonants being promiscuously huddled together, without any distinction: Whereas in a regular Alpha­bet, the Vowels and Consonants should be reduced into Classes, according to their several kinds, with such an order of precedence and subsequence as their natures will bear; this being the proper end and design of that which we call Method, to separate the Heterogeneous, and put the Homo­geneous together, according to some rule of precedency.

The Hebrew Alphabet, (the order of which is observed in several Scriptures, Psal. 119. and in the Book of Lamentations) from whence the others are derived, is not free from this Imperfection.

[Page 15]2. For their Number, they are in several respects both Redundant, and Deficient. §. II.

1. Redundant and superfluous; either 1. By allotting several Let­ters to the same power and sound. So in the Hebrew ( [...] & [...]) and so perhaps ( [...] & [...]) ( [...] & [...]) ( [...] & [...]) ( [...] & [...].) So in the ordinary La­tin, (C & K) (F & Ph.) Or 2. by reckoning double Letters amongst the most simple elements of Speech: as in the Hebrew [...]; in the Greek ξ and [...]; in the Latin (Q. Cu) (X. cs.) and I Consonant or Jod which is made up of (dzh) by assigning several Letters to represent one sim­ple power, as th, sh, &c. So that none of these can regularly be rec­koned amongst the simple elements of Speech.

2. Deficient in other respects, especially in regard of Vowels, of which there are 7 or 8 several kinds commonly used, (as I shall shew after­wards) though the Latin Alphabet take notice but of five, whereof two, namely (i and u.) according to our English pronunciation of them, are not properly Vowels, but Diphthongs. And besides, that gradual difference amongst Vowels of long and short is not sufficiently provided for. The Ancients were wont to express a long Vowel by doubling the Character of it; as Amaabam, Naata, Ree, Seedes, Sanctissimiis, Mariinas: Vossius. though oftentimes the Vowel I, instead of being doubled, was onely pro­longed in the figure of it; as AEDILIS, PISO, VIVUS. For the ways used by us English for lengthning and abbreviating Vowels, viz. by adding E quiescent to the end of a word for prolonging a Syllable, and doubling the following Consonant for the shortning of a Vowel, as Wane, Wann; Ware, Warr, &c. or else by inserting some other Vowel, for the lengthning of it, as Meat, Met; Read, Red, &c. both these are upon this account improper, because the sign ought to be where the sound is. Nor would it be so fit to express this by a distinct Character, because it denotes onely an accidental or gradual difference, as by an Accent; the chief use of Accents, for which they are necessary in ordinary speech, being to sig­nifie Quantities and Elevations of voice.

3. For their Powers, they are very uncertain, not alwaies fixed and de­termined to the same signification:§. III. which as to our English pronunciati­on may be made to appear by abundance of Instances both in the Vow­els and Consonants.

1. As to th [...] Vowels: It is generally acknowledged that each of them have several sounds. Vocales omnes plurisonae, saith Lipsius. And the learn­ed Vossius doth assure us,De Pronunc. cap. 5. Grammat. lib. 1. cap. 12. Ios. Scal. Diat. De varia pro­nunciatione. that the Ancients did use their Vowels in very different wayes, aliquando tenuiùs exiliúsque, nunc crassiùs, nunc inter­medio sono.

The power of the Vowel ( [...]) treated of afterwards, is expressed in writing no less then six several waies; by

• e. He, me, she, ye.
• ee. Thee, free, wee.
• ie. Field, yield, shield, chief.
• ea. Near, dear, hear.
• eo. People.
• i. Privilege.

So is the Power of the Vowel (α;) as in All, aul, aw, fault, caught, [Page 16] brought. These are all various waies of writing the same long Vowel; besides which there are other distinct waies of expressing the same Vowel when it is used short, as in the words of, for, &c.

And for the Power of the Vowel ( [...]) that is likewise written five se­veral waies.

• o. To, who, move.
• oe. Doe.
• oo. Shoo, moon, noon.
• ou. Could, would.
• wo. Two.

And as for the Power of the Vowel ( [...]) this also is written five seve­ral waies; namely, by the Letters

• i. Sir, stir, firmament, &c.
• o. Hony, mony, come, some, love, &c.
• oo. Blood, flood.
• u. Turn, burn, burthen.
• ou. Country, couple.

2. As to the Consonants, these likewise are of very uncertain Powers: witness the different pronunciation of the letter (C) in the word Circo, and (G) in the word Negligence. I know 'tis said that the letter (C) before the Vowels a, o, u, must be pronounced like (K,) as in the words cado, coram, cudo; and before the Vowels e, i, as S, as in the words cedo, cilium. But there is no reason why it should be so. Upon which account our learned Country man,De Linguae Anglicanae pronunciati­one. Sir Tho. Smith, doth justly censure it as mon­strum literae, non litera; ignorantiae specimen, non artis; modò serpens, modo cornix.

Cessio, Sessio, Gratia.The letters C, S, T, are often used alike, to denote the same Power, and that both in English and French; and the letter (S) is most frequent­ly used for (Z) which must needs be very improper. And, which is yet more irrational, some Letters of the same name and shape are used sometimes for Vowels, and sometimes for Consonants; as I▪ V, W, Y; which yet differ from one another sicut corpus & anima, and ought by no means to be confounded.Priscian.

To which may be added, that from this equivocal power of Letters, it so falls out, that

1. Some words are distinguished in writing, and not in pronunciation: as Sessio, Cessio; Sera, Cera; Servus, Cervus; Syrus, Cyrus; Boar, Bore; Come, Lat. Cum; Done, Dun; Dear, Deer; Hear, Here▪ Heart, Hart; Meat, Mete; Son, Sun; Some, Lat. Sum; Toes, Toze; Toe, Towe; To, Too, Two.

2. Some words are distinguished in pronunciation, but not in writing; as the words Give, i. Dare, Give, i. Vinculum; Get. i. Acquirere, Get, i. Ga­gates; is and his in English, and is and his in Latin. So the Latin word Malè, i. evilly, is a dissyllable; whereas the English word Male, which signifies the masculine Sex, is but a monosyllable. All which are very great incongruities, and such as ought to be avoided in any regular esta­blishment of Letters.

4. Their Names in most Alphabets, are very improperly expressed by words of several syllables;§. IV. as Aleph, Beth, Gimel, &c. Alpha, Beta, Gamma, &c. And thus it is in 15 several Alphabets mentioned by Her­mannus [Page 17] Hugo. In which respect the Roman Alphabet, and our English, De Origine Scribendi c. 7. which follows it very near, are much more convenient then the rest, where each Letter is named simply by its Power. Though herein like­wise there be some defects: for the letter C should not be named See, but Kee; and G, not, as usually we do, Iee, but [...]: and so R, to con­form it with the rest, should be called er, not ar; and Z should be styled ez, not zad.

5. Their Figures have not that correspondency to their Natures and Powers which were desirable in an artificially-invented Alphabet,§. V. wherein the Vowels ought to have something answerable in their Chara­cter unto the several kinds of Apertion which they have in their sound. And so for the Consonants, they should have some such affinity in their Figures as they have in their Powers. 'Tis so in some of them, whether purposely or casually, I know not; as BP. bp. CG. SZ. and perhaps TD, td: but not in others.

To this may be added, the manner of writing as to the Oriental Tongues, from the right hand to the left, which is as unnatural and incon­venient, as to write with the light on the wrong side. The Iews them­selves write their particular strokes of Letters from the left to the right hand; and therefore it would be much more rational,Scaliger de Causis L. L. cap. 46. that their words should be written so too.

Besides these Defects in the usual Alphabets or Letters, there are seve­ral others likewise in the Words of Language,§. VI. and their Accidents and Constructions.

1. In regard of Equivocals, which are of several significations, and therefore must needs render speech doubtful and obscure; and that ar­gues a deficiency, or want of a sufficient number of words. These are ei­ther absolutely so, or in their figurative construction, or by reason of Phra­seologies.

Of the first kind there are great variety in Latin. So the word

• LIBER apud Literatos significat Codicem.
• LIBER apud Politicos significat Libertate fruentem.
• LIBER apud Oratores significat Filium.
• LIBER apud Rusticos significat Arboris corticem.

So the word Malus signifies both an Apple-tree, and Evil, and the Mast of a ship; and Populus signifies both a Poplar-tree, and the People, &c. Besides such Equivocals as are made by the inflexion of words: as Lex, legis, legi; Lego, legis, legi: Sus, suis; Suo, suis; Suus, suis: Amarè the Adverb; Amo, amas, amavi, amare; and Amor, amaris vel amare: with abundance of the like of each kind.

Nor is it better with the English Tongue in this respect, in which there is great variety of Equivocals. So the word Bill signifies both a Weapon, a Bird's Beak, and a written Scroul: The word Grave signifies both So­ber, and Sepulcher, and to Carve, &c.

As for the ambiguity of words by reason of Metaphor and Phraseology, this is in all instituted Languages so obvious and so various, that it is need­less to give any instances of it; every Language having some peculiar phrases belonging to it, which, if they were to be translated verbatim in­to another Tongue, would seem wild and insignificant. In which our [Page 18] English doth too much abound, witness those words of Break, Bring, Cast, Cleare, Come, Cut, Draw, Fall, Hand, Keep, Lay, make, Pass, Put, Run, Set, Stand, Take, none of which have less then thirty or forty, and some of them about a hundred several senses, according to their use in Phra­ses, as may be seen in the Dictionary. And though the varieties of Phra­ses in Language may seem to contribute to the elegance and ornament of Speech; yet, like other affected ornaments, they prejudice the native simplicity of it, and contribute to the disguising of it with false appearan­ces. Besides that, like other things of fashion, they are very changeable, every generation producing new ones; witness the present Age, espe­cially the late times, wherein this grand imposture of Phrases hath almost eaten out solid Knowledge in all professions; such men generally being of most esteem who are skilled in these Canting forms of speech, though in nothing else.

2. In respect of Synonymous words, which make Language tedious, and are generally superfluities, since the end and use of Speech is for hu­mane utility and mutual converse;Scaliger de Causis L. L. cap. 188. magìs igitur refert ut brevis, & rectus, & simplex sit quàm longus & varius. And yet there is no particular Lan­guage but what is very obnoxious in this kind. 'Tis said that the Arabic hath above a thousand several names for a Sword, Bp. Walton Prolegomena de Lingua Arabica, sect. 6. and 500 for a Lion, and 200 for a Serpent, and fourscore for Hony. And though perhaps no other Language do exceed at this rate, as to any particular; yet do they all of them abound more then enough in the general. The examples of this kind, for our English, may be seen in the following Tables. To this may be added, that there are in most Languages several words that are mere Expletives, not adding any thing to the Sense.

3. For the Anomalisms and Irregularities in Grammatical constructi­on, which abound in every Language, and in some of them are so nu­merous, that Learned men have scrupled whether there be any such thing as Analogy.

4. For that Difference which there is in very many words betwixt the writing and pronouncing of them, mentioned before. Scriptio est vocum pictura: And it should seem very reasonable, that men should either speak as they write, or write as they speak. And yet Custom hath so ri­vetted this incongruity and imperfection in all Languages, that it were an hopeless attempt for any man to go about to repair and amend it. 'Tis needless to give instances of this, there being in divers Languages as ma­ny words whose sounds do disagree with their way of writing, as those are that agree. What is said of our English Tongue is proportionably true of most other Languages, That if ten Scribes (not acquainted with the particular Speech) should set themselves to write according to pronunciation, not any two of them would agree in the same way of spelling.

'Tis an observation of a Learned man concerning the French Tongue, that it is ineptissimè confusa, aliàs ad fastidium otiosis suffarcta literis; ali­às ad mendicitatem inops & jejuna; Sir Tho. Smith de recta Scriptione. nunquam sibi constans, & raro rationi consona. 'Tis said that Peter Ramus did labour much in reducing it to a new Orthography, but met with much discouragement in this attempt from Learned men; besides the invincibleness of general Custom, a­gainst which (for the most part) men strive in vain. What better suc­cess those Learned ingenuous persons of the French Academy may have, [Page 19] who have been for several years ingaged in this Work,Gregorius Tu­rone [...]sis. I cannot conje­cture. 'Tis related of Chilperick King of France, that he did, for the com­pendiousness of writing, add to the French Alphabet these five Letters, θ. χ. ο. ξ. ψ. injoyning by a strict and solemn Edict the reception and use of them through his Dominions; and that in all Schools Youths should be instituted in the use of them. And yet, notwithstanding his Authority in imposing of them, they were presently after his death laid aside and disused.

As to our own Language, several persons have taken much pains a­bout the Orthography of it. That Learned Knight Sir Thomas Smith, Se­cretary to Queen Elizabeth, and sometime her Embassador into France, hath published an elegant Discourse in Latin, De recta & emendata Lin­guae Anglicanae scriptione. After him, this Subject was in another Discourse prosecuted by one of the Heralds, who calls himself Chester; who was followed by one Wade, that writ to the same purpose. After these, Bul­laker endeavoured to add to, and alter divers things in those others that preceded him; who was succeeded in the same attempt by Alexander Gill, in his English Grammar. And yet so invincible is Custom, that still we retain the same errors and incongruities in writing which our Fore­fathers taught us.

CHAP. V. I. That neither Letters nor Languages have been regularly established by the rules of Art. II. The natural Ground or Principle of the several ways of Communication amongst men. III. The first thing to be pro­vided for in the establishing of a Philosophical Character or Language, is a just enumeration of all such things and notions to which names are to be assigned.

FRom what hath been already said it may appear, that there are no Letters or Languages that have been at once invented and established according to the Rules of Art; but that all, except the first,§. I. (of which we know nothing so certain as, that it was not made by human Art upon Experience) have been either taken up from that first, and derived by way of Imitation; or else, in a long tract of time, have, upon several emergencies, admitted various and casual alterations; by which means they must needs be liable to manifold defects and imperfections, that in a Language at once invented and according to the rules of Art might be easily avoided. Nor could this otherwise be, because that very Art by which Language should be regulated, viz. Grammar, is of much la­ter invention then Languages themselves, being adapted to what was al­ready in being, rather then the Rule of making it so.

Though the Hebrew Tongue be the most ancient, yet Rabbi Iudah Chiug of Fez in Afric, Vossius de Ar­te Grammat. lib. 1. cap. 4. who lived A. D. 1040. was the first that reduced it to the Art of Grammar. And though there were both Greek and Latin Grammarians much more ancient; yet were there none in either, till a long time after those Languages flourished: which is the true reason of [Page 20] all those Anomalisms in Grammar; because the Art was suted to Lan­guage, Vossius ibid. cap. 3. Polydor. Virgil. lib. 1. cap. 7. and not Language to the Art. Plato is said to be the first that con­sidered Grammar: Aristotle the first that by writing did reduce it into an Art: and Epicurus the first that publickly taught it amongst the Grecians.

And for the Latin, Crates Mallotes, Embassador to the Roman Senate from King Attalus, betwixt the second and third Punic War, presently af­ter the death of Ennius, U. C. 583. was the first that brought in the Art of Grammar amongst the Romans, saith Suetonius.

These being some of the Defects or Imperfections in those Letters or Languages, which are already known, may afford direction, what is to be avoided by those who propose to themselves the Invention of a new Character or Language, which being the principal end of this Discourse, I shall in the next place proceed to lay down the first Foundations of it.

As men do generally agree in the same Principle of Reason, so do they likewise agree in the same Internal Notion or Apprehension of things. §. II.

The External Expression of these Mental notions, whereby men com­municate their thoughts to one another, is either to the Ear, or to the Eye.

To the Ear by Sounds, and more particularly by Articulate Voice and Words.

To the Eye by any thing that is visible, Motion, Light, Colour, Figure; and more particularly by Writing.

That conceit which men have in their minds concerning a Horse or Tree, is the Notion or mental Image of that Beast, or natural thing, of such a nature, shape and use. The Names given to these in several Lan­guages, are such arbitrary sounds or words, as Nations of men have agreed upon, either casually or designedly, to express their Mental notions of them. The Written word is the figure or picture of that Sound.

So that if men should generally consent upon the same way or man­ner of Expression, as they do agree in the same Notion, we should then be freed from that Curse in the Confusion of Tongues, with all the unhap­py consequences of it.

Now this can onely be done, either by enjoyning some one Language and Character to be universally learnt and practised, (which is not to be expected, till some person attain to the Vniversal Monarchy; and per­haps would not be done then:) or else by proposing some such way as, by its facility and usefulness, (without the imposition of Authority) might invite and ingage men to the learning of it; which is the thing here attempted.

In order to this, The first thing to be considered and enquired into is, Concerning a just Enumeration and description of such things or notions as are to have Marks or Names assigned to them.§. III.

The chief Difficulty and Labour will be so to contrive the Enumera­tion of things and notions, as that they may be full and adaequate, without any Redundancy or Deficiency as to the Number of them, and regular as to their Place and Order.

[Page 21]If to every thing and notion there were assigned a distinct Mark, to­gether with some provision to express Grammatical Derivations and In­flexions; this might suffice as to one great end of a Real Character, name­ly, the expression of our Conceptions by Marks which should signifie things, and not words. And so likewise if several distinct words were assigned for the names of such things, with certain in variable Rules for all such Grammatical Derivations and Inflexions, and such onely, as are natural and necessary; this would make a much more easie and conveni­ent Language then is yet in being.

But now if these Marks or Notes could be so contrived, as to have such a dependance upon, and relation to, one another, as might be sutable to the nature of the things and notions which they represented; and so likewise, if the Names of things could be so ordered, as to contain such a kind of affinity or opposition in their letters and sounds, as might be some way answerable to the nature of the things which they signified; This would yet be a farther advantage superadded: by which, besides the best way of helping the Memory by natural Method, the Vnderstanding likewise would be highly improved; and we should, by learning the Character and the Names of things, be instructed likewise in their Na­tures, the knowledg of both which ought to be conjoyned.

For the accurate effecting of this, it would be necessary, that the Theo­ry it self, upon which such a design were to be founded, should be exact­ly suted to the nature of things. But, upon supposal that this Theory is defective, either as to the Fulness or the Order of it, this must needs add much perplexity to any such Attempt, and render it imperfect. And that this is the case with that common Theory already received, need not much be doubted; which may afford some excuse as to several of those things which may seem to be less conveniently disposed of in the follow­ing Tables, or Schemes proposed in the next part.

CHAP. I. I. The Scheme of Genus's. II. Concerning the more general notions of things, the difficulty of establishing these aright. III. Of Transcenden­tals general. IV. Of Transcendental relations mixed. V. Of Tran­scendental relations of Action. VI. Of the several notions belonging to Grammar or Logic.

HAVING dispatched the Prolegomena in the former part, I proceed (according to the method proposed) to that more difficult attempt of enumerating and describing all such things and notions as fall under di­scourse.

In treating concerning this, I shall first lay down a Scheme or Analysis of all the Genus's or more common heads of things belonging to this design; And then shew how each of these may be subdivided by its peculiar Dif­ferences; which for the better convenience of this institution, I take leave to determine (for the most part) to the number of six. Unless it be in those numerous tribes, of Herbs, Trees, Exanguious Animals, Fishes and Birds; which are of too great variety to be comprehended in so narrow a compass. After which I shall proceed to enumerate the several Species belonging to each of these Differences, according to such an order and dependance amongst them, as may contribute to the defining of them, and determining their primary significations These Species are com­monly joyned together by pairs, for the better helping of the Memory, (and so likewise are some of the Genus's and Differences.) Those things which naturally have Opposites, are joyned with them, according to such Opposition, whether Single or Double. Those things that have no Oppo­sites, are paired together with respect to some Affinity which they have one to another. Tho it must be acknowledged that these Affinities are sometimes less proper and more remote, there being several things shifted into these places, because I knew not how to provide for them better.

[Page 23]All kinds of things and notions, to which names are to be assigned, may be di­stributed into such as are either more

• General; namely those Universal notions, whether belonging more properly to
  • Things; called TRANSCENDENTAL
    • GENERAL. I
    • RELATION MIXED. II
    • RELATION OF ACTION. III
  • Words; DISCOURSE. IV
• Special; denoting either
  • CREATOR. V
  • Creature; namely such things as were either created or concreated by God, not excluding several of those notions, which are framed by the minds of men, considered either
    • Collectively; WORLD. VI
    • Distributively; according to the several kinds of Beings, whether such as do belong to
      • Substance;
        • Inanimate; ELEMENT. VII
        • Animate; considered according to their several
          • Species; whether
            • Vegetative
              • Imperfect; as Minerals,
                • STONE. VIII
                • METAL. IX
              • Perfect; as Plant,
                • HERB consid. accord. to the
                  • LEAF. X
                  • FLOWER. XI
                  • SEED-VESSEL. XII
                • SHRUB. XIII
                • TREE. XIV
            • Sensitive;
              • EXANGUIOUS. XV
              • Sanguineous;
                • FISH. XVI
                • BIRD. XVII
                • BEAST. XVIII
          • Parts;
            • PECULIAR. XIX
            • GENERAL. XX
      • Accident;
        • Quantity;
          • MAGNITUDE. XXI
          • SPACE. XXII
          • MEASURE. XXIII
        • Quality; whether
          • NATURAL POWER. XXIV
          • HABIT. XXV
          • MANNERS. XXVI
          • SENSIBLE QUALITY. XXVII
          • SICKNESS. XXVIII
        • Action
          • SPIRITUAL. XXIX
          • CORPOREAL. XXX
          • MOTION. XXXI
          • OPERATION. XXXII
        • Relation; whether more
          • Private.
            • OECONOMICAL. XXXIII
            • POSSESSIONS. XXXIV
            • PROVISIONS. XXXV
          • Publick.
            • CIVIL. XXXVI.
            • JUDICIAL. XXXVII
            • MILITARY. XXXVIII
            • NAVAL. XXXIX
            • ECCLESIASTICAL. XL.

[Page 24]In this precedent Scheme, all the several things or notions, to which names are to be assigned, are reduced to forty Genus's. The first six of which do comprehend such matters, as by reason of their Generalness, or in some other respect, are above all those common heads of things called Predicaments; The rest belonging to the several Predicaments, of which I reckon only five. Amongst these, Substance doth take in fourteen Genus's, Quantity three, Quality five, Action four, and Rela­tion eight.

This being supposed to be a sufficient general Scheme of things, that which is next to be enquired after, is how each of those Genus's may be subdivided into its proper differences and species. In order to which I shall offer that which follows.

In the enumeration of all such things and notions as fall under di­scourse, those are first to be considered which are more general or com­prehensive, belonging either to Metaphysic, or to Grammar and Logic.

Tho particulars are first in the order of Being, yet Generals are first in the order of Knowing, because by these, such things and notions as are less general, are to be distinguished and defined.

Now the proper end and design of Metaphysic should be to enume­rate and explain those more general terms, which by reason of their Universality and Comprehensiveness, are either above all those Heads of things stiled Predicaments, or else common to several of them. And if this Science had been so ordered, as to have conteined a plain regular enumeration and description of these general terms, without the mixture of nice and subtle disputes about them; It might have been proper e­nough for learners to have begun with. But men having purposely strained their Wits to frame and discuss so many intricate questions, as are commonly treated of in it: 'Tis no wonder that it should hereby be rendred, not onely less fit for young beginners, but liable also to the pre­judice and neglect of those of riper judgments. That which I aim at in treating concerning these things, is to offer some brief and plain de­scription of them, as being conscious that such matters as are prim [...] nota, and most obvious, are most hard to be defined. And the multiplying of words, about things that are plain enough of themselves, doth but con­tribute to the making of them more obscure.

The right ordering of these Transcendentals is a business of no small difficulty; because there is so little assistance or help to be had for it in the Common Systems, according to which this part of Philosophy (as it seems to me) is rendred the most rude and imperfect in the whole bo­dy of Sciences; as if the compilers of it had taken no other care for those General notions, which did not fall within the ordinary series of things, and were not explicable in other particular Sciences, but only to tum­ble them together in several confused heaps, which they stiled the Sci­ence of Metaphysic. And this is one reason why the usual enumeration of such Terms is very short and deficient in respect of what it ought to be, many of those things being left out, which do properly belong to this number; which defects are here intended to be in some measure suppli­ed. Tho it must be granted, that by reason of the exceeding compre­hensiveness of some notions, and the extreme subtilty of others, as like­wise because of the streightness of that method which I am bound up to [Page 25] by these Tables it will so fall out, that several things cannot be disposed of so accurately as they ought to be.

The several things belonging to Metaphysical or Transcendental no­tions may be comprehended under these three Heads, namely such as are either more

• Absolute; conteining the Kinds, Causes, Differences and Modes of things, which I take the liberty to call TRANSCENDENTAL GENERAL.
• Relative; whether
• Mixed; and common both to Quantity, Quality, Whole and Part, stiled TRANSCENDENTAL MIXED.
• Simple; and proper to Action, viz. TRANSCENDENTAL re­lation of ACTION.

The most Universal conceptions of Things are usually stiled TRAN­SCENDENTAL, Metaphysic-all.

To which may be annexed by way of affinity, that general name which denotes those highest and most common heads, under which the several kinds of things may be reduced in an orderly series: viz. PRE­DICAMENT, Category.

Transcendentals general may be distributed into such as do concern the nature of things according to their

• KINDS. I.
• CAUSES. II.
• Differences; [...]ore
  • ABSOLUTE and Common. III.
  • Relative to Action; considering
    • THE END. IV.
    • THE MEANS. V.
• MODES. VI.

[Page 26] I. KIND.I. That common Essence wherein things of different natures do agree, is called GENUS, general, common Kind.

That common nature which is communicable to several Individuals, is called SPECIES, Sort or special kind, specifie, specifical. Breed.

These common kinds may be distinguished into such as are either more properly

• Transcendental; namely, those most universal and comprehensive Terms which fall under Discourse; relating to
  • The first and most general Conception, of which the Vnderstanding takes notice, as most known.
    1.
    • BEING, Entity, Essence, Existence, subsist, am, is, extant.
    • NOTHING, Nought, null, none, annul, disannul, annihilate, abrogate, abolish, void, undoe, cancel, evacuate, Ciphre.
  • Those Beings which ‖ are truly such, or those which our Senses mistake for Beings.
    2.
    • THING, Affair, Matter, Business, Case, real-ly, indeed.
    • APPARENCE, Apparition, Phantasm, Shew, Vision, Elusion and vanish.
  • Similitudes of Beings; formed in our Minds either ‖ by apprehension of things that are, or imagination of things that are not.
    3.
    • NOTION, Conception.
    • FICTION, Figment, make, feign, frame, devise, counterfet, forge, coin, mint, Fa­ble, Apologue, Romance, Tale, Legend, Mythology, Fairy, Nymph, Centaur, Griffin, Bugbear, Goblin, Chymera, Atlantis, Vtopia.
  • The words assigned for the signifying of several Things and Notions: to which that common name for the signifying of particular rational Beings may be an­nexed, though less properly.
    4
    • NAME, Style, Title, Titular, Compellation, Appellation, nominate, denominate, Sirname, Inscription, Nomenclator, anonymous, call, Nown, Term.
    • PERSON, Age, Party, No-body, Wight.
• Predicamental; those chief Heads, under which other Terms may be reduced; denoting either
  • Such things as ‖ subsist by themselves, or which (according to the old Logical definition) require a subject of inhesion: Though they are indeed nothing but the modes of Substance.
    5.
    • SUBSTANCE, subsist.
    • ACCIDENT-all.
  • That habitude of things whereby they may be said to have parts distinct and ca­pable of division, or the general disposition of things either to Action or Passion.
    6.
    • QUANTITY, Much, Deale, Mathematick.
    • QVALITY, Disposition, Endowment, indue, parts, qualification, manner, con­dition, estate.
  • The application of the Agent to the Patient, or the reception of the force of the Agent.
    7.
    • ACTION, doe, perform, commit, practise▪ proceeding, function, exercise, at­chieve, dealing, Act, Fact, Deed, Feat, Exploit, Passage, Prank, Trick, play the Part.
    • PASSION, abide, ail, bear, endure, suffer, undergo, sustain, feel, capable.
  • Such things as ‖ cannot be, or cannot be known, without a respect to something else; or which may be, or may be understood of themselves, without any such refe­rence.
    8.
    • RELATION, refer, Regard, Respect, Habitude, correlative.
    • ABSOLVTENESS, irrespective, peremptory, flat, positive.

[Page 27]II. That which any way contributes to the producing of an effect,II. CAUSE. is styled CAUSE, Reason, Ground, Principle, proceed from, procure, produce, make, constitute, In­fluence, raise, put, set, bring to pass.

That which proceeds from, or depends upon the Cause, is styled EFFECT, Event, Issue, Fruit, accrue, Success, spring from, become, grow, come of it, impression, Product.

Causes are commonly distributed into

• External, such as are without the Effect.
  • By which things are done; whether
    • More immediate and absolute; either ‖ more principal, of which the first Acti­on is, or less principal, and subservient to the chief Agent.
      1.
      • EFFICIENT, Author, Maker, Efficacy, effectual, Energy, Virtue, Validity, Force, Vigour, Operation, Influence, frame, constitute, beget, effect, do, make, cause, work, render, create, bring to pass.
      • INSTRUMENT, Tool▪ Organ-ical, Implement:
    • More remote and relative; being either in
      • The Agent; serving either to
        • Excite, or restrain it.
          2.
          • IMPULSIVE, Incentive, Motive, Reason, Ground, Concitation, Instiga­tion, Inducement, impell, stimulate, stir up, prick forward, spur on, rouse, quicken, irritate▪ provoke, excite, egging, incite, Instinct, Conside­ration, put on, set at or on, move, urge, draw in.
          • COHIBITIVE, restrain, check, curb, with-hold, keep short or back, in­hibit, repress, hold in, bridling, stint, coerce, confine, limit, no ho, stay, staunch, moderate, master, controle.
        • Direct and regulate its Action; either ‖ by that Idea which the Agent hath in his mind of some like case, or by some Pattern before his eyes.
          3.
          • EXEMPLAR, Example, Instance, Idea, Precedent, Cause.
          • TYPE, Pattern, Platform, Model, Last, Mold, Prototype, Antitype, Extract, Original, Copy, Counterpart, Draught, Sampler, Proof, Duplicate, exem­plifie, prefigure.
      • The Patient; relating to ‖ some peculiar capacity in the thing, or some fitness in respect of time.
        4.
        • CONDITION, Proviso▪ Salvo, in case, Term, Case, State, liking, Habit, Qua­lification.
        • OCCASION-al, Exigence, Emergence, Advantage, Opportunity, draw, provoke, scandal.
      • Some third thing, by which the force of the Efficient is either ‖ increased or abated,
        5.
        • ADJUVANT, Help, Aid, Assistance, Succour, Relief, Support, Advantage, auxiliary, subsidiary, avail, conduce, promote, farther, stand in stead, supply, accommodate, serve, Co-adjutor, abet, take ones part, stand by, a stay to one, forward, minister, relief, back one.
        • IMPEDIENT, hinder, Obstacle, Remora, Clog, Bar, debar, obstruct, cum­ber, Rub, Check, Dam, Luggage, Lumber, Baggage, Prejudice, Disadvantage, foreslow, lett, stop, Disservice, stay, stand in the way, trigg, keep back, re­strain, with-hold, interfere.
  • For whose sake a thing is: to which may be annexed the general name of such things as have any tendency to the promoting of it.
    6.
    • END, Aim, Mark, Goal, Drift, Intent, Effect, Purpose, Design, Scope, sake, Reach, Reason, final, tend.
    • MEANS, Way▪ Shift, Expedient, accommodate.
• Internal, such as are within the Effect as its chief constituent parts; ‖ out of which a thing is made, and of which it consists; or by which a thing is constitu­ted in its being, and distinguished from all other things.
  7.
  • MATTER-ial, Stuff, Substance, Argument, Subject, Boot as fire-boot, &c.
  • FORM-al, Essence.

[Page 28] III. DIVER­SITY.III. Those general Names which may be styled Differences, are too numerous to be placed under one common Head according to the method designed in these Ta­bles, and therefore are they here reduced unto three Heads: whereof the first con­tains such as do not immediately imply any relation to Action, and are therefore sty­led more abso [...]ute and common; namely, those more universal Affections of Entity whereby several things are differenced, so as to make them DIVERS from one ano­ther▪ (another, several, sundry, vary [...]ety dissonant, to and fro▪ up and down, multiplicity, choice, different others Heterogeneous;) to which the notion of IDENTITY, Very, sameness▪ all one, unvaried, may be properly opposed, importing an Unity or Agree­ment in the same [...]ssence.

These are distinguishable into such Differences of things as imply a respect unto

• Something without the things themselves.
  • The Vnderstanding; in regard of the ‖ congruity, or incongruity of things to our ap­prehensions of them.
    1.
    • TRUTH, true, Verity, verifie, very, Right, Sooth, irrefragably, likely, probable.
    • FALSHOOD, false-ifie, Error, erroneous, untrue.
  • The Will; as to the ‖ agreement, or disagreement of things with that Faculty, so as to be rendred desirable or avoidable.
    2.
    • GOODNESS, Weal, Welfare, right, regular, well, rectifie, better, best.
    • EVILNESS, ill, bad, naught, wrong, amiss, shrewd, scurvy, lewd, horrid, horrible, corrupt, Pravity, deprave, Sin, Fault, Trespass, Transgress-ion, Peccadillo, worse.
• The nature of things in themselves; as to ‖
  • Their naked being, or not being.
    3.
    • POSITIVENESS, Thesis.
    • PRIVATIVENESS, Privation, bereave deprive, depose, put out, or forth, take away, strip, devest, disseise, dispossess, disfurnish.
  • Their being ▪ or not being what they are pretended to be.
    4.
    • GENUINENESS, right, arrant, rank, very, native, legitimate, true, currant.
    • S [...]VRIOVSNESS, mongrel, bastard, false, illegitimate, improper, adulterine, base, misbegot, sophisticated.
  • Their degrees of being; whether ‖ present, or future and in possibility.
    5.
    • ACTUALNESS, Existence, extant.
    • POTENTIALNESS, Reversion, may▪ can.
  • Their Extension; being ‖ circumscribed by bounds, or not so circumscribed,
    6.
    • FINITENESS, definite determined, limited, bounded, Term, Confine, Stint, conclu­ded.
    • INFINITENESS, endless, indefinite, unbounded, immense, indeterminate, unli­mited, unmeasurable, inexhaustible.
• Their Causes.
  • Efficient; whether ‖ the order of common Providence, or the skill of some in­feriour Agent.
    7.
    • NATURALNESS, right, native, wild, carnal, praeternatural, supernatural.
    • FACTITIOVSNESS, artificial, technical, made.
  • Material; being either ‖ without all parts and composition, or being such, to the fra­ming of which several parts and ingredients do concurr.
    8.
    • SIMPLICITY, mere, sheer, clear, fine, plain, right, pure, unmixed, Ingre­dient, single, uncompounded.
    • MIXEDNESS, mingle, compound, blend▪ shuffle, Medly, Miscellany, promiscuous, temper, Commixtion, complex, complicate, confound, intermingle, Hodg-podge, Gallimaufry, Rhapsody, Centon, dash, brew.
  • Formal; ‖ being in such a state to which nothing is wanting, or else wanting some­thing of what they may and should have.
    9.
    • PERFECTION, absolute, intire, full, accurate, exact, exquisite, punctual, precise, complete, consummate, accomplish. strict, plenary, throughly, mature, up at the top.
    • IMPERFECTION, incomplete, lame.

[Page 29]IV. That kind of Difference betwixt things,IV. DIF­FERENCE relating to the END of Action. which relates to Acti­ons considering the End, may be stiled DISAGREABLENESS, unsuta­ble, discrepant.

To which may be opposed the Notion of CONVENIENCY, agree­ment, agreable, sutable, serving, c [...]mmodious.

These may be distinguished into such as are

• More Simple; denoting their
  • Fitness to ‖ promote, or hinder our well-being.
    1.
    • PROFITABLENESS, Advantage, Benefit, Emolument, Interest, Concern, Boot, Fruit, Vtility, Commodious, Edifie, stand insted, good for. avail.
    • HVRTFVLNESS, Harm, Prejudice, Disadvantage, Dammage, Disprofit, Nusance, Mischief. discommodious, nocent. shrewd turn, pernitious, noxious, noisom, damnifie, endammage, impair, an­noy, displeasure, naught for, vermin, weed.
  • Sutableness or unsutableness to our appetites.
    2.
    • PLEASANTN [...]SS, Delight, Complacence, injoyment, satisfaction, sweet, taking, delicious, Paradise.
    • VNPLEASANTNESS, Regret, displeasing, offensive, trouble, grievous, uneasie▪ painful.
  • Agreableness or Disagreableness of things to Right reason.
    3.
    • DUENESS, Duty, ought, should, Honest, owe, part, incumbent on.
    • VNDVENESS, ought not, dishonest.
• More mixed implying a respect to the nature of the end, as to its
  • Capacity or Incapacity of existing.
    4.
    • POSSIBILITY, Feasible, may, can.
    • IMPOSSIBILITY, cannot be.
  • Degrees of goodness; whether such as are like to answer the desires, by proving very great and considerable or such as are like to disappoint the desires▪ by proving to be very little or none.
    5.
    • IMPORTANCE, of Moment, Consequence, Strength, Force, Weight, material, considerable, pithy, pregnant, essential, it mattereth.
    • VANITY, Trifle, trivial, frivolous, Foppery, Gewgaw, Knack, Toy, sleeveless, slight, light, fruitless, fidling, void, Trumpery, Bauble, Quillet, Quirk, Gambol, to no boot, to no purpose,
  • Esteem amongst good men; whether such as they are like to think well of, as deserving praise and reward, or to think ill of, as deserving shame and punishment.
    6.
    • WORTHINESS, Merit, Desert, Value, demerit, cheap, dear, price, precious, depreciate.
    • VNWORTHINESS, Vile, Mean, Poor, undeserving, indign.

[Page 30] V. DIFFE­RENCE re­lating to the MEANS.V. DIFFERENCES of things relating to the MEANS, may be di­stributed into such as are

• More Simple, denoting the being of things
  • Good; as good is determined by
    • Law; whether according to Law, or not against it.
      1.
      • LAWFULNESS, legitimate, right, legal, canonical, orderly.
      • INDIFFERENCE, adiaphorous.
    • Custom or opinion; whether such as the generality of men do think well of and practise, or dislike and avoid.
      2.
      • DECENCY, Decorum, meet, fit, seemly, handsome, becoming, comely, goodly.
      • INDECENCY, Indecorum, unmeet, unfit, unseemly, unhandsome, uncomely, misbeseeming, ugly.
  • Free from evil; whether of
    • Hurt;
      3.
      • SAFETY, Security, sure, tutelary, innoxious, save, protect, in­sure, indemnifie, warrant, Sanctuary, Shelter, Refuge.
      • DANGER, Hazard, Peril, Ieopardy, unsafe, risk, venture, ad­venture, endanger, expose, incur.
    • Labor and Pain; in the
      • Agent; the Doing of things with little or much labor.
        4.
        • EASINESS, Facil-ity-itate, clear, gentle, light,
        • DIFFICVLTY, Hard, uneasie, crabbed, intricate, laborious, streight, Perplexity, rub, knot, graveling, hard put to it.
      • Patient; The suffering of things with little or no labor, or with much.
        5.
        • GENTLENESS, Easiness, softness, still, tenderly, gingerly.
        • VIOLENCE, boisterous, rough, harsh, blustering, impetuous, force, ravish.
• Comparative; of the
  • Nature of the means to one another; whether mutually agreeing as ha­ving the same kind of affections, or disagreeing as having such kind of affections as are apt to exclude one another out of the same subject.
    6.
    • CONGRUITY, Sutableness, Agreableness, Sympathy, consonant, compatible, right, apposite, fit, meet, apt, adapt, consistent, accord, conform, accommodate, comply.
    • CONTRARIETY, Repugnance, withstand, against, unsutable, Anti­peristasis, counter, cross, incongruous, inconsistent, incompatible, interfere.
  • Vsefulness or Vnusefulness of means to an end, whether in
    • Lower degrees; when there is a fair probability that a means may either promote or hinder the end.
      7.
      • EXPEDIENCE, Convenience, behoovful, meet, fit, perquisite, requisite.
      • INCONVENIENCE, Inexpedience, unmeet, unfit, incommodious.
    • Higher degree; when there is a certain dependance betwixt the means and the end.

To which may be opposed that kind of nexus betwixt means and end, which is altogether uncertain and doubtful.

• NECESSITY, needful, requisite, essential, should, must, streight, exigent, force, perquisite, pressing.
• CONTINGENCE, Venture, adventure, may, Accident, peradventure, adventitious, fortuitous, incident, happen, perhaps.

[Page 31]VI. Those more general respects and habitudes which several things or notions have to one another, are stiled by the name of MODE,VI. MODE. man­ner, way, sort, fashion, guise, wise, garb, course, form-ality, kind.

These may be distinguished into such as are

• Internal; denoting that
  • In which another thing exists, or the thing so existing in another
    1.
    • SUBJECT, liable, obnoxious, exposed, matter, Text, Theme, under­goe, capable.
    • ADIVNCT, Epithete, inherent.
  • About which a thing is imployed.
    2.
    • OBJECT, mark, scope, butt, treat, handle, meddle with, have to do with.
• External;
  • With which things are accompanied or done; according to the
    • Kinds of them, either in General, or specially of such things, as are remarkable for Extraordinariness and Greatness.
      3.
      • CIRCUMSTANCE, Rite, Ceremony.
      • SOLEMNITY, Grandeur, state, Pomp, Port, celebrate, solemnize, Rite.
    • Consequence of them; or that habitude resulting to any thing from the consideration of all its circumstances together.
      4.
      • STATE, Estate, Condition, Case, Iuncture, Liking, manner, pass, pickle, plight, point, in good repair.
  • By which any thing is known.
    5.
    • SIGN, Badge, Token, Mark, Note, Symptome, Symbol, Index, Indica­tion, Cue, Print, Scarr, Track, Signature, signifie, Beacon, becken, Boad, foretoken, presage, Prodigie, portentous, ominous, auspicious.
  • According to which any thing is, or is done; relating either to the
    • Order observed in the being or doing of things; whether by
      • One person or thing after another who hath left his place, or for ano­ther who is onely absent from his place.
        6.
        • ROOM, as Successor, Caliph, supply, place.
        • STEAD, as substitute, subdititious, serve for, succedaneous, De­puty, Surrogate, Vicar, Delegate, Vice-gerent, Attourney, Broaker, Factor, in lieu, Lievtenant, Proctor, Proxy.
      • Two persons or things either one after another, or one with another.
        7.
        • TURN, Course, alternate, second, bout.
        • RECIPROCATION, mutual, interchangeable, intercourse, correspond.
    • Measures of Being; whether the more General name for such mea­sures, differenced according to more and less, or that special kind which denotes the sodain and short Being or Doing of any thing according to a greater measure.
      8.
      • DEGREE, gradual▪ a spice, a strein, gradation, leasurely, by little and little.
      • IMPETUS, Fit, Paroxysm, brunt, crash, effort, pang.
    • Affections of Being; with reference either to some common agree­ment and mutual dependance, or to some inconsistency betwixt them.
      9.
      • COGNATION, Affinity, Nearness.
      • OPPOSITION, Disagreableness, contrary, counter, repugnant, with­stand, against, cross, thwart, other side, adverse, Antagonist, An­tithesis, confront, impugn, oppugn.

[Page 32]TRANSCENDENTAL Relations MIXED, may be distributed into such as do belong either to

• QUANTITY, as considered
  • More GENERALLY. I
  • More restrainedly, to
    • CONTINUED QUANTITY. II
    • DISCONTINUED QUANTITY. III
• QUALITY, as considered more
  • LARGELY IV
  • STRICTLY. V
• WHOLE and PART. VI

I. Transcend. Relations of QUANTITY MORE GE­NERAL.I. TRANSCENDENTAL mixed Relations belonging to QUANTITY considered MORE GENERALLY, may be distributed into such as do concern the measure of things compared ei­ther with

• Other things of the same kind or company
  • Indefinitely; as to
    • Being or Substance, namely when the things compared are considered
      • Singly and intire, Being either of an ordinary size, or more or less then ordinary.
        1.
        • INDIFFERENCE, Pretty big, passable, reasonable, so so.
          • GREATNESS, Magnitude, ample, large, vast, huge, immense, grand, monstrous, pro­digious, sound, swinging, whisker, main, much, magnifie, aggravate, exaggerate, a filthy deal, a foul deal, Gyant.
          • LITTLENESS, Smalness, Petty, Minute, Modicum, Scautling, diminutive, less, least, poor, abate, allay, extenuate, Elf, Dwarf, Shrimp, Tit, Dandiprat, Pigmy.
      • Conjunctly; as consisting of several individuals or parts, whereof there are together an ordinary number, or more or less then ordinary.
        2.
        • MEDIOCRITY, a pretty deal, an indifferent quantity, mean, reasonable.
          • ABOVNDANCE, a great deal, much, a world, affluence, plenty, store, copious, flush, satiate, flow, fluent, luxuriant, enough and to spare.
          • SCARCITY, Little, want, dearth, pinching, scant, bare, jejune, lack.
    • Vse, with respect to the quantity of it, whether such as may by its just proportion promote the end, or such as may hinder it, by being too much, or too little.
      3.
      • SUFFICIENCY, enough, big or much enough, competency, moderate, satisfie, serve, well, full.
        • EXCESS, Redundance, superfluity, needless, exuberance, too much, overmuch, over­charge, cloy, glutt, surfet, satiety, extreme, immoderate, luxuriant, rank, out of reason, wast, fly out, lash out.
        • DEFECT, Not enough, lack, need, penury, indigent, necessitous, destitute, want, fail, fall short of, slender, jejune, incompetent, insufficient.
    • Quality of it, denoting the being of a thing of an ordinary goodness, or more or less then ordinary.
      4.
      • INDIFFERENCY, Pretty well, tolerable, not amiss.
        • EXCELLENCY, extraordinary good, eminence, preheminence, egregious, eximious, incom­parable, superlative, soveraign, transcendent, singular, heroic, high, noble, gallant, choice, passing, rare, remarkable, notable, Paragon, Mirrour.
        • SORRINESS, mean, poor, vile, trivial, contemptible, despicable, frippery, Trash, Trum­pery, Raff, Scum, Drugg, silly, slight, paultry, scurvy, poor, course, flat, pedling, cheap, worthless, Fellow, Sirrah, Companion, Rascal, Varlet, Wretch, Scoundril, Skip-jack, Scrub, Vrchin, Flirt, Gill, Iade.
  • Definitely; as to
    • Being; either of the same degree, or more or less.
      5.
      • EQUALITY, Evenness, parity, peer, match, fellow, adaequate, aequipollent, adjust, halves with, as many, all one.
      • INEQVALITY, unequal, odds.
        • SVPERIORITY, above, upper, advantage, odds, preheminence, surmount, overpass, surpass, exceed, go beyond, out-go, get the start, top, excell, prevail, predominant.
        • INFERIORITY, under -ling, disadvantage, allay, come short of, low.
    • Vse; as means to an end, when one thing hath the same degrees of fitness for an end as another, or more or less.
      6.
      • EQUIVALENCE, countervail.
        • BETTERNESS.
        • WORSENESS.
• Thems [...]lves; in respect of their
  • Being or substance, either continued the same, or changed to more or less.
    7.
    • AT A STAND.
      • INCREASE, Augmentation, progress, increment, enlarge, magnifie, amplifie, aggravate, im­prove, rise, grow, gain, come forward, crescent.
      • DIMINVTION, Abate, Bate, swage, asswage, decrease, extenuate, mince, mitigate, allay, retrench, rebate, shrink.
  • QUALITY in general, either continuing in an ordinary degree, or being changed to more or less.
    8.
    • JUST TEMPER.
      • INTENTION, heighten, strein, raise, aggravate, exaggerate, exasperate, enhaunce, acute, cutting, keen, sore, piercing, vehement, urgent, eager, earnest, deep sleep, amain, greatly, much.
      • REMISSION, Abate, allay, slake, slacken, swage, asswage, diminish, mitigate, slight, cold, slender, weak, dead, dilute, dull, faint, gentle, light.
  • Vse; when things either continue as they were, or else become more or less good.
    9.
    • KEEPING AT A STAY.
      • MENDING, emendation, bettering, Reparation, Reformation, Restauration, correct, redress, Improve, Edifie, botch, cobble, clout, patch, Progress, advance.
      • MARRING, Spoiling, Deprave, Impair, spill, taint, alloy, wear, corrupt, vitiate, wast.

[Page 33]II. Transcendental Mixed [...]elations belonging to CONTINUED QUANTITY,II. Transcend. Relations of CONTINU­ED QUAN­TITY. may be distinguished into those various measures of di­stance according to the difference of more or less, with respect ei­ther to

• Line; from END to End.
  1.
  • LENGTH, -en, Longitude, prolong, protract, eeke out, extend, te­dious, prolixness.
  • SHORTNESS, Brevity, Conciseness, abbreviate, curtal, abridge, restrain, compendious, succinct.
• Superficies; from side to side.
  2.
  • BREDTH, Wideness, Latitude, Largeness, Ampleness, spacious, di­late, enlarge, extend.
  • NARROWNESS, Streightness, Scantness, close, compressed, pink-eyed, restrain.
• Body; reckoning from
  • Top to Bottom.
    3.
    • DEEPNESS, profound, Abyss, farr into, high.
    • SHALLOWNESS, Ford, Scoure, Depression, low, flat.
  • Bottom to Top.
    4.
    • HIGHNESS, Altitude, exalt, elevate, Soar, sublime, tall, lofty, proper, towring, advance, raise, aloft.
    • LOWNESS, abase, bring down, depress, demiss, nether
  • Any Superficies to the opposite.
    5.
    • THICKNESS, Crassitude, gross, deep, incrassate, roun­cival.
    • THINNESS, slender, fine, slim, lank, slank, slight, tenuity, gaunt, rare, subtle, attenuate.

[Page 34] III. Transcen. Relations of DISCON­TINUED QUANTI­TY.III. Transcendental Relations of DISCONTINUED QUANTITY or Number, may be distributed into such as are either

• Comparative; denoting either a greater or lesser number then ordi­nary.
  1.
  • MULTITUDE, many, numerous, a world of, multiply, increase, propagate, store, swarm, thick, press, crowd throng, rout.
  • FEWNESS, Paucity, decrease, small number, thin, diminish­ing.
• Positive; concerning the
  • Number of things, whether
    • One, or more then one.
      2.
      • SINGULARITY, Individual, numerical, single.
      • PLVRALITY, more
    • Some or All.
      3.
      • PARTICULARITY, special, peculiar.
      • VNIVERSALITY, Generality, Catholick, Oecumenical, utmost.
  • Kinds of things, whether One kind, or All kinds.
    4.
    • SPECIALNESS, peculiar, particular.
    • GENERALNESS, All.
  • Parts of which number consists, whether Equal or Vnequal Units.
    5.
    • EVENNESS, Parity.
    • ODNESS, Imparity, uneven.
  • Position of things numbred, denoting their
    • Being in a state of separation from others, or in a state of conjun­ction with several others.
      6.
      • SEGREGATENESS, sever, set apart or aside, Analysis, Ana­tomy, piece-meal, by retail, dispence, distribute, one by one, Parcels, by pole.
      • AGGREGATENESS, Train, Troop, Company, Party, Scull, Swarm, Team, Flock, Heard, Pack, Covy, Sheaf, Bale, Bundle, Fardle, Bunch, Cluster, Gross, by the great.
    • Order, belonging either to Things, or to Words.
      7.
      • SERIES, Rank, Row, Class, successive, Chain, Course, Race, col­lateral, Concatenation, Alphabet.
      • CATALOGVE, Index, Table, List, Role, Bill, Scrole, Terrier, a particular, Cargo, Inventory, Muster, impannel, Genealogy, Pe­digree, Vocabulary, Dictionary, Lexicon, Nomenclator, Alma­nack, Calendar.
    • Parts of an aggregate being all together.
      8.
      • SUIT, Pack, Set, Mess, a Ring.

[Page 35]IV. Transcendental Relations belonging to QUALITY,IV. Transcen. Relations of QUALITY at large. as considered MORE LARGELY, may be distributed into such kind of Relations as are either

• Single; containing a respect to the
  • Cause of a thing, whether none or any, The being of a thing, the first of its kind, or not.
    1.
    • PRIMITIVENESS, Root, original, simple, underived.
    • DERIVATIVENESS, conjugate, Notation, Etymology, transmission.
  • Distance of a thing, whether without or with any other between.
    2.
    • IMMEDIATENESS, Next.
    • MEDIATENESS.
  • Manner of being, whether intirely of it self, or by virtue of something else.
    3.
    • ABSOLUTENESS, Independent, Freehold.
    • DEPENDENCY, Vnder.
  • Degrees of Being or Causality, whether superior and before all others, or inferior, and after some others.
    4.
    • PRINCIPALNESS, Chief, Special, Ring-leader, soveraign, supreme, paramount, first, main, arch, prime, primary, capital, cardinal fundamental, Top, Head, Master.
    • ACCESSORINESS, Abet, adherent, second, Companion, Party, Copart­ner, Complice, Appendage, Label, Appurtenance, adventitious, col­lateral, conscious, privy, side with, back, partake, participate, by the way, by the by.
• Mutual; whether more
  • Positive; signifying one thing either to have or not to have Relation to some other.
    5.
    • PERTINENCY, belong, appertain, apposite, to the purpose, touching, concern, material, relate to, serve for, incumbent on.
    • IMPERTINENCY, not to the purpose, extravagant, sleeveless, wide from the matter, wild, idle, improper.
  • Comparative, denoting such relation to belong onely to one or few, or to many.
    6.
    • PROPERNESS, incommunicable, owner, peculiar, concern.
    • COMMONNESS, usual, vulgar, currant, general, prostitute.

[Page 36] V. Transcend. Relations more strictly.V. Transcendental Relations of QUALITY considered MORE STRICTLY, may be distributed into such as do concern either their

• Being; The same or divers.
  1.
  • LIKENESS, Similitude, similar, assimilate, resemble, representation Species, Idea, Image, Effigies, Portraiture.
  • VNLIKENESS, Dissimilitude, dissimilar, degenerous.
• Circumstances; whether
  • Special, relating to their
    • Place, either the being of things in their due positions, or out of their due places.
      2.
      • ORDER, Regular, Method, array, imbattle, marshal, rally, in frame, dispose, digest, range.
      • CONFVSION, Disorder, Rhapsody, Chaos, Gallimaufry, tumult, rout, coyl, disheveled, disranked, out of frame or order, promiscuous, Preposterous, Ruffle, Shuffle, scamble, clutter, blunder, jumble, hurry, hurly burly, pell mell.
    • Time, either the being of things as usually they are, or their being otherwise then commonly they use to be.
      3.
      • ORDINARINESS, common, usual, trivial, currant.
      • EXTRAORDINARINESS, strange, uncouth, unusual, unwonted, of note, notable, notorious, Odness, Paradox.
  • General, The being of things according to certain rules or not so.
    4.
    • REGULARNESS, right, rectifie, rule.
    • EXORBITANCY, Irregularness, Enormity, Disorder, extravagant, li­centious, wild, faulty, wrong, loose, immoderate, unruly, unbridled, out of square, lash out, Heteroclyte, Anomalous.
• Being known; either to many or few.
  5.
  • PUBLICKNESS, Notorious, famous, common, extant, open, being out, or abroad, Declaration, Manifesto, Remonstrance, Edition, Promul­gation, set forth or out, shew, spread, blazon, publish, proclaim, di­vulge, denounce, produ [...]e, post up, come to light, high way.
  • PRIVATENESS, underhand, clancular, clandestine, retire, between themselves.
• Mixture with or addition of other things; when they are
  • Better for such mixture, or Worse for being without it.
    6.
    • ORNATENESS, adorn, set out, Deck, beautifie, embellish, trimm, trick, tire, garnish, flourish, dress, prank, Ornament, Grace, flo­rid, neat, smug, spruce, elegant, quaint, fine, polite, gay, gaudy, gor­geous, flaring, garish, flaunting, Gallant, Spark, Bracelet, Plume, Garland, Ouch, &c.
    • HOMELINESS, simple, rough, rude, untrimmed, plain, bald.
  • Better for being without such mixture, or worse for it.
    7.
    • PURITY, Cleanness, undefiled, defecate, fine, refine, try, furbush, scoure▪ purge, purifie, clarifie, depuration, neat, abstersive.
    • DEFILEMENT, Filthiness, Impurity, unclean, fowl, squalid, bedawb, besmear, bewray, contaminate, slabber, slubber, smear, soil, sully, pollute, daggle, slurry, smutch, smutt, stain, alloy, em­base, dash.

[Page 37]VI. That thing which is made up of several lesser things united toge­ther is called by the name of WHOLE, Total, Integral, Intire, Summ, VI. Transcen. Relations of WHOLE and PART. All, Vtterly▪ Quite and clean, full, plenary.

Those lesser things, by the union of which another greater thing is made up, are stiled by the common name of PARTS. Particle, Parcel, partial, Divide, share, distribute, driblet, portion, piece, pittance.

The transcendental relations of whole and part are such as denote a respect to Quantity

• Continued; in regard of the
  • Quality; of Goodness or Badness of such parts.
    1.
    • BEST PART, Quintessence, Cream, Flower, the heart, Top.
    • WORST PART, Refuse, Scumm, Dreggs, Raff, draft, dross, rubbish, tare, bran, chaff, recrement, trash, garbage, offal.
  • Time; either that which is first taken, whereby the goodness of the whole is to be measured, or that which is superadded after the whole.
    2.
    • SAY, taste, touch, scantling.
    • VANTAGE, surplus, overplus, to boot, over and above, over-weight, corollary, supplement, vails.
  • Place; specially in liquids, either that part which in separation doth rise to the top, or that which falls to the bottom.
    3.
    • SCUM, Sandever, Mother.
    • SEDIMENT, setling, caput mort, grounds, lees, dregs, feculent, rack, defecate.
  • Figure; specially in solids; whether
    • Roundish; in greater parts, or in lesser parts.
      4.
      • LUMP, Bole, Morsel, Bit, Cantle, Luncheon, Gobbet, Mammock, Stub, stump, grumous, clotted, clod, turfe, sod.
      • POWDER, Mote, Dust, Corn, Grain, Crum, Grate, moulder.
    • Oblong; made ‖ either by Cutting, or by Breaking,
      5.
      • CHIP, Lamin, Scale, Flake, Flaw, Flitter, shive, shiver, splinter.
      • FRAGMENT, Piece, Scrap, Sheard, tatter, Flitter, rag, shread, snip, slive, slice, collop, cut.
• Discontinued; denoting the respect of
  • A Part put to another, or the whole as being made up of such parts.
    6.
    • ADDITUM, item, put to, insert, eke out.
    • SVMM, lay or couch together, cast up, count, draw to a head, come to, amount, result, total, in the whole.
  • A Part taken out from others, or the whole remaining after such taking out.
    7.
    • ABLATUM, abate, defalk, retrench, deduct, subduct, substract, take away.
    • RESIDVE, overplus, surplussage, arrear, remainer, remnant, left be­hind, the other, the rest, relicks, orts, scraps, reversions, gleaning, offal, odd-ends, stubs, stumps, stubble.
  • A Part repeated a certain number of times, so as to equal the whole, or the whole considered as it is so made up.
    8.
    • MULTIPLIER, Side.
    • PRODVCT, rectangle.
  • A Part taken out such a certain number of times as leaves nothing of the whole, or that number of times which is the correspondent part.
    9.
    • DIVISOR.
    • QVOTIENT.

[Page 38]TRANSCENDENTAL RELATIONS OF ACTION, may be distributed into such as are more

• General.—
  • SIMPLE. I
  • COMPARATE. II
• Special; denoting either
  • Kinds of Action.
    • Solitary; wherein more then one person is not necessarily supposed. BUSINESS. III.
    • Social; wherein more then one person is necessarily supposed. COMMERCE. IV
  • EVENTS. V
  • ITION. VI

I. TRANS. RELAT. of ACTION SIMPLE.I. Transcendental respects of ACTION SIMPLE or relating to single things, are such as do concern

• The General condition of a thing, denoting the making of it ‖ to be so, or to be otherwise.
  1.
  • PUTTING, Set, Lay, Make.
  • ALTERING, Change, Vary, Mutation, shift, Revolution, Vicissitude, Catastrophe, Metamorphosis.
• Ones right in a thing; whether
  • Making it ‖ to be his, or not to be his.
    2.
    • APPROPRIATING, own, set apart, engross, monopolize.
    • ALIENATING, transferr, estrange, pass away ones right.
  • Declaring it to be his, or not to be his.
    3.
    • CLAIMING, Owning, Challenging, Demand, arrogate, assume, profess, attribute ascribe, take upon him, declare for.
    • ABDICATING, disclaim, disown, renounce, relinquish, refuse, reject, repudiate, desert, forsake, disavow, disherit, execrate, forswear, de­stitute, cast off, lay aside, put away.
• Ones Possession; with respect to the
  • Causing of a thing to be in ones Possession or not.
    4.
    • TAKING, Seising, Apprehending, resume, surprize, assume, intercept.
    • LEAVING, Relinquish, Residue, forsake, spare.
  • Being of a thing in ones possession, or the not being of such a thing in ones possession as he ought to have.
    5.
    • HAVING, in hand, hold, possess.
    • WANTING, indigent, lack, miss, necessity, need, penury.
  • Continuing a thing in ones Possession or not.
    6.
    • HOLDING, Detain, Retain, Keep.
    • LETTING GO, Dismiss surrender, give up, Shed, Cast, mew, resign.
• The Knowledge of things, with respect to the
  • Endeavour of knowing, or the good success of such endeavour.
    7.
    • SEEKING, search, feel for, grope, ransack, rummage, Quest.
    • FINDING, retrive, sift out, smell out, Foundling.
  • Causing a thing to be known, or hindring it from being known.
    8.
    • SHEWING, disclose, detect, betray, reveal, discover, declare, de­monstrate, remonstrate, render.
    • CONCEALING, Hide, Shelter, Suppress, Sculk, lurk, Secret, Private, Latent, occult, underhand, close, clancular, clandestine in a corner, in hugger mugger, recess, retire, slink, mich, sneak, slip, or steal away, cloke, veil, hoodwink, mask, muffle.
  • Causing others to be perfectly known, or to be thought so.
    9.
    • MANIFESTING, Apparent, Evident, plain, flat, open, conspicuous, perspicuous, obvious, certain, clear, palpable, shew, declare, certifie set forth, come to light.
    • SEEMING, Semblance, Shew, Pretence, Pretext, Vmbrage, Colour, a shew, a blind, Formal, Appear, palliate, fain, bear in hand, make [...]s if, make shew of, specious, disguise, Ey-service.

[Page 39]II. Transcendental Relations of Action COMPARATE, are such as do concern.II. Trans. Relat. of Actions COMPA­RATE.

• Divers things at the same time; whether such kind of Actions as from the nature of the Agents or Patients, may be called
  • Corporeal; denoting the
    • Causing of things to be together or asunder.
      1.
      • JOINING, annex, Connexion, couple, link, copulation, concatenation, conjun­ction, Coalition, coherent, copulative, conglutinate, combine, compact, set or put together.
      • SEPARATING, Segregate, sunder, sever, dissever, divide, disjoin, disunite, dis­sect, dissolve, part, take in pieces, disjunctive.
    • Continuing them together or asunder.
      2.
      • ADHEARING, Cleave, stick to, cling to, hang together, coherent, inseparable.
      • ABANDONING, Forsake, Desert, Relinquish, Leave, Forgo, Flinch, Quit, Dereli­ction, forlorn, destitute, shake or cast off, start back, give over.
  • Mental; Putting of things together or asunder
    3.
    • APPLYING, lay or put to.
    • ABSTRACTING.
  • Both Corporeal and Mental; with respect to the
    • Taking in of several things, or the leaving out of some.
      4.
      • COMPREHENDING, Contain, Comprize, Imply, Involve, Inclose, Include, inclusive, hold, Complication.
      • EXEMPTING, Except, restrain, seclude, exclude, save, salvo, set aside.
    • Putting of things together, the better to judge of their likeness or unlikeness, or examining of them for the distinguishing of that which is right and true.
      5.
      • COMPARING, Conferr, Collation, resemble.
      • TRY, Prove, Search, Temptation, Experiment, test, touch, examin, gage poise, pose, probe.
• The same things at divers times, whether the same as to
  • Substance; signifying either the doing of the same thing several times, or the making of a thing to be different at one time from what it was before.
    6.
    • REPEATING, Iterate, reiterate, recite, render, rehearse, redouble, reduplicate, inculcate, ingeminate, recapitulate, renew, afresh, again, Tautology, the burden.
    • CHANGING, Mutation, Vary, Alter, Shift.
  • Quantity; The giving back of the very same thing, or of something else equal to it.
    7.
    • RESTORING, Give back, Restitution, refund, return, Restauration.
    • COMPENSATING, Recompense, award, make amends, remunerate, quit, re­quite, retaliate, retribute, reparation, paying, fit, being even with, meet with, make good, cry quittance, like for like, one for another.
  • Quality; endeavouring to shew how another thing is, or to do the like.
    8.
    • REPRESENTING, declare, shew, exhibit, present.
    • IMITATING, Mimick, personate, take forth, follow.
  • Vse; as means to an end, The making of a thing more fit or less fit for its end.
    9.
    • REPAIRING, Mending, Bettering, Improving, correct, rectifie, renew, reedifie, Emendation, Instauration, Redress, set to right, make good, make up, patch up, piece up.
    • SPOILING, Marring, corrupting, deprave, impaire, raze, scrape or cross out, sleight works.

[Page 40] III. Trans. Relat. of BUSI­NESS.III. Those kind of Actions about which men bestow their time and labour, are called by the general name of BUSINESS, Affair, Task, Chare, Transaction, Matter, Fa­ctor, Agent, negotiate, occupie, stickle, meddle, intermeddle, dealing, imployment, active.

To which may be opposed the Negation or being free from such Actions stiled LEASVRE, Vacation vacant, idle or spare time, unoccupied, respite.

Transcendental relations of BUSINESS, may be distributed into such as are

• Previous to it.
  • Mental or Verbal.
    1.
    • DESIGNING, allot, appoint, plot, preordein, project.
    • UNDERTAKING, enterprize, take in hand set upon, task.
  • Real; either more general or more special, with respect to the providing of requi­site materials.
    2.
    • PREPARING, Parade, previous, ready, make way, fitting, Tuning, Harbinger.
    • FURNISHING, Aequipage, fitting, ready.
• Parts of it; whether
  • Initial; with respect to the
    • First entrance upon a business; either Real or Seeming.
      3.
      • BEGIINNING, Inchoate, initiate, commence, Inceptor, Spring, Rise, Origi­nal, first, set about, set forth, set a foot, go in hand with, enter upon.
      • OFFERING, Propose profer, tender, bid, propound, overture.
    • Application of the labor, either to the doing of any thing, or to know whether it can be done.
      4.
      • ENDEAVOURING, Devoir, bestir, adoo, coyl, stickle, strein, strive, struggle, effort, make a stir, do ones best, reach after, lay out for.
      • ESSAYING, Trying, say, attempt, prove, tempt-ation, Test, Experience, enter­prize, venture, sound, tast, touch, run the risk or adventure.
  • Medial; with respect to the time bestow'd in the doing of it, whether shorter or longer time.
    5.
    • DISPATCHING, Hasten, quick, high, forward, hurry, precipitate, speed, C [...]le­rity, Expedition, sodain, apace, out of hand, cut short.
    • PROTRACTING, Delay, desert, retard, slacken, respite, tarry, foreslow, linger, prolong, lengthen, prorogue, procrastinate, dally, lagg, stand about, whiling about▪ shift off, put off▪ post off, spin out time.
  • Final; with respect to the
    • End of the Action; ‖ either the effecting of what we undertake and profess, or our failing in it.
      6.
      • PERFORMING, Accomplishing, Atchieve, fu [...]fil, verifie, discharge, execute, keep, observe, exploit, make good bring to pass.
      • VIOLATING, infringe, break, trespass, transgress.
    • Action it self; whether Perfect or Imperfect.
      7.
      • FINISHING, Concluding, ending, accomplishing, fulfil, performing, cease, give over, Period, Term, ultimate, last, consummate, determine, dispatched, done, Catastrophe, clap up, shut up, wind up, close up, draw to an issue, go through with, run his course.
      • MISCARRYING, Failing.
• Hinderances of it; either not rightly using the means, or not using some of them.
  • ERRING, Swerve, slip, stray, astray, mistake, oversight, deviate, falter, fallible. heterodox, Fallacy, wrong, amiss, awry, being out, beside the mark.
  • OMITTING, Pretermit, Wave, decline, default, escape, lapse, leave, miss, forbear, balk, supersede, overlook, overpass, preterition, overslip, overskip, let pass, pass by or over, lay aside, hold ones hand.
• Helps of it; denoting either avoiding mistakes at the beginning, or rectifying mi­stakes afterwards.
  9.
  • PREVENTING, Anticipate, Previous, aforehand, forestal, Foregame.
  • REMEDYING, Redress, Shift, Aftergame, Help.

[Page 41]IV. Transcendental relations of Action concerning such things as are alienated from one Person to another,IV. Transcen. Relations of COM­MERCE. are usually called by the General Name of COMMERCE, Entercourse, Traffick, Prattick, have to do with.

These may be distributed into such as are

• Free; and not upon consideration
  • Passive; Not hindring one to take or to do.
    1.
    • YIELDING, Suffering, permitting, give way, give place.
    • SUBMITTING to.
  • Active;
    • Imperfect; denoting a willingness to part with, or a desire to have a thing.
      2.
      • OFFERING, Proffer, tender, exhibit, present, recommend, Oblation.
      • DEMANDING, Require, Challenge.
    • Perfect; with respect to the
      • Possession of a thing; the Parting with it, or Taking of it.
        2.
        • DELIVERING, Surrender, transferr, resign.
        • RECEIVING, Take, entertain, capable, reception, receptacle.
      • Right of a thing; the Parting with it, or Taking of it.
        4.
        • GIVING, Bestow, confer, render, grant, contribute, endow, con­sign, Gift, Boon, Largess, Collation, Donation, Donative, Gratis.
        • ACCEPTING, Receiving, administer, dispense, distribute, To­ken, Fairing, take in good part.
• Conditional; and upon consideration, whether such as concern the
  • Causing of Relations by Actions that are
    • Real; The Parting with something of ones own for the use and in the stead of another, or the restoring what another hath so parted with.
      5.
      • DISBURSING, Bestow, defray, extend, lay out, Bursar, Principal.
      • REFUNDING, Repay, return, reimburse.
    • Verbal; the Comparing and measuring of particulars, or reducing them to an equality.
      6.
      • RECKONING, Compute-ation, count, account, cast account, Cal­culate, Audit, Score, Tally.
      • BALLANCING, Evening of Accounts, Quitting scores, Adjust.
  • Relations themselves ensuing upon such Actions, whether as having somewhat of ones own in anothers possession, or something of anothers in ones own possession.
    7.
    • BEING CREDITOR, Lending, Loan.
    • BEING DEBTOR, Owing, Debt, upon score, in ones books, behind hand, Arrear.
  • Ceasing or dissolution of such relations by some Act of the
    • Debitor; either by restoring what is due, or by being rendred unable for it.
      8.
      • PAYING, Defray, discharge, satisfie, reimburse, Annuity, Poun­dage, Shot, responsible.
      • FAILING, Break, Bankrout.
    • Creditor; Acknowledging restitution, or Giving away his right to it.
      9.
      • ACQUITTING, Discharge, Quittance, Receipt, clear accounts.
      • FORGIVING, Remitting, pardoning, put up,

[Page 42] V. EVENT.V. The General name for that which follows upon Actions, especially as it relates to the end for which Actions are done, is EVENT, Vpshot, issue, result, emergence, accrue, occurr, come to pass, fall out, befall, betide, en­sue, prove, redound, happen, light, succede, Luck, Fortune, End, Sequel, Suc­cess, incident, coincident, intervene, supervene, take effect, how fares, goes, speeds it, come of it, come to good or to naught.

Transcendental relations of Action belonging to Event, may be distri­buted into such as do concern the

• Existing or not existing of the End designed.
  1.
  • OBTEINING, Acquire, get, procure, attain, reach, gain, compass, re­cover, take, win, catch, come by, pick up.
  • FRVSTRATING, Fail, disappoint miss, defeat, deceive, elude, cross, come short of, shift off, put by, of no effect, to no purpose, vain, void, nullity.
• Good or Evil accrewing to us by it, with respect to the
  • Increasing or Diminishing of our Possessions.
    2.
    • GAINING, Lucre, Advantage, Profit, Emolument, Stock, the proceed, acquire, get, win, recover, extort.
    • LOOSING, Dammage, decrement, detriment, disadvantage, disprofit, wrack, spoil hurt, hinderance, out of ones way.
  • Diminishing or Increasing of our Want.
    3.
    • SAVING, Sparing, take up.
    • SPENDING, Lay out, bestow, expend, dispend, expence, charges, cost, sumptuary, run out.
  • Continuing, or not Continuing of a thing in our Possession.
    • Imperfect; denoting the Endeavour and care we use about it, whe­ther any or none.
      4.
      • LAYING UP, Treasuring, Preserving, Stow, Hoord, Store, Re­pository.
      • SQANDRING, Lavish, profuse, careless, mispend, embezel, wast, unthrifty, ill husbandry, spendthrift, flying out.
    • Perfect; Consisting in the Good or Ill success of such Endeavour.
      5.
      • KEEPING, Preserve, retain, Custody, holding, promptuary, Cellar.
      • LOOSING, Perdition, loss, wrack, shed, spil.
• Applying of a thing; whether more
  • Simply; denoting the applying of a thing to its proper end, or the not applying of it so.
    6.
    • USING, Imploy, improve, exercise, occupy, manage, treat, handle, entertain, useful, serviceable, stand in good stead.
    • ABSTEINING, Forbear, refrain, spare, withdraw, wean, hold ones hand.
  • Relatively; as to that satisfaction or dissatisfaction of mind which we have in the use of a thing.
    7.
    • INJOYING, Fruition.
    • BEING SICK OF, Nauseate, loath, tedious, surfet, weary of.
• Result of such application, in the diminishing or increasing of our
  • Pain.
    8.
    • REFRESHING, Recreate, relieve, recruit, relaxation, refection, Bait.
    • WEARYING, Lassitude, tyring, tedious, faint, fatigue.
  • Hinderances.
    9.
    • QUIETING, Tranquillity, rest, compose, sedate, serene, still, calm, set or be at rest.
    • TROVBLING, Molest, disturb, annoy, disquiet, incumber, infest, in­terrupt, pester, cumber, turbulent, stirs, coil, broil, turmoil, garboil, perturbation.

[Page 43]VI. The General name denoting Transcendental Motion or rest,VI. ITION. is ITION, Going, Passing, Remove, betake, repair, transmission, Penetrate, Flitt.

STAYING, Abide, remain, tarry, continue, reside, rest, stop, stick, damm, detain, hold at a bay, Mansion, Stage, Remora.

The Relations belonging to this motion, may be distinguished into such as are

• Solitary, supposing but one Person or Thing, with respect to its
  • Moving towards or from the Speaker.
    1.
    • COMING, Arrive, Access, Resort, repair to, frequent, recourse, concourse, confluence, return.
    • GOING, Depart, recede, return, regress, ingress, egress, be packing, be jogging, retire, retrograde, withdraw, dislodge, avant, void, slip away, slink or sneak away, fling away, fall off, get gone, set forth, rub along.
  • Continuing of Motion; whether
    • Simply; Towards the same term, or changing of the Term.
      2.
      • PROCEEDING, Persist, prosecute, persevere, progress, pass, ad­vance, hold or go on, set forward or on.
      • TURNING, Winding, Veare, Double, tack, about, face about, wheel about.
    • With Design; either to some certain place, or to no certain place.
      3.
      • TRAVAILING, Expedition, Voyage, Iourney, Progress, Peregrinati­on, Itinerant, Passenger, Wayfaring, March, set out, Palmer, Pilgrim, Pass, Pasport.
      • WANDRING, Stray, astray, range, rove, straggle, err-ant, Vagrant, Vagabond, random, ramble, rome, prole, gad, Gypsie, Rogue, Land­loper, Labyrinth, Ambages.
• Social; supposing several persons or things.
  • Causing another
    • To go or to come,
      4.
      • SENDING, Mission, missive, Token, convey, dismiss, Remit, dispatch, Messenger, Embassador, Legat, Envoy, Lieger, Emissa­ry, Currier, Arrant.
      • FETCHING, Bring, reduce, forth-coming.
    • To come after, or to go before.
      5.
      • LEADING, Guide, Conduct, bring, convey, draw, Manudu­ction.
      • DRIVING, Chase, drift, expel, repel, repulse, goad, beat back, Ferret out.
  • Coming after another thing in motion, or coming up equal to it.
    6.
    • FOLLOWING, Ensue, come after, pursue, dogging, trace.
    • OVERTAKING, Reach, Top, Catch, fetch up.
  • Coming of things together from several terms, or the Preterition of something in our way.
    7.
    • MEETING, Obviate, obvious, encounter, occurr, Randevouze.
    • AVOIDING, Decline, Fly, shun, eschew, Wave, beware, escape, evade, shift off, out of the way.

CHAP. II. I. Concerning GOD. II. Of the several things and notions reducible under that collective Genus of WORLD.

THose more special kinds of beings to be treated of Antecedane­ously to the Predicaments,§. I. because they are not (as Predicaments are) capable of any subordinate species, are GOD and WORLD.

That which the Heathen Philosophers stile the first Mover, the first and supreme cause of all things, and suppose to be a Being of all possible perfections, is GOD, Lord, Iehovah, Deity, Divine-ity, Deifie.

And because of that absolute Simplicity and Purity of the Divine na­ture, whereby 'tis distinguished from all other things, and therefore inca­pable of being divided by Parts, or by Differences and Species as the rest are; hereupon, under this Head there is onely provision to be made for that great Mystery of Christianity, the Sacred Persons of the Blessed Trinity

• FATHER.
• SON, Christ, Iesus.
• HOLY GHOST, Holy Spirit.

To the name of God that of IDOL may be opposed, by which is meant any False God; according to the Acception of the word in that Scripture, All the Gods of the Heathen are Idols.

To the Second Person the name ANTICHRIST may be adjoyned by way of Opposition; the true Notion and Importance of the word so requiring.

By WORLD, Vniverse, is meant the Compages or Frame of the whole Creation, §. II. with more especial reference to those Principal and more Gene­ral parts of which it consists; whether

• SPIRITUAL and immaterial. I.
• Corporeal, considered according to the
  • Parts into which it is divided, whether
  • CELESTIAL. II.
  • Terrestrial: either
    • Inanimate.—
      • LAND. III.
      • WATER. IV.
    • ANIMATE. V.
  • CIRCLES by which it is divided. VI.

I. By SPIRIT is meant Immaterial Substance: I. SPIRIT. to which may be ad­joyned, as its proper Opposite, the word BODY, Corporeal, Matter-ial, Car­cass, Corps, corpulent.

A Created Spirit is either such as

• Doth not relate to a Body; and that considered according to its
  • General Name, as being a ministring Spirit.
    1.
    • ANGEL-ical, Daemon.
  • Special kinds, as Good or Evil.
    2.
    • GOOD ANGEL, Cherub, Seraphim, Good Genius.
    • DEVIL, Satan, Fiend, Diabolical, Daemon, Fury, Goblin, bad Genius.
• Doth relate to a Body; and that considered according to its
  • General Name, as being designed for the enlivening and quickning of a Body.
    3.
    • SOUL, Animate, Spirit, Mind.
  • Special kinds, as rendring its Body capable of
    • Nutrition and Growth;
      4.
      • VEGETATIVE, grow.
    • Sense;
      5.
      • SENSITIVE.
    • Discourse and Religion, together with a sense of moral good and evil.
      6.
      • RATIONAL, reasonable.

[Page 52] II. HEAVEN.II. Amongst Corporeal Substances, that which is esteemed most Simple and most Perfect, whose general name is therefore frequently used to signifie a place or a state of the greatest Perfection and Happiness, together with that which in both these respects is opposite, are commonly styled

• HEAVEN, Celestial, Firmament, Skie.
• HELL, Infernal, Stygian.

Those parts of Heaven which fall under our Senses may be considered ac­cording to their.

• General Name; denoting such parts as are more Solid and Luminous.
  1.
  • STARR, Stellate.
• Particular kinds; either
  • Fixed, that is to say, which do alwayes keep the same distance from one another. And these, for the better distinction and remembrance of them, are usually distributed into divers parcels or little Aggregates, called Constellations: the received names of which are, according to their imaginary Resemblances, either the proper names of Per­sons, as Perseus, Andromeda, Orion, &c. or the names of brute Ani­mals, as Bear, Lion, Ram, &c. or the names of Inanimate things, as Balance, Arrow, &c. which may each of them be sufficiently expres­sed, as the things themselves are to which they are resembled, with­out being particularly provided for in the Table. And because that great Luminary which rules the Day, with us in this System is, by the most received Hypothesis, thought to belong to this number; there­fore may it be adjoyned, as the most considerable Particular be­longing to this General.
    2.
    • FIXED STARR, Constellation.
    • SUN, Solar.
  • Wandring, viz. which do not alwaies keep the same distance from one a­nother; to which may be adjoyned that other kind of Luminous Body, which is now by sufficient observation and experiment discovered to be above the Atmosphere; according to the
    • General names.
      3.
      • PLANET, Wandring starr.
      • COMET, Blazing starr.
    • Particular kinds of Planets, being either
      • Primary;
        • Seen by us at a distance, either more
          • Frequently,
            • Higher pair
              4.
              • SATURN-ine.
              • JUPITER, Iovial.
            • Lower pair,
              5.
              • MARS.
              • VENUS, Morning star, Evening star, Day starr.
          • Rarely, as being near the Sun,
            6.
            • MERCURY-ial.
        • Inhabited by us,
          7.
          • The GLOBE OF SEA AND LAND, Earth, World, Oecu­menical, Terrestrial, Terrene, Vniverse, Geography.
      • Secondary; whether moving ‖ about the Earth, or about any other Planet,
        8.
        • MOON, Lunar.
        • SATELLES.

[Page 53]III. By EARTH, Land, World, III. EARTH. is meant the habitable parts of this Globe; to which may be adjoyned the more general name of the Greater parts of the Earth, denoted by the word COUNTRY, Region, Land, Tract, Quarter, Coast.

The most considerable Notions belonging to Discourse, which refer to this, may be distinguished with respect to its

• Figure, ‖ whether equal or unequal, Convex or Concave.
  1.
  • PLAIN, Champion, Level, Flat, Even.
    • MOVNTAIN, Hill, Ascent, Rising, Vpland, Downs, Knoll.
    • VALLEY, Vale, Dale, Bottom.
• Boundaries, or adjacent Waters; which are either
  • On all sides, whether
    • Great, ‖ more great, or less great.
      2.
      • CONTINENT, Firm-land, Main-land.
      • ISLAND, Isle, Insular.
    • Less, ‖ whether roundish and high, or oblong.
      3.
      • ROCK, Cragg.
      • CLIFF.
  • On three sides, which, according to a higher or lower situation, as it is conspicuous ‖ more or less, is called
    4.
    • PROMONTORY, Cape, Fore-land, Head-land, Point,
    • PENE-ISLE.
  • On two sides, conspicuous, ‖ more or less.
    5.
    • ISTHMUS, Streight, Neck of land.
    • BANK, Shelf, Flat, Ridge, Shallow, Shole,
  • On one side, either according to the more general name, or that parti­cular kind which is sometimes covered with Sea.
    6.
    • SHORE, Strand, Sea-coast, Bank-side.
    • WASHES, Sands.
• Motion or Rest.
  7.
  • QUICKSANDS, Drift, Syrtis.
  • OAZ.

[Page 54] IV. WATER.IV To the word WATER, as it denotes the watry part of this Terre­strial Globe, may be adjoyned the word SEA, Marine, Maritim; which de­notes the more general name of the greater parts of Water, as Country or Region does of Land.

The more considerable Notions under this Head may be distinguished as the other, with respect to its

• Figure, ‖ whether equal or unequal, Convex or Concave.
  1.
  • AEQUOR, Calm Sea, Smooth Sea.
    • WAVE, Billow, Surge, Vndulation, Rough.
    • WHIRL-POOL, Vorago, Gulf, Swallow.
• Boundaries, or adjacent Land; which is either
  • On all sides, whether
    • Great, ‖ more great, or less great.
      2.
      • OCEAN, Main-sea.
      • LAKE, Meer, Pond, Plash.
    • Less, ‖ whether obround and deep, or oblong.
      3.
      • WELL, Head.
      • SPRING, Fountain, Source, Rivulet.
  • On three sides, ‖ greater, or less.
    4.
    • BAY, Gulf, Creek, Arm of the Sea, Harbour, Port, Key.
    • PENE-LAKE, Haven, Harbour, Port, Key.
  • On two sides, ‖ greater, or less
    5.
    • FRETUM, Streight, Narrow sea, Sound.
    • CHANNEL.
  • On one side, either according to the more general name, or that parti­cular kind which is sometimes higher, and sometimes lower upon the Land.
    6.
    • SHORE, Margo aquea.
    • TIDE, Ebb, Flow, High-water, Low-water, Neap-tide, Spring-tide.
• Motion or Rest; whether constantly moving, or generally at rest
  7.
  • STREAM, River, Brook, Current, flow, pour, gush, Bourn, Rill, Rivulet, Eddy, Gullet, Flood, Deluge, Inundation, Torrent, Ca­taract, Water-course, Running-water.
  • STAGNUM, Pool, Puddle, Pond, stagnate, standing-water, Dead-water.

V. ANI­MATE PARTS OF THE WORLD.V. The ANIMATE PARTS of the World do comprehend such Bodies as are endowed with Life or Spirit; whether

• Vegetative, more
  • Imperfect; such Bodies as grow in Veins of the Earth, which though they are not commonly owned and reckoned under this Rank, yet several Learned men have heretofore reduced them hither, as being a more imperfect kind of Vegetable; because when Mines have seem­ed to be totally exhausted of them, yet there hath remained behind some kind of Seminal or Spermatic parts, whereby they have in pro­cess of time been renewed again, and continued to propagate their kinds.
    1.
    • MINERAL.
  • Perfect; whether according to the
    • General name;
      2.
      • PLANT, Vegetable.
    • Special kinds; denoting either, that tribe of Plants that are most small, tender and numerous; Or those kinds, amongst these, which are com­monly fed upon by beasts, &c.
      3.
      • HERB, Wort, Weed, Botanic.
      • GRASS, Grase, Greensword.
• Sensitive,
  4.
  • ANIMAL, Brute-ish.
• Rational,
  5.
  • MAN, Woman, Human-ity, Folk.

[Page 55]VI. Besides those General parts into which the World may be divided,VI. IMAGI­NARY CIR­CLES. there is likewise consideration to be had of those Imaginary CIRCLES by which men have agreed to divide both the Celestial and Terrestrial Globe, for the better explaining of the Distances and Motions of the Starrs, and the several Climates of the Earth; to which may be adjoyned for Affinity the Notion of ORBE, Sphere.

These Circles are either

• Greater, dividing the Sphere into two equal parts;
  • Indeterminately; namely that which separates the upper and visible part of the Globe, from that which by reason of its being below us, we cannot see, terminating our vision.
    1.
    • HORIZON-tall.
  • Determinately; as to
    • Northern and Southern parts; whether
      • Directly; wherein the Sun makes every-where equal day and night:
        2.
        • AEQUATOR, Aequinoctial, the Line.
      • Obliquely, namely, that Line wherein the Sun is supposed constant­ly to move in its Annual course: to which may be adjoyned that Circular superficies, on each side of this, which terminates the motion of the Planets;
        3.
        • ECLIPTIC.
        • ZODIAC.
    • Eastern and Western parts; wherein the Sun makes mid-day or mid-night: to which those other Circles correspond which pass through the Poles of the Horizon, as the former do through the Poles of the World;
      4.
      • MERIDIAN, Colure.
      • AZIMUTH.
• Lesser, dividing the Sphere into two unequal parts; whether
  • Polar described by the supposed motion of the Poles of the Ecliptic; ‖ ei­ther Northern or Southern.
    5.
    • ARTIC.
    • ANTARTIC.
  • Tropic, terminating the motion of the Sun in its greatest Declination; ‖ Northern, or Southern.
    6.
    • TROPIC of ♋ Summer Solstice.
    • TROPIC of ♑ Winter Solstice.
  • Parallels, relating ‖ either to the Aequator, or to the Horizon.
    7.
    • PARALLEL.
    • ALMACANTAR.

CHAP. III. I. Of Elements and Meteors. II. Of Stones. III. Of Metals.

CHAP. IV. I. Of Plants, The difficulty of enumerating and describing these. II. The more general distribution of them. III. Of Herbs considered accor­ding to their Leaves. IV. Of Herbs considered according to their Flowers. V. Of Herbs considered according to their Seed-vessels. VI. Of Shrubs. VII. Of Trees.