GRAMMATICA REFORMATA, OR A General Examination OF THE ART of GRAMMAR, As it hath been successively delivered
By
- Franciscus Sanctius in Spain,
- Gaspar Scioppius in France,
- Gerardus Joannes Vossius in the Lower Germany;
AND Methodiz'd by the Oxford Grammarian in his Observations upon Lilie.
Designed for initiating the Lower Forms in the Free-School at Newark upon Trent.
By JOHN TWELLS, Schoolmaster.
LONDON, Printed by S. Roycroft, for Robert Clavell at the Peacock in St. Pauls Church-yard, 1683.
REVERENDO, PIETATIS ERGA DEUM ET FIDELITATIS ERGA REGEM VIRO, DNO HENRICO SMITHO, ECCLESIAE NOVARCENSIS VICARIO DIGNISSIMO, &c.
GRAMMATICAM HANC REFORMATAM, Tenuem quidem obscurumque Laborem, Perpetuae tamen Observantiae Monumentum, DICAT, CONSECRAT JOANNES TWELLS, SCHOLAE PUBLICAE, QUAE NOVARCAE EST MODERATOR.
A PREFACE CONCERNING The Old and New Grammarians.
ABout the Year of the World Three thousand Seven hundred and Eighty, Five hundred eighty three years after the building of Rome, before the Birth of CHRIST One hundred Sixty eight; betwixt the second and third Punick [Page 2]War, and near the time of Ennius's death, Crates Mallotes, Contemporary with Aristarchus, was sent Embassadour to the Roman Senate by Attalus the Second, King of Pergamus, for his great Wealth mentioned by Hor. Od. 1. Horace and Prop. l. 2. El. 32. l. 3. E. 18. l. 4. E. 5. Propertius, This Lieger having one day had the misfortune, by a fall he got through the hole of a little House, erected for Natures ease within the Liberties of the Palatium, to break his Leg, spent the remainder of the time alotted him for discharging his Negotiation and recovering his Health, in the study of Grammar. Plurimas (saith Lib. de illustribus Grammaticis, cap. 2. Suetonius) acroases subinde fecit, assidueque disseruit, ac nostris exemplo fuit ad imitandum. He read Grammar Lectures frequently, held Disputations daily, and set himself as a Copy for us to imitate. Whereupon a very Learned man takes an occasion to call that Art, (such as at that time, and for many succeeding Ages, obtained both at Rome and in other places) Cloacina, because (saith he) ex cloacae soramine unà cum claudo Magistro emerserit; and therefore tells us, 'tis no wonder to see it in some places almost over head and ears in filth and nastiness, in [Page 3]others very lame and imperfect: But I know not, whether for his own diversion, or in abuse to Crates; for we are little beholden to the Jakes for the Grammar, that had like to have choak'd the Grammarian. We are rather obliged to Greece, where Two hundred and twenty Years before, Plato had studied it, and an hundred Years before, Epicurus first taught it the Greeks; or to Asia, from whence Crates first brought it into Italy. As for what was afterward dully and foolishly delivered by the Latins, it ought not to be imputed to one that was a Greek; except perhaps some few things belonging to Grammar, so far forth as it was common both to the Greek and Roman Tongues: But indeed it is to be ascribed to their Sottishness, who That Tully himself did not, see prov'd by Scioppius, in his Paradoxa Literaria, in his Auctarium, Arg. 10. in his 53. Animadversion upon Vossius. either did not well understand their own Language, or else wholly neglected the use of Grammatical Disputations. Hence proceed so many foolish Definitions, Divisions, and so great Confusion in the Method.
Nor was the Stupidity of the first Discoverers so great as that of their Successors; which would have appear'd but too plainly, had not the injury of Time bereaved us of all the most antique and most excellent of those Monuments, which were recorded by Technical or Methodical Grammarians. For we have now not only lost the two Books of Ennius the Younger, which he wrote about Letters, Syllables, and Verse, cited by Lib. de Grammat. 3. Suetonius out of Lucius Cotta, and Julius Caesar concerning Analogy (whereof mention is made in his Life by Suetonius in these words, Reliquit & de Analogia libros duos, and by Charisius, lib. 1.) which he dedicated to Cicero; but also the methodical Works of Nigidius Figulus, the most Learned of the Romans, after M. T. Varro. Cornelius Nepos, Aruntius Comminianus, who wrote about See Putschius's Epist. Dedicat. before Palaemon's Ars Grammatica. Letters, as also of the Noun and Verb. Plinius Secundus Ibid., famous for his Treatise of ambiguous Speeches. Valgius and many more, quoted by Sosipater, Charisius, and others.
Among those Grammarians, of whom there are some Analects yet extant, Marcus Terentius Varro is Chief, of whose Studies in this kind of Learning, his three Books de Analogiâ handed down to this present Age, are a sufficient Testimony; He was born at Narbon in France, and lived before Christ 71 Years.
With these ought to be reckoned for some surviving Relicks of greater Works, Q. Remnius or rather Remmius (for so is Palaemon call'd in an Old Monument, if Aldus say true) Grammatica arte celebris, saith Pliny Li 6.14. cap. 4., commended upon the score of his Learning by Juvenal, Satyr. 7.
He was Tutor to M. Fab. Quintilian, and Aulus Persius; He was born at Vincentia or Vicentia, now call'd Vicenza, a City of Lumbardy, between Verona and Padua, and lived (saith Eusebius) under Claudius Caesar, An. Dom. 49.
From the voracious jaws of Time are rescu'd also the valuable Remains of M. Valerius Probus, the last in Tranquillus's Catalogue of Illustrious Grammarians, whom Eusebius stiles Grammaticorum eruditissimus, and says, he was born at Berytus, and that he liv'd in the time of Nero. But the Castor and Pollux of Technological Studies are [Page 7](if Voffius doth not misguide us) Flavius Sosipater Charisius and Diomedes, of whose Ages no certain account can be given; the former writes himself Ur. Urbanus.Magister, and makes a present of his Grammatical Institutions to his Son. The later dedicates his Book to Athanasius. A third place, to compleat the Triumvirate, is justly challenged by Priscian the Caesarean, who flourisht under the Reigns of Justinus Senior and Justinianus, if you dare believe Cassiodorus in his Book of Orthography; Vossius takes his word, which I very much wonder at, since he dedicates his Eighteen Books of Grammar to Julian the Consul and Roman Patrician, which was according to Helvicus's computation in the Year of the World 4332, of Christ 365. As to the place also of his Birth divers have been strangely mistaken, in affirming he was born at Caesarea (a mean Town of Palestine built by Herod, at this day called Balbee or Belmae,) though several credible Authors, and among the rest Baptista Gnazinus of Verona, do testifie that he was born at Rome. That which caused the mistake, was (I presume) because Priscian [Page 8]intitles himself of Caesarea, choosing rather to be call'd by the Name of the Place, where he had perfected most of his Studies, than by that of his Native Country. And it is but reason be should be allowed room among the highest rank of Grammarians, who in the great Opinion of after-Ages, has gain'd such a Prerogative above the rest, that all the Faults committed against Syntax (which we call Solecisms) are imputed as so many Injuries done to Priscian The meaning of breaking Priscians's Head., as if the property of True-speaking did of right belong solely to him. But of all Nicodemus Frischlinus is most in the wrong, when in his Paralipomena he writes, that of all the Technical Grammarians now in being, Priscian is the most ancient: which Error needs no other than Priscian's own Confutation: for he in more places than one mentions Charisius, to whom in his Ninth Book he joyns Probus, Diomedes, and not long after Caper. And perhaps amongst the Methodical Writers, who by raising themselves above the common level, have laid upon us any higher obligation than the rest, Theodosius Macrobius (as Vossius [Page 9]calls him) would not have been of lest account, if his Book De differentiis & societatibus Graeci Latinique Verbi had been extant. We have now but some cullings, adjusted by John I know not who: For at the end of his Treatise, I find these words: Explicit desloratio de libro Ambrosii, Macrobii, Theodosii, quam Johannes carpserat ad discendas Graecorum Verborum regulas. P. Pythaeus guess'd him to be John Erigena aliàs Scotus, that translated Dionysius the Areopagite into Latin, and was favoured for his Learning by Alfred King of England and Charles the Bald of France, as may be seen in Matthew of Westminster upon the Year 838 Eodem Anno venit in Angliam Magister Johannes, Natione Scotus, Vir perspicacis ingenii, & facundiae singularis. Hic dudum relictâ patriâ, ad partes Gallicanas transiens, Carolum Calvum adiit, atque in magnâ ab eo dignatione susceptus, individuus comes ei fuerat & mensae & cubiculi. Hujus autem ingenii & scientiae magnitudo ac leporis exempla usque hodie manent. Assederat namque ad mensam ante Regem ex opposito die quadam, ubi consumtis ferculis, poculisque discurrentibus, Carolus frmte hilarior est effectus. Rex denique cum Magistrum Johannem vidisset quiddam egisse, quod comitatem Gallicanam offendere videretur, increpavit eum satis urbanè, dicens: Johannes, Quid distat inter Scotum & Sctum? Ille respondit, & dixit Regi, Mensa tantúm. — Nec verò Rex verbis ejus commotus est, sed potiùs ipsum, cum assessoribus suis, commovit ad cachinnum., [Page 10](which most choice Piece of Antiquity I owe to the kindness of that Learned Patron of Learning, Edward Lee of Norwell, Esquire.) William of MalmsburyLib. 2. de gestis Regum Anglorum, cap. 4., Cambden's Remains Among the Epitaphs., and Others.
As for Macrobius himself, he flourisht in the Age of Theodosius the Elder, and his Sons; Nay, Isacius Pontanus In his Notes upon Macrobius's Book. 1. Sat. cap. 1. certifies, that he was Master of the Sacred Bed-chamber under Honorius and Theodosius the Younger. There are also extant upon the Are of Grammar, the smaller Commentaries of Asper the Younger, Phocas, Aelius Donatus, Servius Marius Honoratus, Sergius, Maximus, Victorinus, Cledonius a Roman Senator, and a Grammarian of Constantinople, St. Augustin Bishop of Hippo, P. Consentius, Flaccus Alcuinus of York, Beda's Scholar, afterwards Tutor to Charles the Great, and Eutyches, who wrote two Books about distinguishing the Conjugations. Besides these there are some that treat particularly of Orthographia, viz. Velius Longus, Flavius [Page 11]Caper, a very ancient Grammarian, Terentianus Scaurus, Agroëtius, Venerable Beda, Marius Victorinus, and (who is in my judgment instar omnium) Cassiodorus, who to compose his little Tract concerning Orthography, extracted the Essence of no less than Twelve Grammarians. Others have more closely confin'd themselves to Prosodia and Verse, such are Terentianus Maurus, Marius Victorinus, Marius Plotius, Caesius Bassius, &c. These are they that later Ages have denominated Grammarians of the Elder House.
For about the beginning of the Eighth Century, that Line (whereof Alcuinus was the last) was quite extinct. After which time for the space of Four hundred Years, I find not one Technical Grammarian. Ab hoc tempore (as Mr. Richardson speaks in another De Stylo formando, cap. 4. sense) offusa est Reip. Literariae nox longa, per quatuor scilicet secula, eáque adeò tenebricosa, ut Latinitas ferè nusquam, ejus umbra quaedam in Monachorum claustris & Scholis, esset. But about the Year 1200, after the Latin Tongue had been for many Ages most miserably torn in pieces, and brought almost to its Funeral [Page 12]Pile by the Goths and other Barbarians; One Alexander a French-man first retriev'd it from approaching annihilation, by publishing his Doctrinale; which Work nevertheless was afterward thought by all Learned Men unfit for Boys, as being too obscure, unprofitably tedious, and mostly barbarous, insufficient and false. Wherefore to expel Alexander out of all Schools, many Men of great Learning and Wisdom in most places of Christendom set themselves to write a more Latine and truer Grammar: In Italy, Nicolaus Perottus, Joannes Sulpitius, Antonius Mancinellus, and Aldus Manutius. In France, Gulielmus Tardivus, Robertus Guaguinus, Jodocus Badius de Linguâ Latinâ optimè meritus, saith Despauterius. In Spain, Antonius Nebrissensis, by Despauter stiled Hispanorum Doctissimus, who dedicated his Grammar to Queen Isabel. In Germany, Henricus Bebelius, Jacobus Henrichmannus, Gerardus Cannifius One of Despauter's School-Masters. B. D. and Chief Master in the School of Bois le duc in Brabant, and many Others, whose Names are worthy to be inscribed on Corinthian Brass, nor should they be here passed over in silence, would they not swell this Proëm [Page 13]beyond its intended bulk. Tho others there were, who endeavoured (but without success) to keep Alexander on his legs, by explaining the Obscurities, rectifying the Mistakes, supplying the Defects, and retrenching the Superfluities in his Doctrinale; of whom the chief were Hermannus Torrentinus a Hollander, and Johannes CustosAnother of Despauter's Masters.Brechtanus, School-Master of Antwerp.
As for our English Grammarians of this younger Family, they date their Original from the happy contexture of the white and red Roses: For since the time of Henry the Seventh, it hath been the singular care of worthy Learned men to lay a solid foundation for all kind of Learning by producing a right Grammatical Institution. For though before his time a great part of our Country-men The case was the same with the Germans, saith Erasmue, Epist. p. 989. had little leisure, and less care of liberal Arts; yet when the Houses of York and Lancaster were united by the precious Advice of John Morton Bishop of Ely, and Times grew more Halcion; John Holt, about the Year of Christ 1497. printed a short Grammar call'd Lac Puerorum, and dedicated it to the same John Morton, then for his great Merits installed [Page 14]Archbishop of Canterbury. About the Yoar 1505. John Stanbridge, and his Scholar Robert Whittington, and Others, put forth divers Treatises of Grammar. But in a more especial manner Dr. Colet, the Reverend and Learned Dean, and liberal Founder of the School of St. Pauls, compiled the Introduction of the Eight Parts of Speech in the Year 1509; And Mr. Lilie, first Schoolmaster of Pauls, an English Syntax; And three of four Years after Johannes Despauterius, in the Netherlands, wrote his Grammatical Commentaries, To Mr. Lilie's Construction of the Eight parts of Speech, Cardinal Wolsey afterwards, in the Year 1528. prefixt an Epistle, and Directions for teaching the eight Classes of Forms in Ipswich-School. Erasmus See his Preface. also intreated by Dr. Colet See his Colloq. Pietas Puerilis., his intimate Friend, to revise Mr. Lilie's Syntax, made a new Latin one, in the Year 1513, upon which in 1539, Henry, Prime Schoolmaster of the Monastery, and in 1540, Leonard Cox of Carleon in Wales Teacher of the Languages in Poland, Hungary, and Germany., Commented. Also about the Year 1522, at Queen Katherines Request, Thomas Linacer, Physician to King Henry the Eighth, and Ludovicus [Page 15]Vives wrote Rudimenta Grammatices for Queen Maries use. And Dr. Linacer his Book De emendatâ Structurâ, which hath ever since been the Cynosura for many of our best Grammarians. Mr. Lilie wrote also Propria quae maribus & As in praesenti; which Mr. Ritwise one of his Successors published, in the Year 1535, if not before, Cum vocabulorum interpretatione. In 1532 Thomas Robertson a Schoolmaster in Oxford, printed a Comment on the Rules which Lilie wrote in Verse, added Quae genus, and the versifying Rules, which he dedicated to John Longland Bishop of Lincoln, with reference to Henly-School.
From this variety of pains in Grammar sprung a great diversity in the course of Teaching, to which King Henry the Eighth (in whose Reign Philology had in a manner the whole Vogue of Reputation) intending to obviate See the Preface to the Common Grammar., and upon great Advice to prescribe a publick uniform way of Institution, caused sundry Learned Men (among whom 'tis said, was Dr. Richard Cox Sometime Schoolmaster of Eaton, and afterwards Dean of Westminster and Bishop of Ely., Tutor to [Page 16]King Edward the Sixth) to reduce the former Attempts in this kind into one Body of Grammar, They joyntly produced the Grammar, now in Ʋse, in the Year 1545.
But since those Times the Art of Grammar, having received larger advantages by the labours of Learned men both at home and abroad, in the foregoing and present Age, it has come to pass, that the Methods, which were generally received, have fallen into contempt. Nay, even in the Year 1540, Julius Caesar Scaliger, aliàs Burdo, wrote Thirteen Books De Causis Linguae Latinae. And six Years after Bartholomew Grave, a Book-seller of Lovain, procur'd a Grant from Charles the Fifth, that bears date the 27th Year of his Empire, for printing John Rivius's Grammar, which he set forth in Seven Books the same Year. In 1562. Martinus Crusius of Tubingen, an Ʋniversity of Wirtenberg, wrote his Grammatica Latina cum Graeca congruens. In 1575 Ludolfus Lithocomus, Schoolmaster of Dusseldorp, a City in the Dutchy of Berg, published a Grammar for the use of his School, which in 1626 Gerardus Joannes Vossius, by Order from the States of Holland [Page 17]and Westfrizeland, revised and added very useful Observations by way of Comment. In this List also are Saturnius, Coelius, Emanuel Alvarez, Nicodemus Frischlinus, Rhenius, Ramus, Richerius, the Author of the Gryphiswald Grammar, Cornelius Valerius of Utrech, and divers Others.
Nor have we in England at all come short of our neighbouring Nations in this profitable study: for in King Edward the Sixth's time, Mr. John Fox, in 1551, set forth Tables of Grammar, subscribed in print by Eight Lords of the Privy-Council; but these Tables were quickly laid aside, as being far more too short, than King Henry's Grammar was too long. And tho after him there were not any further Essays made in Technology, for above Fourscore years; but all men acquiesced in the Common Grammar, during the Times of Queen Mary, Queen Elizabeth, and King James; yet in the Reign of King Charles the first, about the Year 1636, John Danes of Maldon made a considerable improvement in this Art, by hanging out a Light to Lilie, upon which, in 1638, he published his elaborate Scholia. Much about this [Page 18]Time also Thomas Hayne (one of the Masters in Christ's Hospital, after that in Merchant Taylors School) wrote a Grammar, entituled Grammatices Latinae Compendium. In the Year 1640 Thomas Farnabie, the Glory of our English Criticks, set forth his Systema Grammaticum. And since then New Grammars have been ever and anon coming forth ('tis to be concluded somewhat is amiss in the Old, why else should the Learned Authors of them spend their pains in compositions of New?) For not to insist on every trifling Grammaticaster. Anthony Huish, James Shirley, Charles Hool, John Milton, Paul P. Jaz-Berenyi, Mr. Burles, Mr. Bird A School-Master of Glecester., Mr. Harris, Mr. Lewis of Tottenham, Mr. Christopher Wase, Dr. Busbey the Rudiment Writer, Mr. William Baxter, Mr. Clement Ellis The Ingenious Author of The Gentile Sinner., have all given us New Models of Grammar; Whilst Others thinking it a safer way to repair the Old Fabrick than to erect a New one, set themselves to amend Lilie. To this end, in the Year 1664, Mr. Edward Leeds, (my Worthy, tho not immediate Predecessour in this School) put forth his Vossius in Supplementum vulgaris Grammatices contractus. [Page 19]And in 1669, the Industrious, and in Didacticks acutely Judicious Mr. Walker, published his Explanations of the Royal Grammar, Opus doctum (Jupiter!) & laboriosum! These indeed are late Writers, if compar'd to those of the former Class; yet since they are of the Sect of Crates, and in their Principles do closely adhere to the Triumviri, tho they widely differ from them, and no less from each other in their method (for that has in all Times been diversly pursued,) I say, since they give Priscian's Coat, I shall take the liberty to give them his Title, and stile them Old Grammarians. Strange Fate! That a Grammar, which all men, that wear their Senses, acknowledge to be tedious So tedious, that the Muses Darling, Mr. Cowley, tells us, his Masters could never prevail on him, by any perswasions or encouragements, to learn without Book the Common Rules therein. See his Discourse upon himself, pag. 143. and impracticable. A Grammar, which interferes with all the Principles of true Didacticks, should deceive the World for the space of One Thousand eight Hundred and Fifty Years! A thing, you'l say, that exceeds all belief, as much as it does wonder, that the Romans should patiently suffer themselves, and through them all Posterity, to be impos'd upon by a Grammar, which they must necessarily own to be notoriously false. Why, do but suspend your incredulity [Page 20]a while, and perhaps Scioppius may give you satisfaction. Neque verò (saith he) In the Preface to his Philosophical Grammar. admirabile duxi Cloacinam istam Grammaticam inde ab eo, quo Romae primùm exorta est, tempore, ad hanc usque diem per ipsos MDCCXCVI annos inconcussam perstitisse, & omnium non Tironum modò, sed & ipsorum eloquentiae Latinae principum ingenia excarnificare potuisse. Jus quippe gentium violare sibi Romani videbantur, si hanc invectam à Regio Legato artem parem comiter habuissent, cum praesertim Regi Attalo tantùm se devinctos agnoscerent, quippe qui regnum suum testamento ipsis legásset, aditumque eo pacto ad Asiae totius Imperium mox armis vindicandum patefecisset.
Ojbect. This (I grant) must needs be a great Remora to the Romans; but what could impede these two last Ages, Ages of Projects and Experiments, from exploding the old Hypothesis, and founding a New Grammar on truer Principles? For 'tis very obvious, that since Printing and Navigation have given a general Converse to Mankind; all Arts and [Page 21]Sciences have been exceedingly improved.
Answ. They have so; Only the Education of Youth here in England stands at a stay, and is the same it was almost Two hundred Years since, when Lilie's Grammar was first compiled; as if in the very Twilight, when Reformed Learning first peep'd into the World, things were brought to that state, that nothing might be further suggested without a Crime.
Now the Reasons of this Epidemical Supineness appear to me to be these two.
First, King Henry's Mandate (enjoyning all Schools to teach only Lilie's Grammar, which in its time was well enough) had set a Non Ultra to all Ʋndertakings in that Nature for the succeeding Generation: This it was that gave occasion to Mr. Danes of that hearty Complaint he makes in the Epistle Dedicatory, before his Paralipomena. Dolebam sanè & indignabar, à tempore disertissimi nostri Linacri, cujus Emendata Structura ad barbariem expellendam non parum contulit, ad hunc usque diem extitisse Neminem è nostratibus, cui Res Grammatica [Page 22]curae. And indeed it would be very unfortunate, if, because One General Method is by Law imposed, and for the common benefit to be admitted; We should therefore be oblig'd for ever to forfcit the Advantages, to be reaped from the improvements of succeeding times.
Secondly, As to the present Age, Our Misery is, there has been, and still is in it a sort of Road-wirted Persons, whom obstinately corrupt Custom will not permit to take up the New Sumpsimus, and lay down the Old Mumpsimus: These (like the Irish, that dragged their Ploughs by their Horses Tails) plead Prescription, and will by no means have it otherwise; but rail like bawling Currs at all Men, that would make a surer and plainer Road, and go faster than the Ordinary Pace.
So that we had long e're this utterly despaired of ever seeing a perfect System of the Latin Grammar, had not that Verè adeptus, as well in Philosophy as Philology, Franciscus Sanctius Brocensis a Spaniard, our Proto-Reformer, (in his Minerva, sive de Causis Linguae Latinae Commentarius, printed at Madrid about the Year 1560) first detected some Thousands of Erroneous and Heterodox [Page 23]Tenets in the Old, and after that drawn a new Scheme according to those true Idea's, he had formed in his Mind by a diligent search into the mysterious and before unfathomed depths of that Language. This is that Grammatica Sanctiana, which Gaspar Scioppius a French-man, Earl of Claravalle, and of the Council to the Emperour Ferdinand the Second, and Philip the Fourth, King of Spain, glories that he carried from Salamanca to Rome. Ʋpon which foundation of his Master Sanctius (as Jasper calls him) the same Paschasius Grosippus raised an excellent Superstructure; For he, tho a man of most prodigious knowledge in both the Critical and Technical part, being loth to rely on his own Judgment, communicated his design with Scipio Paschalius Bishop of Casal, Virginius Caesarinus of Rome, William Seton a Scotch Nobleman, Baldunus de monte Simencelli, and Antonius Salmatia of Mantua, Ludovicus Septalius of Milan, and Josephus Paulus Meronus; all of them Men studious to advance Learning; and upon their Encouragements in 1628 published his Grammatica Philosophica: To [Page 24]which in the Year following Mariangelus à Fano Benedicti, a Patrician of Milan, added his Auctarium: In quo (saith he in his Epistle Dedicatory to Hieronymus de Sagarraga) non quicquam invenies, quin id vel ex libris Grosippi, qua scriptis, qua editis, mutuatus sim; vel ex vivâ voce, mecum & cum aliis hominibus doctis, officii causà subinde eum visere solitis, disserentis arripuerim.
Nevertheless this Grammar, tho founded on such infallible unerring Principles, promoted and carried on by such curious Observations, wanted yet many degrees of Perfection, till the incomparable Gerard John Vossius of Heydelberg, of whose Learning take this account from his Adversary Scioppius:
I say, till this wise Architect had finished the beautiful Structure, and in 1635 set up the Cupulo, his Aristarchus, I mean, wherein it is not a little strange to see how harmoniously he accords with Sanctius and Scioppius: The former of which never came to his hands, nor the later till this great Work of his was in the Press. Witness himself De Construct. cap. 49. De Arte Grammat. lib. 2. cap. 3., Sanè ne nunc quidem Minerva Sanctiana in manus meas pervenit. Grosippiana, non nisi dum hoc opere praelum serveret. Jucundissimum autem fuit videre non pauca me cum iis communia habere; partem multò antè, quàm Scioppiana prodirent, à nobis monita in libellis Grammaticis jussu Procerum in Scholarum Hollandiae & Westfrisiae usum divulgatis, partim tradita nobis in hisce commentariis, quos maximâ ex parte ante Annos XXX, & amplius scripsimus, cumque juventute & amicorum mult is communicavimus,
These Three are they, which that Learned Gentleman of Oxford, the Commentator upon Lilie, has analyzed; and I could heartily wish that ingenious Person (who, because the Rules of Lilie's Propria quae maribus, and As in praesenti, are so maimed and imperfect, that they cannot easily be mended with Annotations, hath proposed others more easie, and infinitely more compleat) would, considering the grand Inconveniences of the Quae genus and Syntax, speedily apply both his Head and Hand to an alteration (where I am sure there is greater Reason for it) there also; That so at last it may receive all the degrees of Perfection, and be made to serve the uses of the Publick.
A General Examination OF The OXFORD Grammar.
WHat is Grammar?
It is the Art of speaking purely.
How many are the Parts of Grammar?
Four.
Which are they?
First, Orthographia, or Orthoepia. Secondly, Prosodia. Thirdly, Etymologia or Analogia. Fourthly, Syntaxis.
[Page 2]What is Orthographia, or Orthoëpia?
It is the first Part of Grammar, which teaches the Nature, Affections, or Accidents of Letters.
How many Latin Letters are there?
Nineteen, viz. Five Vowels, a, e, i, o, u. Fourteen Consonants, b, c, d, f, g, jod, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, van.
What is Prosodia?
'Tis the second Part of Grammar, which teaches the differences of Syllables.
What is Etymologia or Analogia?
'Tis the third Part of Grammar, which shews the properties of each part of Speech.
What is Syntaxis?
'Tis the fourth Part of Grammar, which teaches the due joyning of words in Construction.
What therefore is the Object of Orthoëpia, or the Subject which Orthographia handles?
Letters.
[Page 3]What is the Object of Prosodia?
Syllables.
What is the Object of Analogia?
Single Words.
What is the Object of Syntaxis?
A Sentence.
How are these four Parts generally divided?
Each Part is generally divided into Simple or Regular, Figurative or Irregular.
How many Parts of the Regular Etymologia are there?
Eight, which take their Names from the Eight parts of Speech, which it treats of distjnctly.
How many therefore are the Heads or Parts of Speech or Language?
All Words may be reduced to one of these Eight heads, sc. Noun, Pronoun, Verb, Participle, Adverb, Conjunction, Preposition, Interjection.
How do you define a Noun?
A Noun is a Word, which signifies a Thing or its Quality, primarily and by its own Nature.
[Page 4]Define a Pronoun.
A Pronoun is a word, that primarily respects the Noun, for which 'tis used, and secondarily signifies a Thing.
Define a Verb.
A Verb is a word, that besides its primary and natural signification, hath an additional one of Time; but no Cases.
Define a Participle.
A Participle is a word, which is varied by Cases, having an additional signification of Time.
How do you define an Adverb?
An Adverb is a word, that is added to a Noun, Verb, or Participle, &c. to denote some circumstance or quality.
How do you define a Preposition?
A Preposition is a word, that signifying Place, Time or Cause, either positively or privatively, tacks on the Noun to the Verb, or to another word governing it.
Define a Conjunction.
A Conjunction is a word, which tacks on one Sentence to another.
[Page 5]Define an Interjection.
An Interjection is a virtual Sentence, where the Noun and the Verb are contracted into an undigested word, which word betokeneth some motion or affection of the mind.
What learn you in that part of Nomen, commonly called Quâ mas exprimitur?
In that part of Nomen commonly call'd, Quâ mas exprimitur, I learn Rules for the Genders of Nouns.
What is Gender?
Gender in a strict sense is nothing else, but the distinction of Sex; therefore in Nature there can be but two Genders, the Masculine and the Feminine; and the ancient Oriental Tongues, viz. The Hebrew, Caldee, Samaritan, Syriac, Punic, Arabic, Persian, Aethiopic, Armenian, Coptic or Aegyptian; as also the modern Occidental, scil. The French, Italian, Spanish, and many others acknowledge no more.
How came in the Neuter Gender?
It was introduced by the Greeks and Latins with very good reason, [Page 6]both for variety and better distinction of words.
Is the Neuter then a new Gender?
No: It is not properly a new Gender, but a negation of the other two.
To what words doth the Neuter Gender naturally agree?
By nature it agrees to all words, whose signification includes not a distinction of Sex.
Why then are not Mensa, Liber, Lapis, Manus, Dies, &c. Neuters?
The Greeks (and, in imitation of them, the Latins) attending to the Termination rather than the Signification, reserved to themselves a liberty of using many words, that were really Neuters, that is of no Sex, after the manner of Masculines and Feminines, and others after the manner of both.
What therefore is Gender in a larger acceptation of the word?
Gender, taken Grammatically, not Physically, is the difference of a Noun according to the mark of Sex: Thus Masculines have hic, Feminines [Page 7] haec, Neuters hoc, Commons hic and haec for their marks.
Why, how many Grammatical Genders are there?
In Grammar there are four Genders, Masculine, Feminine, Neuter, (i.e. neither Masculine nor Feminine,) Common, i. e. either Masculine or Feminine. As for the Common of Three, the Doubtful and the Epicene, they have been introduced without necessity.
What Reasons have you, whereupon to ground your Opinion?
My Reasons are these;
1. Adjectives, which are said to be of the Common of Three, are properly of no Gender, only they have a power of being joyned in Construction with Substantives of all Genders.
2. That which is called Doubtful is especially of the Common Gender, as being used indifferently in the Masculine or Feminine, though accidentally distinguished from that which is usually called Common, and, is not used indifferently in both Genders, but with respect to the signification.
[Page 8]3. That which is called the Epicene Gender, is either Masculine or Feminine according to its Termination, and is to be looked upon by the Grammarians as having no Sex.
Is the Epicene Gender always declined with one Article only?
No: There are two sorts of Epicenes; some have but one note of Gender: as, haec Turtur. Others have two: as, hic vel haec Limax.
How are those, which have two Articles, distinguished from Commons?
The Epicenes under each Article signifie both kinds; so do not the Commons: as, hic Limax signifies both Male and Female, and so haec Limax; but neither hic Parens nor haec Parens doth signifie both Father and Mother.
How are the Genders of Nouns known?
By their signification, or by the termination of the Nominative Case.
Which of these Rules teach you the Genders of Nouns by their signification?
The general Rules.
[Page 9]Which of these Rules teach you the Genders of Nouns by the termination of the Nominative Case?
The special Rules.
How many are the general Rules?
The seven First, beside the supernumerary.
How many are the special Rules?
The Seventeen next; as for the last Rule, it concerneth both kinds of words of the Epicene Gender, excepted from the Rules of Termination.
What learn you in that irregular part of Nomen called Anomalia?
In that irregular part of Nomen called Anomalia, I learn Rules for Defectives either in Case or in Number.
How many sorts of Defectives in Case are there?
There are three sorts of Defectives in Case.
Which be they?
1 Some are defective in their Cases of Termination: as, Cornu, Gummi, Neë, &c.
[Page 10]2. Others are defective in their Cases of Signification: as, Exspes, Spontis, Opis, Ditionis, Vis, &c.
3. A third sort are defective in Cases both of Termination and Signification: as Fas, Nefac, Astu [the City,] Instar, Tempe, &c.
How are Defectives in Number divided?
There are two sorts of Defectives in Number.
1. Some Nouns want the Singular: as, Cancelli, Tenebrae, Scruta.
2. Others want the Plural: as, Roma, Meridies, Pituita, Nitrum.
Why do you not with Robinson here insert Variants and Redundants, as being Anomalous Nouns?
I choose rather herein to follow Sanctius Minervae, lib. 1. cap. 9.;
1. Denying that there are any such Nouns, as Heteroclits (properly and peculiarly so called) and Heterogeneous in Nominum naturâ.
2. Affirming, that (the advantages to be reaped from the knowledge of Redundants being very inconsiderable; and the risque that Boys run for want of a right understanding thereof, either [Page 11]in reading or writing Latin, being none at all) tender Wits ought not to be retarded in their Voyage to Latium by such insignificant Tarriers, as are the later; nor Fresh-water-Souldiers affrighted from the conquest of that plesant Land, by hearing of such monstrous Inhabitants, Centaurs and Hermaphrodites, as are the former.
What learn you in that part of Verbum, commonly called Verba primae Conjugationis?
In that part of Verbum commonly call'd Verba prima Conjugationis, I learn to form the Preterperfect Tenses and Supines of Verbs Regular and Irregular, of Verbs in O and Verbs in Or, of Verbs Simple and Verbs Compound, in the order of the four Conjugations.
In the Close I learn to Conjugate,
1. Some Verbs, whose Present Tenses are the same, and yet in divers significations are of divers Conjugations: such are Aggero, appello, colligo, affero, mando, obsero, volo, &c.
2. Others, that differ in signification and quantity, and accordingly are of divers Conjugations: as, Dīco to Dedicate, Dīco to Speak, Lēgo to send [Page 12]Embassadour, Lēgo to Read, &c.
3. Some again that are of the same signification, and yet differ in Conjugation: as, Lavo to Wash, Morior to Die, Sono to Sound, &c.
4. Verbs, that have the same Preterperfect Tenses: as, Consto and Consisto, Aceo and acuo, Cresco and cerno, Fulgeo and fulcio, &c.
5. Verbs, that have the same Supines: as, Maneo and mando, Teneo and tendo, Pando and Patior, &c.
And thus much of Etymologia or Analogia, proceed we now to the simple and regular Syntax.
What mean you by simple and regular Syntax?
I mean that Construction, which follows the usual way of speaking, and is conformable to the Rules of Grammar.
How is the regular Syntax divided?
It is divided into two parts; Concord or Agreement, Regimen or Government.
How many Concords are there?
The Proper Concords are but two: The Improper, three.
[Page 13]Which is the first Proper Concord?
The Nominative Case agreeth with its Verb in Number only; but hath a capacity of being accommodated to the Person of its Verb: as, Labor omnia vincit. Virg. 1. Georg.
Which is the second Proper Concord?
The Adjective, whether Absolute or Relative, agreeth with its Substantive in Number, Case, and termination of Gender: as, Rara avis in terris, nigroque simillima Cygno. Juven. Sat. 6.
Which is the first Improper Concord?
The first Improper Concord is, when Prepositions so agree with other Prepositions, Adverbs, Conjunctions, Verbs, and Nouns, that they become one intire word: as, Desuper, Inante, Circumsecus. Abhinc, Deinde, Desubite. Postquam, Praeterquam, Praequam. Adamo, Pronuntio, Intono. Impius, Vesanus, Seditio.
[Page 14]Which is the second Improper Concord?
The second Improper Concord is, when the Adverb agrees with, or is joyned to, a Verb of such or such a Mood.
Which are the Adverbs, that are joyned to an Indicative Mood?
B. Dum, so long as, whilst. Donec, so long as. Ʋt, after that. So are Quasi, ceu, tanquam, perinde, acsi, haud-secus-acsi, when they signifie [Even as.]
What Adverbs agree with the Subjunctive Mood?
B. Dum, so that. Quasi, ceu, tanquam, perinde-acsi, haud-secus-acsi, signifying [as if, as though.]
What Adverbs are joyned to both these Moods?
B. Ʋbi, where. Postquam, Posteaquant, after that. Cum, when. Donec, until, or till that. Quoad, how long, or as long as. Simulac, simulatque, and simulut, as soon as. Quemadmodum, even as. Ʋt, as. Ʋtcunque, however. Sicut, as. Simul for simulac, as soon as. Antequam, Priusquam, before that. Jamdudum, long ago. Jampridem, some while since. Jamolim, formerly. (But if the action [Page 15]does yet continue, these three last more usually agree with the Present Tense of the Indicative Mood,) Dum, until. Quam for Postquam, after that. Pridie, postridie, postero die, &c.
Doth any Adverb agree with an Imperative Mood?
B. Ne, not an Adverb of forbidding agrees only with an Imperative Mood, or a Subjunctive Future Tense: as, Ne nega. Tune cede malis. Istuc ne dixeris; for Non dixeris, is a Solecism. And yet, Non, an Adverb of forbidding or disswading agrees only with the Future Tense Indicative: as, Non negabis, non dices; for Non nega, non dic are Solecisms.
Toth any Adverb agree with an Indicative and Imperative?
Yes. Quin, an Adverb of Commanding or Exhorting: as, Quin dic, quid est. Ter. And. act. 2. sc. 6. Quin huc ad vos venire propero? Cic. in somn. Scipion.
What Adverbs agree with the Optative and Potential Moods?
There are no Optative or Potential Moods, in Latin, distinct from the Subjunctive.
[Page 16]What then mean the terms? And upon what occasion were they inserted in our Grammar?
As for the Optative, I need say no more, than what our Master has frequently observed to us: viz. Opto is Latin for I wish; but because Opto is wont to be omitted before the Conjunctions Ʋt, uti and utinam (which are all one.) And because that (the English of Ʋtinam) is wont to be omitted after I wish, hence it comes to pass, that Ʋtinam has gained the English of Opto, and the Subjunctive Mood, (wherewith it is alway joyn'd) the name of Optative.
The Potential Mood is so called from Potentia, Power; for when the Conjunction is understood, and some other Verb that signifies Power, will, or duty, (which make the Verbs be the Subjunctive Mood, as if they were exprest) it is then (instead of Subjunctive) called the Potential Mood: as, Exspectes, yon may expect, i. e. Licet ut exspectes eadem, &c.
[Page 17]Which is the third improper Concord?
The third improper Concord is, when a Conjunction is joyned to, or agrees with a Verb of such or such a Mood.
What Conjunctions agree with an Indicative Mood?
B. Tametsi; although in the front of a Sentence. Quod So do all efficient or impulsive Causals. whereas, as to what, as concerning that. Quippe, surely, for as much as. Quando, quandoquidem, for as much as. Cum for quod. Ʋt, as, such, since that.
Which are the Conjunctions, that are joyned to a Subjunctive Mood?
B. Tametsi; though in the body of a Sentence. Ʋt, although. The final Causals, ut, qui, to the end or intent that. Ʋt with ne, for non following it. Licet, though, (which the Lawyers Ulpian. L. Cum hi. 8. §. ult. D. De tranfact. Modest. L. 20. D. De accusat. Julianus L. Si ei. 11. §. 11. De jur. codicill. joyn to an Indicative) the Perfectives, ut, uti, utinam, that. Ne, least. Qui for quia. Quin for ut, non, But or nay. Quo, dummodo. Ʋt for ne, non, after Verbs importing Fear. Si, although. [Page 18] Ʋtpote cum, Quippe cum. Ʋt for utpote.
Which Conjunctions do agree with both an Indicative and Subjunctive?
B. Sin, siquidem, nisi, si, if (which three last are joyned to a Subjunctive in the former part of a Sentence, as often as a Subjunctive follows in the latter. Quod, that, because, wherefore. Quia. Quoniam. Quippe qui, ut qui, utpote qui.
Are not some Conjunctions more often joyned to one of these Moods, than they are to the other?
Yes. Quanquam and ersi, although, do frequently agree with an Indicative, and sometimes with a Subjunctive: Quamvis etiamsi, though. Cum for quandoquidem or quoniam, are usually joyned to a Subjunctive, though now and then to an Indicative.
Do any Conjunctions agree with an Infinitive Mood?
B. Ʋt the Causal, in imitation of the Greeks, agrees with an Infinitive Mood: as, Neu Babylonios tentâris numeros, ut melius quicquid erit pati. [Page 19]Hor. l. 1. Od. 11. [...]. So scilicet and videlicet, as amounting to scire or scias licet, videre or videas licet: as, Videlicet illum fuisse parcum senem. Plaut. Sticho. Act. iv. sc. 1. Esse videlicet in terris primordia rerum. Lucret. lib. 1. Scilicet esse globosa, tamen cum squalida constent. Lib. 2. Consult Scioppius's Verisimilia. lib. 1. cap. 16.
Is this agreement, with the Moods of Verbs, the peculiar Priviledge of Adverbs and Conjunctions? For I have observ'd in Terence and Plautus, &c. that there is, not only in these Particles, but in some Adjectives, a kind of propensity or natural inclination to one Mood more than to another.
Interrogative Particles, be they Adnouns, Adverbs, or Conjunctions, keep close to an Indicative Mood: such are, Quis, quantus, quantopere, qualis, uter, quam, quemadmodum, cur, quare, quamobrem, num, numquid, quorsum, ubi, quo, unde, ne, an, utrum, ut? &c.
What Mood doth these and such like Particles agree with, when they are used indefinitely?
When they are not Interrogatives, [Page 20]but in the natural order immediately follow some Verb, or at least a Verb and Noun used periphrastically for a Verb, then they love a Subjunctive Mood. So does Qui, quae, quod, who, what, not being a Relative: as, Qui sis, considera. Vide, quod nobis impendeat periculum.
Is this Rule of Indefinites so universally true, that it admits of no Exceptions?
It is not: for sometimes it is otherwise,
1. In Quis, Quid.
When Quis is taken for Aliquis, for then it is joyned to both Moods: as, Si quis quid reddit, magna habenda est gratia. Ter. At vero gravitate membrorum & cruciatu dolorum, si quis quem levet, Magnam ineat gratiam. Cic. de fin. l. 9.
Nay, even in its genuine signification, it is joyn'd to an Indicative by two of the best Authors in the Latin Tongue, Plautus and Cicero. Plaut. Bacch. act. 1. fc. 1. Scio quid ago. P. & pol ego scio quid metuo. Aulularia act. 2. sc. 1. Verba ne facias, soror. Scio quid dictura es, hanc esse pauperem; hac pauper placet. [Page 21]Aulul. act. 1. sc. 2. Nimis hercle invitus abeo, sed quid agam scio. Mil. act. 1. sc. 1. Scio jam quid vis dicere. Cic. lib. 9. ad Attic. epist. xii. Quaeso scribas, quid nobis faciendum, aut non faciendum, putas. Lib. xiii. epist. cxviii. Vides, propinquitas quid habet. Lib. xiv. epist. xiii. Quid nobis faciendum est ignoro. By Terence, Phorm. act. 2. sc. 3. Quia egens relicta est misera, ignoratur parens, negligitur ipsa. Avaritia vide quid facit. And Lucan. Quis justiùs induit arma, scire nefas. Lib. 1.
2. In Quantus, —ta,—tum.
When tantus or tantum goes before: as, Videor mihi videre tantam dimicationem, quanta nunquam fuit. So although tantum be ellipted: as, Quantum est situm in nobis. Cic. pro Arch.
3. In Ʋbi.
As in that of Plautus's Aulularia, act 1. sc. 1. Neu persentiscat, aurum ubi est absconditum. Also when 'tis not immediately used after a Verb, but referr'd to some Noun or Verb preceding: as, Porticus haec ipsa, ubi ambulamus.
4. In Quò.
When eò or ubi goes before: as, Venio nunc eò, quò me non cupiditas ducit, sed fides.
[Page 22]5. In Ʋnde.
When it is not used just after a Verb, but relates to some one gone before: as, Omni huic sermoni propositum est, non ut ingenium & eloquentiam meam perspicias, unde longè absum, sed ut laborem & industriam.
6. In Num.
As, Vide, num quispiam consequitur prope nos. Plaut. Rudent. act. 4. sc. 3.
7. In Ʋt.
As, Eloquere, ut haec res obtigit de filiâ. Rud act. 4. sc. 6.
8. In Quam.
As, Vides, quam turpe est. Cic. ad Attic. Lib. x. epist. x.
9. In Qui, quae, quod.
When qui is put for talis: as, Spero, quae tua est prudentia & temperantia, te ut volumus valere.
But hold. You have, I doubt, (ere you was aware) run your self into a ridiculous absurdity: For in making these Particles of [...] with such and such Moods [...] from the Doctrine of the Grammarians, who allow Verbs no Moods at all; nay, [...],
Qui sin [...] [...], in [...]dóque carebans.
[Page 23]B. Sanctius indeed, and after him Scioppius, have laid aside all Moods of Verbs; and have made other distinctions of Tenses (equivalent in this respect to those of Moods) dividing them into Prima and Secunda: For instance, They call Amo, praesens primum, and amem, praesens secundum; amabam, imperfectum primum, and amarem, imperfectum secundum, &c. And for the Future Tense, they make it threefold, for the Imperative passes for a third Future. And this they do not without some reason, because the Tenses of the Subjunctive and the Indicative are used indifferently the one for the other, and that by the purest Authors, as may appear by the following Examples: Si est bellum civile, quid nobis faciendum sit, ignoro. Cic. for si fie. Athoritas tanta planè movebat, nisi tu opposuisses non minorem tuam. Cic. for moveret. Abi atque illa si jam laverit, mihi renuntia. Ter. for lavit. Quem enim receptum in gratiam summo studio defenderim, hunc afflictum violare non debeo. Cic. for defendi. Qui fuisset egentissimus in re suâ, & insolens in alienâ, Idem, for fuerat. Te rogo, ut advoles, [Page 24]respiraro, si te videro. Id. for respirabo. Scaevola quotidie simulatque luceret, faciebat omnibus suis conveniendi potestatem. Id. for lucebat. Num P. Decius, cumse devoveret, &, equo amisso, in mediam aciem irruebat, aliquid de voluptate cogitabat. Id. for eruerit, &c. But since this way is not more expedite than the other, 'tis better not to depart from the received Method.
How many Governments are there?
The proper Governments are three, the Improper two.
Which Cases are properly governed?
The Genitive, Accusative, and Ablative.
Which Cases are improperly governed?
The Nominative and Dative.
How many of the Eight parts of Speech do really and properly govern Cases?
But four. Viz. Noun Substantive, Adjective, Verb, Participle, Preposition.
How many Cases doth the Noun Substantive govern?
The Genitive only.
[Page 25]How many the Adjective or Adnoun?
The Dative only.
How many Cases does the Verb govern?
Three; the Nominative, the Dative, the Accusative. So doth the Participle.
How many the Preposition?
Two: Twenty eight Prepositions serve to an Accusative, Fourteen to an Ablative, and Five to both.
A. Cicero said, Traditio alteri. Caesar, Domum reditionis spe sublatâ. May, Plautus dotes on such expressions; as, Hanc additio, & notio & tactio nos. We read also in Authors, who wrote in the Manhood of the Golden Age, i.e. Betwixt the end of the second Punic War and the declining of Augustus's Reign, I say, we read in such Classick Writers; Populabundus agros, vitabundus castra hostium, &c. How then say you, that Nouns govern only the Genitive, and Adnouns the Dative Case?
To this I answer, By distinguishing between such Nouns or Adnouns as descend from Verbs, and such [Page 26]as do not: the former are stiled Verbals, and they sometimes require the Case of their Verbs, of which they are descended; the rest do strictly observe the Rules.
Upon what depends the Nominative Case?
The Nominative Case always either comes before a Verb, or else belongs to another Nominative Case, that doth: as, Ira furor brevis est. Hor. 1. Ep. 2. Cato scribit invitus.
Upon what depends the Genitive Case?
The Genitive is always (in a Latin Construction) the later of two Substantives: as, Gloria est umbra Virtutis. Sen. Ep. 80. Dos est magna parentium virtus. Hor. lib. 3. Od. 24.
Upon what depends the Dative Case?
The Dative Case is always put acquisitively, to, or for, the Use, benefit, or damage of some Person or Thing: as, Nec pecori opportuna seges nec commoda Baccho. Virg. 4. Georg. Non omnibus dormio. Cic. 7. Ep. 25. ad sam. Mihi peccat, siquid peccat. Adel. act. 1. sc. 2. Et lac subducitur agnis. Virg. [Page 27] Traditio alteri. Cic. Nec cernitur ulli. Virg. 1. Aen. Quam proximè potest hostium castris castra communit. Caes.
Upon what depends the Accusative Case?
The Accusative Case either follows a Verb, Verbal, or is governed of a Preposition, that serves to that Case, unless it come before an Infinitive Mood: as, Amat bonus otia Daphnis. Ecl. 5. Populabundus agros, Vitabundus castra hostium. Hanc additio. Et notio & tactio nos. Plaut. Et quae tanta fuit Romam tibi causa videndi? Virg. 1. Ecl. Pacem Trojano ab rege petendum. Virg. Legatos ad Caesarem mittunt rogatum auxilium. Caes. Nutricem accersitum iit. Terent. Duplices tendens ad sydera palmas, talia voce refert. Virg.
Upon what depends the Vocative Case?
The Vocative Case is always put Absolute, i. e. properly governed of nothing, though it be commonly joyn'd with an Interjection: as, Credo vos mirari, Judices. Cic. pro Rosc. Age, dic Latinum Barbite carmen. Hor. Lectule deliciis facte beate meis. Propert. Amnis arundinibus limosas obsite ripas, Siste parumper aquas. Ovid. 3. Amor. O dolor atque decus magnum rediture parenti. Virg. 10. Aen. O Meliboee, Deus nobis haec otia fecit. Ecl. 1. Huc ades, O Galatea. Ecl. 9.
Upon what depends the Ablative Case?
The Ablative Case is always governed of some Preposition, that serves to the Ablative Case: as, Prae amore hunc exclusit foras. Ter. Sole sub ardenti resonant arbusta cicadis. Virg. Vir cum magnâ fide. Plaut. A Brundusio nulla adhuc fama venerat. Cic. Ab Epheso profectum. Id. A Bibone discessimus. Id.
And so much for the Regular Construction.
[Page 29]Very good. I now begin to take heart again; For I was almost discouraged at our Common-Grammar-Syntax, wherein to my great grief, I reckoned no less than Eightscore Rules; nay, if we divide them into their branches, they rise to Fifteenscore, a Regiment big enough to affright an old Souldier: A Fresh-man (I am sure) dares not come near it.
No wonder; How many of our briskest English Youth, within this two hundred years, being terrified at their tedious, toilsom, and unprofitable Tantam canonum exceptionúmque molem, quâ pueritiae ingenia hodie obtundunt, neutiquam necessariam, imo noxiam magnopere, esse sentio. Vossii, de Construct. lib. 7. heap of Rules and Exceptions, have in despair thrown away their Book; though perhaps alas (to the great loss of both Public and Private) they have (like Illiterate Criminals) perisht for not reading in it, liv'd Fools and dy'd Brutes. And whereas 'tis scarce possible to conquer that mighty Host in a whole Year: it is feasible to make your self Master of this small handful in one Day.
Tho, I say, every one of these Cases are sometimes put alone, without that other word, which governs [Page 30]them, or on which they do depend. The Dative: as, Hei mihi, quòd nullis amor est medicabilis herbis. Ovid. Supply adest thus, Hei, i.e. magnum malum adest mihi, &c. Vae tibi, that is, vae or magnum malum sit tibi. Vigilandum est ei, qui cupit vincere: i. e. Vigilandum est necessarium ei, &c. Nec tu eras solvendo. Cic. 2. Philip. Aptus or idoneus ellipted, compleat thus, Nec tu solvendo aeri alieno sufficiens eras. Ferrum non est tundendo. Plin. supp. accommodatum. Radix ejus vescendo non est. Id. understand apta. Of the other elliptically used, you will find many Examples in their proper place, viz. in the Figurative or Irregular Syntax.
What is the Figurative or Irregular Syntax?
It is that Construction, that recedes from both the usual way of Speaking, and the Rules of Grammar; and if compared with the Regular, hath in it something Deficient, Redundant, or otherwise changed by Permutation or Transposition: but withal is more elegant, as having been studied by the best Authors.
[Page 13]How many Figures therefore naturally arise from this Irregularity?
Four: viz. Ellipsis, Pleonasmus, Syllepsis, Hyperbaton; to which some add Hellenismus.
What is Ellipsis?
It is a Defect in a Sentence.
How manifold is this Defect?
This Defect is twofold.
Which is the first of these Defects?
The first of these Defects is the want of One or more words, which was or were never before exprest in the Sentence.
1. Of a Noun.
(1.) Substantive: as, Juvenal Satyr. 5. Quando vocatus adest calidae gelidaeque minister; supple aquae: for Cicero said intirely, Si aquam gelidam biberent. 1. Catil. and Apuleius, aqua calida injecta. 2. Metamorph.
(2.) Adjective: as, Homo frugi, homines frugi; subaudi bonae: Cicero expresses it, lib. 4. ad Attic. Permodestus ac bonae frugi homo. So does Plautus capt. Fui ego lepidus, neque bonis vir unquam, neque frugi bonae: where frugi stands for [Page 32] frugis, the Genitive of frux, as Cicero says Mehercle doth for Mehercules, the S being worn off Antiqui dicebant bonae frugis, postea bonae frugi, deinde frugi tantúm, Fr. Sanctii Minervae, pag. 288..
(3.) Both: as, Tenere memoriâ praetextatum te decoxisse, supp. rem familiarem. Cic. 2. Philipp.
2. Of a Pronoun: as, Non possum credere, for me credere. Non veretur mentiri, for se mentiri. Paulus creditur fecisse, for illum fecisse. Lucretius says compleatly, Quippe etenim quam multae tibi me fingere possum. Salust. Qui se student praestare caeteris. Plautus Curcull. Aesculapius mihi visus est eum ad me non adire, neque me magni pendere.
3. Of a Verb: as, Ego illud sedulò negare factum; Ter. supple coepi. Facile omnes perferre & pati; Id. puta solebat. Quod epistolam meā ad Brutum poscis, non habeo ejus exemplum. Cic. ad Attic supp. respondeo. Sed si confessionem culpae meae exigitis, ego fui pater durus, & patrimonii tenax custos. Quintil. subaudi confiteor. Disce puer virtutem ex me, verúm (que) laborē, Fortunam ex aliis. Virg. where Fortunam is governed of Opta, Pete, or some such like Verb understood, and not of Disce, because Fortuna non discitur. So, Sacra manu, victos (que) Deos, parvumq, nepotē, Ipse [Page 33]trahit. Idem: where trahit respects only nepotem, and sacra and Deos are governed of portat or the like suppressed. Likewise, in that Saying of the same Author, Ne tenues pluviae, rapidive potentia Solis Acrior aut Boreae penetrabile frigus aduret: where noceant is to be supplied, for tenues fluviae to agree with. So in that of Cicero, Fortunâ, quâ illi florentissimâ, nos duriori conflictati videmur: where conflictati has a respect only to the second Clause, and Ʋsi is ellipted in the former.
4. Of a Participle: as, Anna soror. Virg. supple existens. Divitiacus complexus obsecrare coepit, nequid gravius in frasrem statueret; scire se illa esse vera. Caes. for dicens se scire.
5. Of an Adverb: as, Ita ut non modò, generare homines, sed ne advenas quidem recipere, ac tueri possent. Justin. Hist. lib. 2. for non modo non, &c. Gravidam illam reliqui, quam abeo; for priusquam. Tacita semper est bona mulier, quam loquens; i. e. magis bona. Plaut. Si quisquam est, qui placere cupiat bonis, quam plurimis. Ter. Nempe bonis potiùs quam plurimis.
[Page 34]6. Of a Conjunction: as, Tu quoque magnam partem opere in tanto, sineret dolor, Icare haberes. Virg. for si sineret. Itaque simul exsurrecti sumus, visa illa contemnimus. Cic. for simul ac. Nimiùm me crede colori; alba ligustra cadunt. Virg. for nam alba, &c. Cave cadas, cave faxis, for ne cadas, ne faxis or facias. That of Tully is perfect, Nonne caveam ne scelus faciam. Laeva, sive dextera vocaret aura: for sive laeva. Tollere, sen ponere vult freta. Hor. lib. 1. Od. 3. for scis tollere.
7. Of a Preposition: as, Lavináque venit littora. Virg. sc. ad. Pridie Calendas. Multos abhinc annos; supp. ante. Opus est mihi libris; puta in. Eruiturque oculos. Ovid. Metam. 12. Tristior & lacrymis oculos suffusa nitentes. Virg. subandi quod ad. Crine ruber, niger ere, brevis pede, lumine laesus, Rem magnam praestas, Zoile, si bonus es; Martial. 12. l. 54. Epigr. supp. in. Fossam sex cubitis altam, duodecim latam cum duxisset. Liv. bell. Mac. 7. for à sex cubitit.
8. Of an Interjection: as, Salve primus omnium parens patriae, appellate; primus in togâ triumphum, linguaeque lauream merite. Plin. lib. 7. c. 30. for appellate [Page 35]O merite. Jam nimiùm Messala mei studiose quiescas. Non tempestivae saepe propinque viae. Tibull. lib. 4. for O Messala. Me miserum. Ter. supp. Ah; O. Ovid spoke fully, 2. Trist. O Princeps parce viribus use. So did Virgil; O fortunatos nimiùm bona si suâ nôrint agricolas!
What is the second of these Defects?
The second is the want of One or more Words, which is or are expressed in the Sentence either before or after.
How manifold is this second sort of Ellipsis?
It is triple or threefold.
Which is the first of these three kinds of the second sort of Ellipsis?
The first is, when a Noun or a Verb is to be repeated after the self-same manner (that is, without any the least alteration either of Gender, Case, Number, Person, or signification, &c.) that it is expressed: as,
Where the Verb sentis, being once exprest, is five times in the same manner understood.
Which is the second?
The second is, when the word exprest cannot be repeated without some alteration, either
1. Of Gender: as, Et genus & virtus, nisi cum re vilior algâ est. Hor. Ʋtinam aut hic surdus, aut haec muta facta sit. Ter.
2. Of Case: as, Quid ille fecerit, quem neque puder quicquam, nec metuit quenquam, nec legem putat tenere se ullam. Ter. for qu [...] nec metuit, &c.
3. Of Number: as, Sociis & rege recepto. Ving. Hic illius arma, hic currus fuit. Idem.
4. Of Person: as, Ille timore, ego risu corrui. Cic. Quamvis ille niger, quamvis tu candidus esses. Ving.
This second kind was formerly call'd Zeugma Connectio or Adjunctio.
[Page 37]Or of Signification: as, Nero sustulit matrem, Aeneas Patrem. Provolutae deinde genibus Alexandri, non mortem sed ut Darii corpus sepeliant, dilationem mortis deprecantur. Justin. Egregius adolescens & coedem patris, & necem fratris, & se ab insidiis Artabani vindicavit. Idem.
Which is the third?
The third is, when any word signifying the Whole is set down, which presently after in the parts is not expressed, but understood: as, Aquilae volârunt, haec ab Oriente, illa ab Occidente. Cic. Consules profecti; Valerius in Campaniam, Cornelius in Samnium. Liv. And this is the old Grammarians Prolepsis.
What is Pleonasmus?
B. Pleonasmus is, when a Word, in a Sentence, more than is necessary redounds: as, Verum qui dederit, magis majores nugas egerit, Plaut. Poenul. Apis, si saevit, maximè pessima est. Columella; where magis and maximè are superfluous. Se ab omnibus desertos potius, quam abs te defensos esse malunt. Cic. where potius is overplus by virtue of the Verb Malo.
[Page 38]In like manner when a Noun, and its Vicar or Representative a Pronoun, are placed in the same Sentence, then the Deputy is Pleonastic: as, Sed urbana plebs, ea vero praeceps erat multis de causis. Sall. Posthumius autem, de quo Senatus decrevit, ut statim in Ciciliam iret, is negat se iturum sine Catone. Cic. in the later Period is, in the former ea is redundant.
So when two equipollent Particles occur, the one is supervacaneous: as, Oportuit praescisse me ante. Ter. Olim fuit isti generi quondam quaestus apud sêclum prius. Id. Eun. act. 2. sc. 2. Dic me orare, ut aliquis intus prodeat properè ociús. Plaut. Cistel. act. 3. sc. 1. Et tandem denique devorato pudore ad Milonem aio. Appuleius lib. 2. Met. En ecce, prolatam coram exhibeo; videat & suum sigillum recognoscat. Id. lib. x. Nunc primùm fac istaec ut lavet: post deinde quod jussi ei dare bibere, & quantum imperavi, date. Ter. Andr. act. 3. sc. 2. Sed nequicquam frustra timorem illum satis inanem perfuncti longè pejores inhaesimus laqueos. Apulcius 8. Met.
[Page 39]What is Syllepsis?
B. Syllepsis is a Construction, congruous in the sence, but not in the words.
How manifold is Syllepsis?
Twofold: Absolute and Relative.
What is Absolute Syllepsis?
The Syllepsis is Absolute, when the words in the Construction disagree, either
1. In Gender only: as, Samnitium duo milliacaesi. Liv. Here an eye is had to homines. Or
2. In Number only: as, Turba ruunt; by reason that turba is a Noun of multitude, i. e. such a word as in the Singular Number signifies many Persons or Things, collected into one; as a heap, &c. Propterea quod, for propter id quod. Or
3. In both: as, Pars in carcerem acti, pars bestiis objecti: Sall. Here not so much the Collective Pars, as the Persons signified by that word, is regarded.
What is the Relative Syllepsis?
[Page 40]The Syllepsis is Relative, when the Relative hath a relation to an Antecedent, which is not expressed, but conceived by the sence of the whole Period: as, Inter alia prodigia etiam carne pluit, quem imbrem aves feruntur rapuisse. Liv. where imber to which quem hath a respect, is not expresly set down, but virtually comprehended in the Verb of Nature or exempt action (as Grammarians term it) Pluit, as if it were imber carnis pluit. So, Per literas me consolatus sum, quem librum ad te2 mittam1. Cic. Here literas is taken for compiling a Book, which Work he promises to send him. De Praetianâ haereditate, quae quidem mihi magno dolori est, (valde enim illum amavi) hoc velim cures. Cic. Here illum respects his Friend Praetius, which was not before exprest, but closely couch'd in Praetianâ haereditate. Sed antea conjuravere pauci contra rempublicam, in quibus Catilina fuit, de quâ, quam brevissimè potero, dicam. Sall. that is, de quâ conjuratione; for the Relative quâ looks back upon the formal or cognate Accusative Conjurationem [Page 41] Omne Verbum accidentale (id est, quod non sit Substantivum) aut Activum est, aut Passivum; quorum illud semper Accusativum expressum, aut suppressum regit. Hujus ratio est, quia inter agere & pati nihil est medium, omnisque motus aut actio est aut passio. Neutra ergo verba nihil sunt, nisi indoctorum Grammaticorum commenta, qui non animadverterunt Verborum Activorum alia varios habere Accusativos materiales; ut, facere verba, fidem, finem, insidias: alia non nisi unicum eumque formalem & cognatum; ui, vivere vitam, mori mortem, furere furorem, egere egestatem, currere cursum, sedere sessionem, ambulare ambulationem, servire servitutem, certare certamen. Illis, quae plures Accusativos regunt, necesse est certum semper Accusativum adjungere, quoniam aliter, quid agant, incertum erit. Sed his, quae unum tantùm regunt, inane, otiosum, ac supervacuum fuerit Accusativum adjungi quoniam nemini de eo, tanquam essentiali seu formali, dubium esse potest. Scioppii Instit. Grammat. Lat. p. 147, 148. See also the Oxford Commentator on the Common Grammar, De Verbo. supposed to follow its Verb Conjuravere. Omnes omnia bona dicere, & laudare fortunas meas, qui gnatum haberem tali ingenio praeditum. Ter. where the antecedent to qui is mei the primitive involv'd in the possessive meas. Deinde Philenorum arae, quem locum habuere Carthaginenses. Sall. where locus is conceiv'd, as if it were arae locus, quem locum, &c.
[Page 42]Sometimes a Syllepsis meets in Conjunction with a Zeugma: as, when an Adjective or Relative is not referr'd to the Gender of the nearest Substantive; but of another more remote: as, Amor tuus, ac judicium de me, utrum mihi plus dignitatis in perpetuum, an voluptatis quotidie fit allaturus, non facile dixerim. Planc. Ciceroni; where allaturus relates only to amor tuus, and allaturum must be supplied for judicium to agree with. Gens est, cui natura corpora, animosque magis magna, quam firma dedit. Liv. lib. 5.
Sometimes with a pure Ellipsis: as, when the Adjective agrees with some word no where exprest: Timidi damae. Virg. Talpae oculis capti. Virg. here mares or masculi must be understood. In Eunuchum suam, supply fabulam. Ter.
Sometimes again we find the Syllepsis inverted; as, when the structure is congruous in the words, but absurd in the sence: as, Ovid. Metam. lib. 1. In nova fert animus mutatas dicere formas, corpora; for, Animus fert dicere corpora mutata in novas formas. Virg. Dare classibus Austros; for, Dare classes [Page 43]Austris. So, Et gladium vaginâ vacuum in urbe non vidimus; for, vaginam gladio vacuam. This Schematologers use to call an Hypallage.
What is Hyperbaton?
B. Hyperbaton is a confus'd and disordered order of Words.
How many are the species or sorts of Hyperbaton?
Of Hyperbaton or Hyperbasis there are four kinds.
Which is the first?
The first is Anastrophe.
What is Anastrophe?
B. Anastrophe is a Figure, whereby words which should have been precedent, are postpon'd, but within the same Clause: as, Mecum for cum me, Quamobrem for ob quam rem. His accensa super. Nam quis te juvenum confidentissime nostras Jussit adire domos? Virg. for Quisnam.
Which is the second?
The second is Tmesis.
What is Tmesis?
It is a Figure, whereby the parts of a compounded word are divided by some other word or words coming betwixt the parts: as, Rem verò publicam [Page 44]amisimus. Cic. Septem subjecta Trioni. Me certe in omnibus rebus satis nostraeque conjunctioni amorique facturum. Cic.
Which is the third?
The third is Parenthesis.
What is Parenthesis?
It is a Figure, which incloses within one Sentence another Sentence, which is not part of it: as, Tityre dum redeo (brevis est via) pasce capellas. Virg.
Which is the fourth?
The fourth is Synchysis.
What is Synchysis?
It is a consused intermixture of words belonging to one Clause, with words that belong to another, which either alters the sence, or renders the Sentence extremely difficult: as,
How comes it to pass, that you divide this Figure, but into Four, whereas the Oxford Grammar, distiuguishes it into five Branches?
The Oxford Grammarian (I confess) in compliance with Sanctius and Scioppius, makes Anacoluthon a species of Hyperbaton: But in this I ask that Ingenious Gentlemans pardon, if I take new measures unwarranted by his Standard; since in the Examples alledged either by him or Scioppius, or Sanctius, I can perceive no confusion or disorder in the Transposition.
What is Anacoluthon?
It is an incoherent Construction; wherein there is no alliance betwixt the former and later part of the Sentence: as for instance, Nam omnes nos, quibus est alicunde aliquis objectus labos, omne quod est interea tempus, priusquam ad rescitum est, lucro est. Ter. Hecyr. act. 3. sc. 1. for, Nam omnibus nobis, quibus est alicunde aliquis objectus labos, omne quod est interea tempus, [Page 46]prissquam id rescitum est, lucro est. Praetor interea, ne pulchrum se ac beatum putaret, atque aliquis ipse suâ sponte loqueretur, ei quoque carmen compositum est. Cicero pro Mur. for, Praetori quoque interea ne pulchrum is se ac beatum putaret, atque aliquid ipse suâ sponte loqueretur, carmen compositum est. Etenim si orationes, quas non multitudinis judicio probari volebamus (popularis enim est illa facultas, & effectus eloquentiae est audientium appr2obatio1) sed si reperiebantur nonnulli, qui nihil laudarent, nisi quod se imitari posse confiderent. Cic.
A notable Example of this you may read in Mr. Tho. Tomkins's Imprimatur, prefixt to that excellent practical Treatise, The Causes of the Decay of Christian Piety.
Imprimatur
HIc Liber verè Christianus; qui, si Primaevam spectes pietatem, Summam Eloquentiam, Rationum pondus, nihil in eo deest, quo minus possit nos omnes, quales tam accuratè describit, [Page 47]verè Christianos efficere. Puriori aevo sanè dignissimus est, nisi quod tam potens sit, qui vel nostrum saeculum transformaret in melius. Benedicat Deus Operi & Authori: For, Imprimatur, hic Liber verè Christianus; in quo (si Primaevam spectes pietatem, Summam Eloquentiam, Rationum pondus) nihil deest, quo minus is possit nos omnes, quales tam accuratè describit, verè Christianos efficere, &c.
Such as these in Classic Authors we call [...], Solecophane; but in the Vulgar, Solecisms.
You say some add Hellenismus; What is Hellenismus?
'Tis a Latin imitation of the Greek Construction.
Is therefore every Latin imitation of the Greek Construction a Hellenism?
No: for then the whole Latin Tongue would be little other than one continued Hellenism. But a Hellenism, properly so call'd, is, when the Romans [Page 48]departing from their own Native way of speaking, do follow the Greek or Transmarine Custom. And every such Latin imitation of the Greek Construction is a Hellenism.
How many kinds of Hellenism are there?
Of Hellenism there are divers sorts (in which whoever desires to be critically curious, let him make frequent addresses to Dr. Linacer's Sixth Book, De emendatâ structurâ From page the 409. to the end.; to Vossius's De constructioneCap. 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38.; to Farnaby'; Systema Grammaticum; to Posselius's Syntaxis Graeca, and to M. Jo. Rhenius's Graeca Grammatica Major.) But the principal are Graecisms in Cases, in Numbers, and in Genders.
Give an Example or two of this Imitation.
Before I exemplifie, I must distinguish betwixt Attraction and Government: For the Greeks of two Cases (if they have a mutual respect one to the other) govern but one, they joyn the other to it, and so the one is, as it were, drawn by the other: [Page 49]as for Example, [...], Johan. cap. 2. ver. 22. for [...]. So the Latins. Quum scribas & aliquid agas quorum consuevisti. Lucejus ad Ciceronem lib. 5. Epist. for quae consuevisti. Sed istum quem quaeris ego fum. Plaut. Curc. Occurrunt animae, quales neque candidiores terra tulit, for qualibus. Hor. 1. Serm.
It is also a Hellenism, when a Case, set betwixt two Verbs, is drawn by the former, on which in strictness it ought to have no dependance: as, Illum ut vivat, optant. Ter. Adelph. Haec me, ut confidam, faciunt. Cic. Qu. Frat. Atque istud, quicquid est, fac me, ut sciam. Ter. Heaut.
Such Hellenistical Expressions as these, are familiar to Plautus, Terence, and Lucilius; but in Plautus's Poenulus there is one (I think) without parallel: viz. Patrem atque matrem viverent vellem tibi. Act. 5. sc. 2. Here the Accusatives seem to stand instead of Nominatives.
[Page 50]Are Numbers and Genders ever drawn Hellenistically?
They are,
1. Numbers: for as in the precedent Examples a Case set between two Verbs is attracted by the former: so by the same Figure it falls out sometimes that a Verb, being placed betwixt two Cases, is drawn by the latter: as, [...]. Phil. So in Latin, Amantiumirae amoris redintegratio est. Ter. Pectus robora fiunt. Ovid. Omnia pontus erat. Id. In which Examples the Verbs are so attracted by the later and nearer Nominative Cases, that they change their Numbers.
2. Genders: as, Saxum antiquum, ingens, campo qui fortè jacebat, Limus agro positus. Virg. where campo by attraction causes the Relative qui, which regularly should be quod, to take a Masculine termination.
So when a Relative Adjective standing betwixt two Substantives of different Genders, agrees with the later: as, [...]. Lucian. Homines tuentur illum globum, quae terra dicitur; where terra attracts the Gender [Page 51]of quae, which according to the Roman custom would be qui, as rehearsing its antecedent globum.
Give an Example wherein the Latins, leaving their own vernaculous way of Speaking, imitate the Greeks in Government.
1. The Greeks (and in specie the Atticks) omit the Preposition [...] or [...], just so the Latins conceal quod ad, or secundum: as, [...] Aristoph [...]. Psal. 146. [...]. Soph. Antig. supply [...]. Expleri mentem nequit. Virg. 4. Aeneid. Qui purgar bilem. Hor. de Arte. Habeo multa alia, quae nunc condonabitur. Ter. Eunuch. i.e. quod ad quae, &c. Sanè caeterapaterfamilias, & prudens & attentus, unâ in re minùs, consideratus. Cic. pro Quinctio.
So we say, Primum, tertium, tantum, quantum, nimium, principium, as the [Page 52]Greeks, [...].
2. The Preposition [...], which serves to the Genitive Case, is so generally ellipted, that the Greek Grammarians have thence been deluded into a belief, that some Verbs do govern a Genitive Case. And yet Lucian expresses this Particle: as, [...]. So doth Isocrates: as, [...]. But it is mostly conceiv'd: as, [...], Plato in Phaedone. [...]. Aristoph. Nubes. [...]. Isoc. Helen. [...]. Actor. c. 3. v. 7. [...]. Matth. c. 16. v. 28. [...]. Act. c. 22. v. 7. Hence the Latins: Abstineto irarum, calidaeque rixae. Hor. l. 3. Od. 27. Desine mollium querelarum. Id. l. 2. Od. 9. Regnavit populorum. Lib. 3. Od. 30. So, Imperti me divitiarum. Arripiunt illum pedis. Gustavit mellis. Audivit musicae, &c. Hereupon in Vitruvius the Latin Preposition Ex is found governing a Genitive Case: as, Descriptio ex duodecim signorum coelestium. L. 8. cap. ult. Si ex imbrium aquae vis occupaverit. L. 3. c. 2. Piscium naturae plurimum ex aeris & terreni sunt compositae. L. 1. [Page 53]c. 4. &c. which nevertheless is not to be imitated.
3. There is also a Grecism in these and the like Instances: viz. Quibus Hector, ab oris, Exspectate venis? Virg. 2. Aeneid. for exspectatus. Censoremve tunm vel quod trabeate salutas. Pers. Sat. 3. for trabeatus. Adsis laetitiae Bacchus dator. Virg. 1. Aeneid. for Bacche. Vos ô patricius sanguis. Pers. 1. Sat. for patr [...]ie: For in the Attic Dialect (the Nominative and Vocative ending both alike) they commonly use the Vocative in lieu of the Nominative, and vice versâ; insomuch that even Deus in the Vocative (says Art of Teaching, Chapt. 1. But I incline more to Sanctius, who in the Sixth Chapter of his Minerva, proves the clear contrary, and concludes thus: Dicimus itaque rectè; Defende me amici mi, & defende me amicus meus; sed diverso sensu & Syntaxi: Nam in hoc posteriore sunt veluti duae Orationes, & deus Ens, vel qui es. Unde falluntur, qui in Sacris literis putant nomen Deus facere Vocativum Deus. Quum legunt; Deus, Deus, respice in me; quum rectius sit, & legamus apud Prudentium, Dee, in Vocativo. Mr. Walker) is an Atticism, as [...] in Greek is used for [...]. So [...]. Homer. for [...]. Id. for [...].
[Page 54]4. When the Romans place a Nominative Case before an Infinitive Mood, it is done by an Hellenism: as, Cupio esse clemens. Ʋxor invicti Jovis esse nescis. Hor. 3. Lib. Od. 27.
But no Author ever exprest this Greek Phrase, better than Ovid. Fast. lib. 6. v. 433.
For had the Poet here spoken according to his own-Country-fashion, he would have said, aptum Ulyssem, pium Aeneam.
And so much for the general Examination of the True Latin Grammar.
To conclude, tell me, How many those Fundamentals or Maxims of Syntax are, which our Master hath so often inculcated to us, that we might be able to distinguish betwixt true Rules and false; as also to understand the [Page 55]Reasons of the truth or falshood thereof.
The fundamentals of Syntax are comprised in Twelve Canons.
Which is the first Canon?
Every Sentence consists of a Noun and a Verb; wherefore if the Verb be not expressed, it must needs be understood: as, Dii meliora; supple faciant. Sed vos qui tandem; supp. Estis. Bene Ennius; Prudenter Cicero. Subaudi dixit, vel fecit.
Which is the second Canon?
Every Verb of a finite Mood hath before it a Nominative Case, exprest or supprest: as, Amavi te, quo die cognovi. Cic. supp. Ego. Quid facis? supp. tu. Aiunt, ferunt, &c. supp. homines. Vivitur, nempe vita. Peccatur sc. Peccatum.
[Page 56]Which is the third Canon?
Every Verb of an Active The Genus of Verbs is like that of the Noun, either Real and Physical, or Grammatical; and therefore their division ought to be made either from their signification or termination. If you distribute them the former way, there are Three kinds, Active, Passive, and Neuter or Substantive. So all are Actives, that signifie actively: as, Amo, Curro, Sequor, Aio, Velo: All are Passives, that signifie passively: as, Amor, Vapulo: All Neuters, that signifie only a bare existence, being, or ceasing to be: as, Sum, fio, morior, intereo. If you divide them according to their termination, they end all (except some few) either in o or or. If in c, they either can or cannot admit r; if they can, they are called Actives, because for the most part they note action; if they cannot, they are called Neuters. If they end in or, either they can cast r away, and they are called Passives, or they cannot, and then they are called Deponents or Commons. signification hath after it an Accusative Case, expressed or suppressed: as, Faciliùs reperias (supple homines) qui Romam proficiscantur, quàm ego, qui Athenas. Vivit, supple vitam. Mortuus est, supp. mortem. Furit, sc. furorem. Eget, nempe egestatem. Currit, sc. cursum. Sedet, supple Sessionem, &c.
[Page 57]Which is the fourth Canon?
As often as an Infinitive Mood comes by it self in a Sentence, the Verb, on which it depends, must be understood, Coepit, suppose, or solebat, or some such like: as, Ego illud sedulò negare factum. Ter. supple coepi. Facilè omnes perferre ac pati. Id. puta solebat, Divitiacus complexus obsecrare coepit, nequid gravius in fratrem statueret, scire se illa esse vera, &c. Caesar. for dicens se scire.
Which is the fifth Canon?
Every Adjective hath its Substantive expressed or understood: as, Mortalis, supple homo. Martius, supp. mensis. Oriens, sc. Sol. Praegnans, supple Mulier. Regina, sc. uxor. Patria, nempe terra. Triste lupus stabulis, supp. negotium. Altum, sc. mare. Suburbanum, supp. Rus vel praedium.
Which is the sixth Canon?
Every Relative Adjective rehearseth after it its Antecedent Substantive, [Page 58]with which rehearsed Substantive it agreeth in Number, Case, and Termination of Gender: Wherefore an Ellipsis is to be supposed as often as the Substantive, which ought to go before the Relative, and to follow it, either only goes before it, or only follows it: And a double Ellipsis, where it is expressed, neither before it, nor after it: as, Vir sapit, qui pauca loquitur; for qui vir. Populo ut placerent, quas fecisset fabulas. Ter. And. Prol. for, Populo ut fabulae placerent, quas fabulas fecisset. Sunt, quos curriculo pulverem Olympicum collegisse juvat. Hor. for Sunt homines, quos homines, &c.
Which is the seventh Canon?
As often as the Genitive Case is set with an Adjective, a virtual Correlative, a local Preposition, or a Verb; either 'tis a Grecism and depends on a Preposition, or some general Noun is understood: as, Ʋltimum dimicationis. Liv. puta tempus. Amaracurarum. Hor. nempe negotia. Sophia Septimiae. Cic. lib. 9. Ep. 10. nempe filia. Hectoris Andromache. Virg. Aen. 3. supple uxor. [Page 59]Ad Castoris. Cic. pro Mill. In Veneris. Plaut. 1. act. sc. 2. Poen. nempe aedem. Per Varronis, supp. fundum. Ex Apollodori. Cic. puta Chronicis. Est Regis, puta Officium. Accusas furti, supp. crimine. So, Cum ille se custodiae diceret in castris remansisse. Cic. 2. De Oratore. Rem omnem aperit, cujus mittebarur. Sall. Catil. puta causa.
Which is the eight Canon?
Every Verb of the Infinitive Mood, hath instead of a Nominative an Accusative Case before it, expressed or understood in a Latin Construction: But in a Greek Construction frequently a Nominative, the mostly an Accusative, and sometimes both together: as, Volo me facere. Possum me fingere. Studet se placere. Elliptically, Volo facere. Possum fingere. Studet placere.
[Page 60]For the Greeks say, [...], Marc. cap. 10. v. 49. [...], 2 Cor. c. 10. v. 2. [...]. Thucyd.
Which is the ninth Canon?
Every Noun of the Comparative Degree hath its Positive, to which it is compared, expressed, or understood: as, Visus est mihi tristior; supply the Positive, aequo, justo, or solito, as if it were, Tristior prae illo tristi, qui ex aequo, justo, aut solito tristis est. Ocyùs incubuere omnes. Virg. subaudi dicto. For the Poet says in another place, Sic ait, & dicto citiùs tumida aequora placat; nempe, Dictum ejus non tam citum est, quam cita est aequoris placatio.
Which is the tenth Canon? [Assigned to several significations.]
Besides the Noun and the Verb, there are certain Particles, by which those two and other less parts of Speech are tyed together as it were with Sinews, which when they are [Page 61]expressed, the Syntax is regular; when suppressed, it is figurative: as, Gladio percussus; supp. cum, ab. Devenere locos laetos. Virg. sc. ad, in. Hac non successit, aliâ aggrediemur viâ. Tersupple ergo, itaque, igitur, Hoc vero, ex quo suspicio nota est, me quaesivisse aliquid in quo te offenderem, translatitium est. Cic. that is, Nempe me quaesivisse.
Which is the eleventh Canon?
Every Accusative Case is governed either of a Verb of an Active signification, or of a Verbal, or of a Preposition (unless it comes before an Infinitive Mood,) wherefore when the Verb, &c. is understood, the Ellipsis ought to be supplied: as, En quatuor aras. Virg. supple Vide, Aspice. Bona verba quaeso; supp. Dic. Proh Deûm atque hominum fidem; puta Implore. Pridie Calendas; sc. Ante. Eo spectatum ludos; pro ad spectatum.
Which is the twelfth Canon?
Every Ablative Case is governed of a Preposition expressed or understood: [Page 62]as, Aegypto remeans, puta ab. Degit Carthagini, supple in. Rediit hoste superato, nempe ab. Plenus vino, sc. de. Doctior caeteris, subaudi prae.
A word more, and I have done. You have (I find to my great satisfaction) added to the Nine Canons inserted in the Oxford Grammar, Three others of no less importance; Therefore for my better confirmation in those necessary Maxims, as also for a Supplement to that excellent figurative Syntax, I desire to hear these Three additional Canons in Latin.
Canon VIII. Omne Verbum Infinitum habet pro supposito Accusativum, expressum aut suppressum in Latinâ constructione; In Graecâ verò, saepe Nominativum, plerumque autem Accusativum, aliquando utrumque.
Canon IX. Omne Nomen Comparatum habet suum Nomen Positivum, cum quo comparetur.
[Page 63]Canon X. Praeter Nomen & Verbum sunt certae particulae, quibus & illis duae, & aliae minores Orationis, partes velut nervis colligantur, variis significationibus assignatae, quae cum exprimuntur, Regularis; cum supprimuntur, figurata est Syntaxis.