CHAP. I. What ought to be considered and prepared, before you begin to Build.

BEfore you begin to Build, you ought carefully to con­sider every part of the Foundation and Ground-work of the Building which is to be raised. Three things in a Building (as saith Vitruvius) ought to be consider­ed, without which it will not deserve commendation: Those are usefulness or accommodation, lastingness and handsomness: For that work cannot be accounted perfect, which is useful but only for a short time, or not convenient for a longer; or having these two, hath not also decency: It will be commodious, when every part hath its due place and fit scituation, not below its dignity, nor above what its use requires; And they will be fitly disposed, when the Galleries, Halls, Chambers, Cellars, and Granaries are in their proper places. As for the lastingness, you regard that when all the Walls are right by the line, thicker below then above, and have good and sufficient foundations; [Page 2]and besides, the pillars above must be directly over the pillars below. And all the Apertures (as Doors and Windows) must be one above the other, so that the solid be upon the solid, and the vacant be upon the vacant. The handsomness will arise from the fair form, and the correspondence between the whole and its parts, of the parts among themselves, and of them to the whole: Because that a building ought to appear an intire and perfect body, wherein each member agrees with the others, and all the members be necessary to what you design.

These things considered, in the design and model, you ought then diligently to calculate all the charge that may arise, and make timely provision of money, and prepare what materials shall seem requisite: So that in building nothing may be defici­ent, and hinder the Complement of the work, it being no little praise to the builder, nor small advantage to the work, that it be finished with due expedition: And that all the Walls be at once laid out, and equally dispatched, from whence there will be none of those clefts which usually are seen in Fabricks finished unequally, and at divers times.

And therefore having chosen the most skilful Artists that you can get, that so the work may be the better carried on, by their advice; You are to provide Timber, Stones, Sand, Lime, and Metal; concerning which provision, you shall have some Adver­tisements, as to frame the Joists of the Hall and Chambers, pro­vide your self with so many Joists, as when framed, there may remain between them the space of a Joist and half.

In like manner, concerning Stone, you are to take notice, that to make the Jaumes of Doors and Windows, you are not to have stone bigger then a fifth, nor less then a sixth part of the light; And if you intend to adorn the building with Pillars or Pillasters, make the Bases, Capitels, and Architraves of stone, and the other parts of brick.

Besides, as for the Walls, you are to consider, that they ought to diminish according as they rise; which instruction will state the account right, and lessen great part of the charge: And be­cause all these parts may be discoursed of in their particular pla­ces, it shall suffice to have here given this general advice, which is as a rough draught of the whole building.

But besides the quantity, you are also to consider the quality and goodnesse of the materials, to chuse the best; Experience gained from the buildings of others will be a great help, because thereby we may easily know how to determine what is fit and expedient to our own purpose. And although Vitruvius, Leon Battista, Alberti, and other excellent Writers, have taught what is requisite in the choice of materials, yet that nothing may be wanting in these Books of mine, I shall speak of some, confining my self to the most necessary.

CHAP. II. Of Timber.

TImber (as Vitruvius hath it, cap. 9. book 2.) ought to be fel­led in Autumn, and through all the Winter: because then the Trees recover from the root that strength and soundnesse which in the Spring and Summer was dispersed into leaves and fruit; And you are to cut them in the wane of the Moon, be­cause the moisture which is most apt to rot wood, is then con­sumed: from whence there will not come the worm to hurt it. It should be cut but to the middle of the pith, and so left until it be dry, because by drops there will passe away that moisture which would cause putrefaction; Being cut, let it be laid in a place free from the extremities of Sun, Wind and Rain; and those ought chiefly to be kept dry, which are of spontaneous growth; and to the end that they may not cleave but dry equal­ly, you are to daub them over with Cow-dung; it should not be drawn through the dew, but in the afternoon, nor to be wrought being very wet or too dry: because the one makes it apt to rot, the other hard to work; nor will it in lesse then three years be dry enough, to use in Plankes, Doores and Windows. It is convenient for those who are about to build, to inform them­selves from men skilful in the nature of Timber, what Wood [Page 4]is fit for such use, and what not. Vitruvius, in the Chapter above mentioned, gives good instructions; and so other learned men who have written thereof at large.

CHAP. III. Of Stone.

SOme are Natural, some Artificial: The Natural are hewn out of the Quarry, and are either to make lime or to build walls; of those which are used for Lime, shall be spoken hereafter; those of which walls are built, are either Marble and hard Stone, or else soft and pliant. Marble, and hard Stone is to be wrought as soon as digg'd; for it will be at that time more easie to work, then when it hath remained a while in the Aire: Seeing the longer they are out of the Quarry, they become the harder, and must suddenly be put in hand; But the softer Stone (especially where its nature and sufficiency is not understood, as when 'tis digg'd in a place from whence formerly none has been taken) ought to be digg'd in Summer, and exposed to the Aire, and not to be used within two years; it must be digg'd in Summer, to the end that not being used to wind, rain, and frost, it may by degrees grow hard, and inabled to resist those injuries of the weather; and it should be left so long, that those which have been preju­diced may be put in foundations; and the others not spoiled (upon trial) are to be used above ground in Buildings, because they endure longest.

Artificial Stones, are from their form commonly called Qua­drells; These are made of a chalkie, whitish, and pliable earth; you must by all means avoid that which is gravelly and sandy; the earth must be digged in Autumn, and tempered in Winter, and so they may be well made in the Spring; But if necessity forces you to make them in the Winter or Summer, cover them in Winter with dry sand, and in Summer with straw, when made, [Page 5]they require a longer time to dry; and 'tis best that they dry in the shade, so that not only the outside, but the middle and all parts may be equally hardned, which cannot be done in less then two years. They are made bigger or less according to the qua­lity of the building, and the use to which they are intended; Therefore the Ancients made their bricks for publick and great buildings, larger then for small and private: The bigger sort ought to be hollowed in many places, that so they may dry and bake the better.

CHAP. IV. Of Sand.

THere are three sorts of Sand, that is to say, Pit-Sand, River-Sand, and Sea-Sand. Pit-Sand is of all the best, and is black, white, red, or cindry, which is a sort of earth burnt by fire inclosed in the Mountains, and digged up in Tuscany. There is also digged in Terra di Lavoro, in the Territories of Baia and Cuma, a Sand called by Vitruvius, Pozzolana, which suddenly knits together in water, and makes building very strong; it hath been found by long experience, that of all Pit-Sand, the white is the worse: And of River-Sand, that from the stream which is found in the falls of water is the best, because it is more purged. The Sea-Sand is worst of all, and black­ens and shines like glass, but that is better which is nearest the shore, and bigger. The Pit-Sand, because 'tis sat and tough (but apt to cleave) is therefore used in Walls and long Vaults. The River-Sand is very good for the covering, or rough-casting of Walls. Sea-Sand, because 'tis soon wet and soon dry, and moulders away by reason of the Salt, therefore is unfit to bear weight. All Sand is best in its kind, if being squeezed and handled, it crackles; and if being put upon a white cloth, it neither stains nor leaves it foul: that is bad, which mingled with [Page 6]water, makes it dirty and muddy, and which has for a long time been in the Aire, Sun, Moon, and Frost, because it will retain much earth and rotten humour, apt to bring forth shrubs and wild fig-trees, which are greatly hurtful to buildings.

CHAP. V. Of Lime, and how to work it.

STones, whereof Lime is made, are either digg'd out of the Hills, or taken out of the Rivers: All Stones of the Hills are good, which are dry without any moisture, and brittle, having no material in it; which when it passeth the fire shall leave the Stone lesse; Therefore that Lime will be best which is made of the hardest, sound, and white Stone, and being burnt remaines a third part lighter then its Stone. There are also certain sorts of Stone, the Lime whereof is very good for the setting of walls. In the Hills of Padua they dig a rugged Stone, whose Lime is ve­ry good in works which lie open, and in the water, because it presently hardens, and endures very long. All digg'd Stones are better to make Lime, then the gathered; and from a shady and moist pit, rather then a dry: the white is better to work then the brown; Stones which are gathered in Rivers and Brookes, that is to say, Pebbles, make excellent Lime, and very white, and neat work; Therefore tis generally us'd for finishing of Walls. All Stones, as well of the Hills as Rivers, are sooner or later burnt, according to the fire which is given them; but ordinarily they are burnt in sixty hours: Being burnt, wet them, but not pour on the water all at once, but at divers times, and frequently (that they may not burn) till they be well tempered: Afterwards put them in a moist and shady place without any mixture, onely cover them lightly with Sand; and by how much the more thorowly they are steeped, so much the more tough and better they will be: Except those which [Page 7]are made of rough Stones, as the Paduan, because they, as soon as they are wet, must be wrought, otherwise they waste and burn away; whence they will not hold, but become useless: for to make the Mortar, you must so mix the Sand, that taking of Pit-Sand, you must put three parts thereof with one of Lime; if Ri­ver or Sea-Sand, two parts thereof with one of Lime.

CHAP. VI. Of Metals.

THe Metals used in buildings are Iron, Lead, and Copper: Iron serves to make Nails, Hinges, and Chains, to fasten the Doors, to make Doors themselves, Grates, and the like works. It is no where found, and digged pure, but when digged is pur­ged by the fire, to the end it may be so melted, that it may run, and that before it be cool, the foulness may be taken away; but after it is purged and cooled, it heats well, and becomes soft, and easie to be wrought and beat out with a hammer. But it will not easily melt, if it be not put again into a fornace made for that purpose; if being red hot, it do not work nor yield to the hammer, it wastes and is spoiled. 'Tis a sign of the goodness of Iron, if in the mass you see the veins continued straight without interruption, and if the ends of the piece be clean and without soil: Because the said veins shew if the Iron be without knots and puffs, and you may understand the middle by the ends. Being wrought into plates square, or any other figure, if the sides be even, you may conclude, 'tis all alike good, having equally en­dured the hammer.

With Lead they cover stately Palaces, Churches, Towers, and other publick buildings, and Gutters and Pipes to convey water, and therewith they fasten the Hinges and Iron-work in the Jaumes of Doors and Windows. There are three sorts thereof, white, black, and of a colour between both, and [Page 8]by some called Ash-colour; the black is so called, not because 'tis really black, but because being white, with some blackness in it: Therefore in respect of the white, the Ancients with rea­son gave it that name. The white is more perfect and precious then the black, the Ash-colour is between both: Lead is digged either in great lumps found by themselves, or in small pieces, which shine with a certain blackness, or else in very thin flakes, amongst the Rocks, Marble and Stones. All sorts of Lead will easily run, because with the heat of the fire it melts before it is red hot: but put it into a very hot furnace, it loseth its nature and strength; for one part is changed into Litharge, and the other into dross. Of these sorts of Lead the black is soft, and therefore easily wrought with the hammer, and dilates much, and is very heavy. The white is harder and lighter, the Ash-colour is much harder then the white, and of middle weight be­tween both.

With Copper sometimes they cover publick buildings; and the Ancients made Nails or Bolts, which fastned in the stones above and below, kept the stones from falling out of order, and the Claspes or Hooks placed to hold two stones together; and they used these Nails and Claspes, because that buildings which can't possibly be made without many pieces of stones may (by being thus joyned and bound together) as it were become one stone, and so more strong and durable. They also made Nails and Claspes of Iron, but more often of Copper, because they will last longer, not being so subject to rust. Also they made Letters for Inscriptions, which they placed on the borders of buildings: And we read that of this Metal were the hundred famous gates of Babylon; and in the Isles of Cades, the two Pillars of Hercules eight cubits high. That is esteemed the best, which burnt and extracted from Mineral by fire, is red, inclin­ing to yellow, of a good grain, and full of holes; for that is a sign 'tis well purged, and free from dross: Copper may be heated like Iron, and made liquid, so that it may be cast; but in ex­tream hot furnaces, it will not endure the force of the flame, but totally consume. Although it be hard, nevertheless it submits to the hammer, and dilates it self into thin Leaves; it is best pre­served by Tar: and although it doth not rust like Iron, [Page 9]yet it hath a kind of rust which is called Verdegreece, especially if it touch sharp and liquid things; of this metal mixed with Tin, or Lead, or Latten (which is also Copper) and coloured with Lapis Calaminaris, is made a metal commonly called Brass; which oftentimes Architects do use, as in Bases, Pillars, Ca­pitels, Statues, and such like. In Rome are four Columns of Brasse (at St. Giovanni Lateranno) of which one only has its Capitel, and were made, by Augustus, of metal which was taken from the stems of ships, which he took in Egypt from M. An­tonio: There remains also in Rome, to this day, four ancient gates, which are those of the Rotunda, which formerly was the Pantheon; That of St. Adriano, which was the Temple of Sa­turnus; That of St. Cosmo and Damiano, which was the Temple of Castor and Pollux, or rather of Romulus and Remus; And that which is in St. Agnes, without the gate Viminalis; But the most beautiful of all these, is that of St. Maria Rotunda, wherein those Ancients did endeavour to imitate by art that kind of Corinthian metal, in which the natural yellow of Gold prevailed: for we read that when Corinth was destroyed and burnt, (which now is called Coranto) thus they melted and mixed in one mass, Gold, Silver, and Copper, and fortune tempered, and made the mixture of three sorts, which after­wards was called Corinthian: In one of them the Silver prevail­ed, whence it remained white, and very near it in lustre: In another the Gold prevailed, and remained yellow, and of a Gold colour: And the third was, where all these three metals were of an equal temperament; and these species have been since divers wayes imitated. Hitherto I have discoursed of those things seeming most necessary to be considered and pre­pared before building; It now remaines that something be said of foundations, the materials whereof being prepared, the work may be proceeded on.

CHAP. VII. Of the Qualities of Ground, wherein Foundations are to be laid.

THe Base of the building is that which we call the Foundati­on, which is to say, the part which is under ground, uphold­ing the rest of the building that is above ground; Therefore of all the errours which do happen in building, those are the most perni­cious which are committed in the foundation, because they bring with them the ruine of the whole Fabrick, nor can without great difficulty be amended; Whence the Architects ought to use their utmost diligence: Because in some places they have a natural foundation, and in other places it is necessary to use Art.

A Natural Foundation is when we build on Stone, a soft sandy or moldring Stone, or Gravel; for these, without digging, or other helps of Art, are of themselves excellent foundations, and most fit to uphold the greatest building both on Land and in Water: But if nature affords not a foundation, it must be attempted by Art, and then the place you have to build on, is either a solid earth, or a gravelly, sandy, mossie, soft, and moorish place. If the earth be fast and firm, you may dig so far as to a discreet Architect may seem requisite for the quality of the building, and soundnesse of the earth: and (when you intend not to make Cellars, or other under-ground Offices) your depth is to be a sixth part of the height of the building; To know this firmness, observation from the digging of Wells, Cisterns, and such like, will help well; and it's also known by Herbs growing there, if they usually spring up onely in firm and fast grounds; and besides, 'tis a sign of firm ground, if a great weight thrown thereon, it neither sounds nor shakes; And from the Report of Drums being set on the ground, and lightly touched, it does not resound again, and if water put in a vessel doth not shake: The neighbouring places will also give you to understand the [Page 11]fastness and firmness of the earth: But if the place be sandy or gravelly, observe whether it be on land or in water: for if it be on land, you must take notice what hath been before directed, concerning fast ground; And if you build in a River, the Sand and Gravel is altogether useless, because the water with its continual stream and flood often changes its bed: Therefore dig till you come to a bottom sound and firm; or if that be difficult, dig somewhat in the Sand and Gravel, and then place piles whose ends may reach to the sound and good earth, and upon those you are to build: But if you are to build upon a mossie, and loose ground, then you must dig till you find sound earth, and therein also so much as the bigness of the walls and the great­ness of the building require.

This sound ground (and fit to uphold building) is of divers sorts; for (as Alberti well saith) somewhere so hard, as 'tis scarce to be cut with Iron; somewhere very stiff, somewhere black­ish, somewhere whitish (which is accounted the weakest) some­where like chalk, somewhere sandy; of all these the best is that which is cut with most labour, and when wet, doth not dissolve into dirt.

You should not build upon a ruine or old foundation, if first of all you know not its depth, and whether it be sufficient to bear the building; But if the earth be soft and sinks much, as in moorish grounds, then you must place piles, whose length must be an eighth part of the height of the Wall, and in thickness a twelfth part of their length: The piles must be placed as close as one can stand by the other, and are to be rammed in with blows, rather quick then heavy, so that the earth may the better consolidate and fasten. You must place the piles not on­ly under the out-walls, upon the Trench or Gutturs, but also un­der the inner-walls, which divide the building: for if you make the foundation for the inner-walls different from those without, then laying Beams along one by the other, and o­thers athwart them above; oftentimes it happens, that the in­ner-walls fall down, when those without being placed on piles, stir not: Whence all walls come to cleave, the which render the building ruinous, and is very uncomely to look on; Wherefore you must avoid this danger, making the piling work [Page 12]of less charge; for according to proportion of walls, the piles in the middle may be placed thinner then them without.

CHAP. VIII. Of Foundations.

FOundations ought to be twice so thick as the walls to be raised thereon, and therein the quality of the earth, and the greatness of the building is to be regarded, making them more large in soft and looser ground, and where there is a great weight to be sustained. The plain of the Trench must be Level, so that the weight may press equally, and not inclining to one part more then another, may prevent the cleaving of the walls. For this reason the Ancients used to pave the plain with Tiver­tine, Tivertine, a certain stone brought from Tivoli. and we lay Planks and Beams, and build thereon.

Foundations are made sloping, that is to say, to diminish as they rise; yet so, as that there may be so much left on one side, as on the other: so that the middle of that above may fall per­pendicularly upon the middle of the lower work, which must be also observed in the diminution of Walls above ground; because by this means the building becomes much stronger, then by making the diminutions any other way.

There is sometimes made (especially in moorish grounds where there is need of piles) to avoid charge, Foundations dis­continued but with certain Vaults, upon which they afterwards build. In great buildings 'tis very commendable to make vents through the body of the Walls, from the Foundation to the Roof, because they let forth the wind (which is very prejudicial to buildings) lessen the charge, and are of no small convenience, if in them you make winding stairs from the bottom to the top.

CHAP. IX. Of the Fashion of Walls.

THe Foundations being laid, it remains that we treat of the Superstructure. The Ancients had six sorts of Walls; One called Reticolata, or Net-work: another of Quadrells, or Brick: a third of Cement, which is of rough stones from the Hills or Ri­vers: a fourth of various stones: a fifth of squared stones: the sixth Riempiuta, which is also called Coffer-work. Of the Net­work there is no use at all in these days; but because Vitruvius relates it was common in his time, I do here put also that design. They made the Coignes and Corners of their building of Qua­drells, and every two foot and half took up three Courses of Qua­drells, which bound the whole thickness of the Wall.

• A. Coignes, or Corners of Quadrells.
• B. Courses of Quadrells, which bind the whole Wall.
• C. The Net-work.
• D. The Courses of Quadrells, through the thickness of the Wall.
• E. The inner part of the Wall made of Cement.

Walls of Brick, or Quadrells, both those about Cities, and other great Edifices, must be so made, that the inside and outside may be of Quadrells, and in the middle filled up with Cement, and with brick, earth, and stone, rammed together; and to every three foot in height, there must be three Courses of Qua­drells of the biggest sort, which may take the whole breadth of the Wall. And the first Course must be laid with the length inward, that the lesser part of the brick be exposed: The second, the length laid side-ways, and the third as the first. Of this sort are the Walls of the Rotunda in Rome, and the Bathes of Diocle­sian, and all other ancient buildings which are there.

• E. The Courses of Quadrells, which bind the whole Wall.
• F. The middle part of the Wall made of Cement, between one Course and the other, and the outward Quadrells.

The Walls of Cement must be made so, that to every two foot at least, there be three Courses of Quadrells or Brick; And that the Quadrells or Brick, be prepared according to the manner aforesaid. Such are the Walls of Turin in Piedmont, which are made of River-pebbles split in the middle, which being placed with the split side outwards, make very even and smooth work. The Walls of the Arena of Verona are likewise of Cement; and there are three Courses of Quadrells to every three foot: And in like manner are made other ancient Edifices, as appears in my Books of Antiquities.

• G. Cement or River Pebbles.
• H. Courses of Quadrells which bind the whole Wall.

The Walls of irregular stones were so called, because they were made of Stones of unequal sides and Angles; And to make these Walls, they used a plumb Rule, which applied to the place where the Stone was to be put, served to place them straight and even: Thereby to try, time after time, if the Stone stood right in the designed place. Of this sort may be seen Walls at Preneste, and Ancient streets were paved in this manner.

• I. Irregular Stones.

At Rome may be seen Walls of squared Stones, where was the Piazza, and the Temple of Augustus, in which they locked in the lesser Stones with Courses of greater.

• K. Courses of lesser Stones.
• L. Courses of bigger Stones.

The manner Riempiuta, or filled Walls, which is also called Cof­fer-work, which the Ancients did use; Taking Planks, and pla­cing them edge-wise, allowing so much space as they would have the thicknesse of the Wall, filling it with mortar, and stones of all sorts mingled together; and so they went on from Course to Course. There is seen such like Walls at Sermion, upon the Lake De Grada.

• M. Plankes put edge-wise.
• N. The inner part of the Wall.
• O. The face of the Wall, the Plankes taken away.

Of this kind may be called the ancient walls of Naples, which had two walls of squared Stones four foot thick, and six foot distant th' one from the other; those walls were bound toge­ther, with other crosse Walls, and the Cases which were between the Traverse Walls and the Out-Walls were four foot square, and were filled up with Stones and Earth.

• P. The Outward Stone Wall.
• Q. The Traverse Walls.
• R. Cases filled with stones and Earth.

These were the formes of which the Ancients did serve them­selves, and the foot-steps thereof are yet to be seen; whence it may be concluded, that Walls of what sort soever ought to have some Tires or Courses, which are like sinewe; that hold [Page 16]fast all other parts together, which chiefly may be observed when Walls are made of Brick: For the structure through age falling asunder in the middle, the Walls may not become ruinous, as hath hapned, and is seen in many Walls, especially on that side which respects the North.

CHAP. X. Of the Method which the Ancients did practise in making their Stone Buildings.

BEcause it happens, that sometimes buildings are made (the whole, or good part) of Marble, or some other great stones; I think it convenient, in this place, to acquaint you what the Ancients did in such cases; For we may observe, in their work, that they were so diligent in joining their stones together, that in many places their connexion can scarcely be perceived. And besides, the Beauty, Firmnesse, and Duration of the Fabrick, is very much to be regarded.

And for as much as I can understand, they first squared and wrought the sides of the stones which were to be placed one upon the other, leaving the other sides rough, and so used them; whereupon the edges of the stones were beyond the square, and might manage them better, and more variously attempt to place them right without danger of breaking, then if they had been squared on all sides before; For when the edges are made square, or less then square, they are very weak and subject to accidents: In this manner they made all buildings rough, or, as one may say, rustick; And that being done, they go on working and polishing the face of the stone which is to be seen. It is true that the Roses which are between the Modilions, and other such like ornaments of the Cornich, could not commodiously be done when the stones were fixed, therefore they made them while [Page 17]they were on the ground. This is well attested by many an­cient buildings, where may be seen many stones rough and un­polished. The Arch by the old Castle in Verona, and all other the Arches and buildings there, were done in the same manner; which is easily made out by one curious in observing the marks of their Tools, that is to say, the manner how the stones were wrought. The pillars of Trajan, and Antonine in Rome, were so made, nor could they otherwise have so exactly joyned the stones, that might so closely meet where they go cross the heads, and other parts of the figures. And the same may be said of the other Arches which are there.

And if the works were very great, as the Arena of Verona, the Amphitheatre of Pola, and the like, to save charge and time, which they would have required, they wrought only the Imposts of the Arches, Capitells, and the Corniches; and the rest they left Rustick, having only regard to the fair front of the building. But in Temples, and other buildings, which required curiosity, they spared no pains in the working them, and gla­zing and smoothing even the very fluces of the Columns, and polishing them diligently. Therefore, in my judgment, you should not make Walls of Brick in the Rustick manner, much less Mantles of Chimnies, which require curious work; For besides the unhandsomness, 'twill happen that they will split and divide asunder, which naturally ought to be intire; But accord­ing to the greatness and quality of the building, you may make them Rustick or Polite: And in a work that requires altogether neatness, we need not do as the Ancients used, with Reason, and necessitated by the greatness of their works.

CHAP. XI. Of the Diminution of Walls, and of their parts.

IT is to be observed, that by how much the higher the Walls are, so much the narrower they must be; Therefore that part which is above ground is to be one half thinner then the foun­dation, and the second story a half brick thinner then the first; and so continue till you come to the top of the building, but with discretion, that it be not too weak. The middle of the upper Wall ought to fall direct to the middle of the Lower, that so all the Walls be in a Pyramidal form. But if you would make a superficies, or face of a Wall, above, directly over that be­low, it must be on the inner part; because the raftrings of the Floors, the Vaults, and other supporters of the building, may not suffer the Wall to fall or give way. The discharged part, which is on the outside, must be supplyed with a Border or Corniche, incompassing the whole building, which will be an ornament and fastning to the whole Fabrick.

The Angles, because they partake of both sides, and are to keep them upright and fast together, must be very strong, and held with long hard stones, as it were with armes; Therefore the Windows and Apertures must be as far from them as may be; or at least, so much space must be left between the Aperture and the Angle, as is the breadth of the Aperture.

Having spoken of meer Walls, 'tis convenient to passe to the ornaments, the greatest whereof are the Columns when they are meetly placed, and have fair proportion to the whole Fa­brick.

CHAP. XII. Of the Five Orders used by the Ancients.

FIve were the Orders among the Ancients, that is to say, the Tuscan, Dorick, Ionick, Corinthian, and Composita, which ought to be so disposed in the building, that the strongest be set lowest; for then 'twill be more capable to bear the weight, and the building will have a more sure foundation: Wherefore they alwayes place the Dorick under the Ionick, the Ionick under the Corinthian, and the Corinthian under the Composita; the Tuscan, as being rude, seldom is used above ground, unlesse in a building of one order onely, as in Town-houses, or in vast build­ings, as Amphitheaters and such like, where being many orders, this instead of the Dorick is placed under the Ionick; and if you leave out one of them, and place, for example, the Corinthian im­mediately over the Dorick, which may be done according to the Rule aforesaid, provided alwayes, that the more solid be the lowest. I shall set down, particularly, the measures of each of these Orders; not so much according to the Doctrine of Vitru­vius, as according to my own observations in Ancient buildings; But first I shall say those things which belong to all in general.

CHAP. XIII. Of the swelling of Columns, and their diminutions; of Inter-columns and Pillasters.

COlumns of every Order must be so formed, that the up­per part must be lesser then the lower, and the middle somewhat thick; In diminishing it must be observed, that by [Page 20]how much longer the Columns are, so much the less must they be diminished, in regard that the height of it self works the effect of diminishing by the distance; Therefore if the Column be 15 foot high, the Diametre of the Column below must be divided into 6½ parts, and the Diametre thereof above shall be 5½ of those parts. If from 15. to 20. the Dia­metre below must be divided into 7 parts, and 6½ must be the thickness of the upper part; So likewise those which are from 20. to 30. the Diametre below must be divided into 8 parts, and 7. must be the Diametre of the upper part, and so the Co­lumns which are higher are to be diminished proportionably by their several parts, as Vitruvius shews in his Second Chapter of his Third Book. But how the swelling is to be made in the middle, we have no more to shew from him then a bare promise; and therefore many have written variously thereof. I am wont to make the profile of the said swelling in this manner; I di­vide the body of the Column into three equal parts, and leave the lower third part perpendicular, at the end of which I lay a long thin rule as long as the Column, or a little more, and move that part which reacheth from the third part upwards, and bend it till the end touch at the point of the diminution, at the top of the Column under the Collarino or Astragal; accord­ing to that bending I proceed, and so the Column becomes somewhat swelled in the middle, and appears very handsome; And although I could not have contrived (besides this) a form either shorter or more expedient, or that might be more accep­table; I am yet more confirmed in this my opinion, since it hath so much pleased Pr. Cattan [...]o, that (I having told him of it) he hath put it into one of his Works of Architecture, with which he hath not a little Illustrated this profession.

• A. B. The third part of the Column which is perpendicular.
• B. C. The two thirds diminished.
• C. The point of the Diminution under the Collarino or Astragal.

The Inter-Columns, that is to say, the spaces between the Columns, may be made of a Diametre, and ½ of the Column, and the Diametre is to be taken at the lower part of the Column, of two Diametres, of two and ¼. of three, and sometimes of more. But the Ancients were not wont to allow more then three Diametres of the Column, except in the Tuscan Order, in which the Architrave is wont to be of wood; They made the Inter-columns very large, not lesse then a Diametre and half, and this space they allowed sometimes, especially when they made the columns very bigg; But those Inter-co­lumns were most preferred that were of two Diametres, and ¼ of the Column; and they accounted this the most noble and beautiful manner of the Inter-columns.

And you ought to take notice, that between the Inter-columns and the Columns, there ought to be proportion and correspondence, for leaving too much vacancy between small Columns, you will take away great part of their beauty; be­cause the great quantity of air that will be between them will diminish very much their thicknesse; And on the contrary, leaving too little space to the great Columns, by the streight­nesse and narrownesse of the spaces they will appear gouty, and very ungraceful: Therefore if the spaces exceed three Diametres, you must make the Columns in thicknesse a seventh part of their height, as I observe hereafter in the Tuscan Order; But if the spaces shall be three Diametres, the length of the Column must be 7½. or eight, as in the Dorick Order; And if 2¼ the length of the Column must be 9 Diametres, as in the Ionick; If 2. the length of the Column must be 9½ as in the Corinthian. Lastly, if 1½. the length of the Column must be 10. as in the Composita. Concerning these Orders, I have took this care, th [...]t they may be examples for all other Inter-columns, which Vi­truvius intimates in the Chapter aforesaid.

In the front of Buildings, the Columns ought to be an even number, so that the middle Inter-column may be made bigger then the rest, that the Doors and Entries may be the better seen; which usually are placed in the middle: And thus much for Pillar-work only.

But if Galleries be made with Pillasters, they must be so dis­posed, [Page 24]that the Pillasters be not less then a third of the vacan­cy between Pillaster and Pillaster, and those at the corners must be two thirds bigger then the other, that so the Angles of the Fabrick may be firm and strong; And when they are to support an extraordinary great weight, as in very great buildings, then they must be the half of the vacancy: as those of the Theatre of Vicenza, and the Amphitheatre at Capua: or else two thirds, as those of the Theatre of Marcellus in Rome, and of the Theatre of Ogubas, which now belongs to Sig. Lodovico de Gabrielli, a Gentleman of that City. The Ancients also made them some­times as large as the whole vacant, as in the Theatre of Verona, in that part which is not upon the Hill. But in private buildings, they are not to be made less then a third of the vacant, nor larger then two thirds, and they ought to be square; But to save charge, and to make room to walk more freely, they may be made less in the flank then in the front.

And to adorn the Frontis-piece, you may put in the middle of the front half Columnes, or other Pillasters which may bear up the Corniche, which shall be upon the Arches of the Gallery; and they must be as large as their height shall require, according to their several orders, as in the ensuing Chapters and designes may appear; For the understanding whereof (that I may not repeat the same thing often) you may understand, that I in the dividing and measuring the said Orders, would not take a cer­tain and determinate measure, which is peculiar to any City, as Cubit, Foot or Span; well knowing, that Measures are as various as the Cities and Countries. But in imitation of Vitruvius, who divides the Dorick Order with a Measure taken from the thick­ness of the Column, which is common to all, and by him cal­led a Module: I will also serve my self with such a Measure in all the Orders, and the Module shall be the Diametre of the Column, taken at the Base, divided into 60 parts; except in the Dorick, in which the Module is to be the half Diametre of the Column, and is divided into 30 parts: for so it falls more commodious in the Compartiments of the said Order. Wherefore every one may serve himself (making the Module greater or les­ser, according to the quality of the Fabrick) with the propor­tions and profiles designed convenient to every Order.

CHAP. XIV. Of the Tuscan Order.

THE Tuscan Order, according to that which Vitruvius writes of it, and is so indeed, is the most simple and intire of all the Orders of Architecture: because it retains the most of Antique, and wants all those Ornaments which renders the others so pleasant and agreeable. This had its Original in Tuseana, a place very remarkable in Italy, whence the Name is derived.

The Column with it's Base and Capitel, ought to be in length seven Models, and at the top are diminished a fourth part of their Diametre, having occasion of a row of Columns of this Order only, you may make the Inter-columnes very large; Because the Architraves may be of wood, and will be very convenient for Country use, for the passage in and out of Carts, and other Country conveniences; and besides the charge will be less; But if you make Gates or Galleries with Arches, you must observe the Measures that I have marked in the design, in which you may observe the Stones so disposed or joined to­gether, as when the whole work is of Stone; The which I have also directed in the designs of the other four Orders.

And this way of disposing and fastning the Stones, I have derived from many Ancient Arches, as appears in my Bookes of Arches; and herein I have used great dili­gence.

• A. Architrave of wood.
• B. The ends of the Summers which bear up the projecture of the Cornice.

The Pedestals which are made under the Columnes of this Order must be the height of one Model, and made plain. The height of the Base is to be the half Diametre of the Column. This height must be divided into two equal parts; one is given to the Orlo or Plinth, which must be made round; the other is divided into four parts; One for the Listella, or Cincture, which may be made a little less, and is also called Cimbia; and in this Order only is part of the Column, the other three are for the Totus. The Projecture of this Base is a sixth part of the Diametre of the Column below. The Capitel is the height of half the Diametre of the Column below, and is di­vided into three equal parts. One is given to the Abacus, which from its form is commonly called Dado, or Dye. The other to the Ouolo, or Echinus, and the third is divided into seven parts, of one is made the Listella under the Ouolo, and the other six re­main to the Collorino, or neck of the Columne. The Astragal is double, the height of the Listella under the Ouolo, and the Centre thereof, is made upon the line, which falls plum upon the said Listella, and upon the same line doth fall the projecture of the Cimbia, which is as thick as the Listella. The Projecture of the Capitel answers to the body of the Column below; Its Architrave is made of Wood as high as broad; and the breadth ought not to exceed the body of the Column at the top. The Summers which carry out the Eaves, projecteth a fourth part of the length of the Column. These are the Measures of the Tus­can Order, as Vitruvius teacheth.

• A. Abacus.
• B. Echinus.
• C. Hypotrachelium, or frize of the Capitel.
• D. Astragal.
• E. Body of the Column above.
• F. Body of the Column below.
• G. Annulet Geincture, or Listella.
• H. Torcus.
• I. Orlo, or Plintb.
• K. Pedestal, or Stylobatum.

The Profiles which are placed by the plain of the B [...]se and Ca­pitel, are the Imposts of the Arches.

But if they make the Architraves of stone, it must be obser­ved, which was spoken before of the Inter-columns; There is to be seen some Ancient Buildings, which may be said to be built according to this Order, because they retain in part the same Measures, as is the Arena of Verona, and Theatre of Pola, and many others; of which I have undertaken the profiles, not only of the Base of the Capitel of the Architrave of the Freze and of the Cornice, put down in the last page of this Chapter. But also those of the Imports of Arches; and of all these build­ings, I shall put the designs in my Books of Antiquities.

• A. Scima Recta.
• B. Corona.
• C. The projecture of the Corona, and the Scima Recta.
• D. Cavetto.
• E. Freze.
• F. Archetrave.
• G. Cimatium.
• H. Abacus. of the Capitel.
• I. Scima Recta, of the Capitel.
• K. Hypotrachelium, or frize of the Capitel.
• L. Astragolus.
• M. Body of the Column under the Capitel.
• N. Body of the Column below.
• O. Annulet, or Cincture.
• P. Torus, or Scima Reversa.
• Q. Orlo, or Plinth of the Base.

Over against the Archetrave marked F. is the profile or design of an Archetrave very curiously wrought.

CHAP. XV. Of the Dorick Order.

THE Dorick Order had its Original and name from the Dorians, a Grecian people which dwelt in Asia; The Columnes when made alone without Pilasters, ought to be seven and a half, or eight Diametres long; The Inter-columns are little less than three Diametres of the Columnes. And this manner of placing Columnes, by Vitruvius, is called Dyastylos; but if they join to Pilasters, they must be together with the Base and Capitel seventeen Models, and one third in length; And you must observe, that (as I have said before in the 13. Chapter) the Model in this Order only is the half of the Dia­metre of the Column, divided into thirty parts; And in all the other Orders, it is the whole Diametre, divided into sixty parts.

Amongst Ancient Buildings, we see no Pedestals to this Or­der, yet they are seen amongst the Modern. And if you join a Pedestal to them, you must make the Dado of the Pedestal a perfect square; and from it you must take the measures of its Ornament: Therefore it must be divided into four equal parts, the Base with its Zocco or Plinth must be two of them, and the Cymacium one, to which must be joined the Orlo, or Plinth of the Base of the Column. This kind of Pedestal may also be seen in the Corinthian Order, as at Verona, in the Arch which is called De Lioni. I have set down divers Measures of designs, which may be joined to the Pedestal of this Order, which are all very agree­able, and taken from Antiquity, and are very carefully measured. This Order hath no proper Base, wherefore in many Buildings, you may see Columns without Bases; as in Rome, in the Theatre of Marcellus, in the Temple De la Pieta, near to the said Thea­tre; in the Theatre of Vicenza, and in divers other places. But sometimes the Attick Base is joined to them, which adds very much to their Beauty, and here is the Measure of it.

The height is the half Diametre of the Column, and is di­vided into three equal parts, one is given to the Zocco or Plinth; The other two are divided into two parts, of one is ma [...]e the Torus superiour, and the other which remains is divided into two, and one is given to the Torus inferiour, and the other to the Scocia, or Cavetto with its Annulets. Therefore if you di­vide it into six parts, of one must be made the Annulet above, and of the other that below, and four must remain to the Sco­cia. The projecture must be the fixth part of the Diametre of the Column; The Ceincture must be the half of the upper Torus: if it be divided from the Base, its projecture must be the third part of the whole projecture of the Base. But if the Base and part of the Column shall be of one piece, you must make the Ceincture small; as you may see in the third design of this Order, where are also two manners of Imposts of Arches.

• A: Body of the Column.
• B. Annulet, or Ceincture.
• C. The upper Torus.
• D. Scocia with its Annulets.
• E. The lower Torus.
• F. Plinth, or Zocco.
• G. Cimacium. of the Pedestal.
• H. Dado, or Square. of the Pedestal.
• I. Base. of the Pedestal.
• K. Imposts of Arches.

The height of the Capitel ought to be the half Diametre of the Column below, and is divided into three parts; That above shall be divided into five parts, three shall be for the A­bacus, and the other two parts for the Cimatium, the which must be subdivided into three parts; of one is made the Listella, or Annulet, and of the other two, the Scima Recta. The second part is divided into three equal parts, one is given to the Annulet which are three, and are equal, the other two which re­mains to the Ouolo, or Echynus, whose projecture is two thirds of its height. The third principal part of the said Capitel, is for the Hypotrachelium, or Frize of the Capitel, given to the Collarino; The whole projecture is the fifth part of the Diametre of the Column. The Astragal is as high as all the three An­nulets, and is in projecture equal to the body of the Column below. The Annulet or Ceincture, is half the height of the Astragal, the projecture thereof is plum with the Centre of the said Astragal.

Upon the Capitel is made the Architrave, which is to be in height half the thickness of the Column, that is to say, one Model; It is divided into seven parts, of one is made the Tenia, whose projecture must be equal to its height. The whole is divided into six parts, one whereof is given to the Guttae, the which ought to be six in number, and to the Listella which is under the Tenea, which is a third of the said Guttae. The rest is divided into seven parts, from the Tenia downwards, three whereof is given to the first Fascia, and four to the second. The Frize is in height a Model and half, the breadth of the Trigliph, is one Model, and its Capitel is the sixth part of a Model. The Trigliph is divided into six parts, two whereof is given to the two chanels in the middle, and one to the two half chanels at the extremities, and the other three make the spaces that are below the said chanels. The Metopa, that is to say, the space be­tween two Trigliphs ought to be so broad as high.

The Cornice ought to be in height one Model, and a sixth part, and is divided into five parts and a half; two whereof is given to the Cavetto and Ouolo; The Cavetto is less than [Page 52]the Ouolo, as much as is the Listella; The other three and half is given to the Corona, and for the Scima Reversa, and Scima Recta.

The Corona ought to have in projecture four six parts of the Model, and on its plain which looketh downwards, and pro­jecteth forth, must have in length six Guttae, and three in breadth over the Trigliphs with their lists, and over the Metopa certain Roses.

The Guttae, or bells, answer to those which are under the Tenea, which are made in form like a Bell.

The Cimatium must be an eight part thicker than the Co­rona, and is divided into eight parts: two whereof is given to the Orlo or Listella, and six remains to the Cimatia, whose projecture is seven parts and a half. Whereupon the Architrave, the Frize, and the Cornice, fall out to be in height the fourth part of the length of the Column; and these are the measures; of the Cornice, according to Vitruvius, from whom I have a little swerved, altering the members, and making them a little bigger▪

• A. Scima Recta.
• B. Scima Reversa.
• C. Coronna.
• D. Ouolo.
• E. Cavetto.
• F. The Capitels of the Trigliph.
• G. Trigliph.
• H. Metopa.
• I. Tenia.
• K. Guttae.
• L. Prima Fascia.
• M. Seeunda Fascia.

• N. Cimatium.
• O. Abacus.
• P. Ouolo, or Echinus.
• Q. Annulets.
• R. Hypotrachelium, or Frize.
• S. Astragal.
• T. Listella, or Ceincture.
• V. Body of the Column.
• X. The Plain of the Capitel, and the model divided into thirty parts.
• Y. The under part of the Coronna.

CHAP. XVI. Of the Ionick Order.

THe Ionick Order had its Original in Ionia, a Province in Asia; and we read, that the Temple of Diana at Ephesus was built of this Order: The Columns, with Capitel and Base, are nine models long, and by a model is understood the Dia­metre of the Column below. The Archetrave Frize, and Cornice, are the fifth part of the height of the Column; In the follow­ing design, which is of Columns alone, the Inter-columns are of two Diametres, and a fourth part. And this is the fair­est and most commodious manner of Inter-columns, and by Vitruvius is called Eustillos. In the other design, which is of Arches. The Pilasters are in breadth a third part of the height of the Arch; and the Arches are in height two squares.

If you put a Pedestal to the Columns of the Ionick Order, as in the design of the Arches, it must be made as high as half the bredeth of the light of the Arch, and must be divided into seven parts and half, of two of them shall be made the Base of one; the Cimatium, and four and half, which remains, shall be for the Dado, or square of the Pedestal.

The Base of this Order is in thicknesse half a model, and is divided into three parts; one is for the Plinth, it's projecture is the fourth part of the said thicknesse, and consequently the eight part of a model. The other two parts of the Base are divided into seven, of three is made the upper Torus; The other four are divided again into two parts, one is given to the Scotia above, and the other to that below, which ought to have more projecture then the other.

The Astragals ought to have the eight part of the Scotia; The Ceincture of the Column is the third part of the Torus of the Base; But if it be so that you make the Base joyn with part of the Column, you must make the Ceincture small, as I have also said in the Dorick Order, the Ceincture hath in projecture half the projecture aforesaid; These be the measures of the Io­nick Base, according to Vitruvius.

But because in many antique buildings are seen to this Or­der Attick Bases, and to me seems more agreeable, upon the Pedestal; I have designed the Attick Base with a small Torus or Astragal, under the Ceincture; not omiting therefore to make the design thereof as Vitruvius teacheth us.

The designes L. are two different profiles for to make the Imposts of Arches; and of each there is set down the Measures by Numbers, which shew the parts of a model, as is done in all the other designes; These Imposts are in height half as much again as the thicknesse of the Pillaster which supports the Arch.

• A. Body of the Column.
• B. The Astragal with the Ceincture, which are members of the Column.
• C. Ʋpper Torus.
• D. The bollow called Scotia.
• E. The lower Torus.
• F. The Plinth fastned to the Cymatium of the Pedestal.
• G. Cymatium in two formes of the Pedestal.
• H. Dodo, or plain square. of the Pedestal.
• I. Base in two formes. of the Pedestal.
• K. Orlo, or Plinth.
• L. Imposts for the Arches.

To make the Capitel, the foot of the Column must be divided into eighteen parts, and nineteen of such parts is the breadth and length of the Abacus, and the half is the height of the Capitel with the Voluta; whereupon it becomes to be nine parts and a half high: one and half is for the Abacus with its Cimatium, the o­ther eight remains to the Voluta, which is made in this manner. From the extremity of the Cimatium, within, is placed one of the nineteen parts, and from the point which is there made, is let fall a line plumb, which divides the Voluta in the middle, and is called Catheta; And where the point falls in this line which seperates the four parts and half above, and the three and half below, there is made the Centre of the eye of the Voluta; whose Diametre is one of the eight parts; and from the said point is drawn a line which intercects at right Angles. The Catheta divides the Voluta into four parts, in the eye of which is formed a square, the bignesse whereof is the half Dia­metre of the said eye. The Diagonal lines being drawn in it, in them are made the points where the fixed foot of the Compass is to stand to make the Voluta, and they are (computing the Centre of the eye) thirteen Centres; as to the Order which must be observe in them, it appears by the number placed in the Design. The Astragal of the Column is right against the eye of the Voluta; The Volutes are as thick in the middle as is the projecture of the Ouolo or Echinus, which reacheth beyond the Abacus, so much as is the eye of the Voluta; the hollow of the Voluta is even with the body of the Column. The Astragal of the Column turns about under the Voluta, and is alwayes seen: as appears in the plat-form of the Column; And 'tis na­tural, that so slender a thing as is the Voluta should give way to one so hard as is the Astragal; and the Voluta is alwayes equal­ly distant from it.

They were wont to make in the Angles of Rowes, of Co­lumns, or porches of the Ionick Order, Capitels which had the Voluta not only in the front, but also in that part that making the Capitel, as they were wont to do, would be the flank; Whereupon they come to have the front on two sides, and are called Angular Capitels; and how they made them, I shall de­monstrate in my Book of Temples.

The Architrave, Frize, and Cornice, make (as I have said) the fifth part of the height of the Column, and the whole is divided into twelve parts; The Architrave four, the Frize three, and the Cornice five: the Architrave is divided into five parts, of one is made the Cimatium, and the rest are divided into twelve, three are given to the first Fascia, and its Astragal, four to the second and its Astragal, and five to the third.

The Cornice is divided into seven parts, ¾. two are given to the Scotia and Ouolo, two the Modilions, and the ¾. to the Coronna, and Scima Recta, and projecteth forwards as much as its thicknesse.

I have designed the Front, the Flank, and the Plat-form of the Capitel, the Architrave, Frize, and Cornice, with their convenient Sculptures.

CHAP. XVII. Of the Corinthian Order.

AT Corinth a noble City of Peloponese, or Morée, first of all was found the Order which is called Corinthian, which is more adorned and beautified then any I have yet treated on.

The Columnes are like the Ionick, and with the Base and Capitel joyned to them, they are nine models and a half long. If you make them fluted, they must have 24 flutes or channels, which must be made half so deep as broad: the plains or spaces between one flute and the other must be a third part of the breadth of the said flutes. The Archetrave Frize and Cornice, are a fifth part of the height of the column; In the design of Columns alone, the Inter-columns are two Diametres, as is the Portal of St. Maria Rotunda in Rome; and this form of Rowes of Pillars, is by Vitruvius called Systylos. And in that of Arches, the Pillasters are of two parts of five of the light of the Arch; and the light of the Arch is in height two squares and half the thicknesse of the Arch being comprehended.

The Pedestal under the Corinthian Column must be in height a fourth part of the length of the Column, and being divided into eight parts, one is given to the Cimatium, two to its Base, and five remaines to the Dado, or plane of the Pedestal; The Base must be divided into three parts, two for the Zocco or Plinth, and one to the Cornice.

The Base of the Column is the Attick, but in this Order it dif­fers from that which is put to the Dorick Order: in this the Pro­jecture is the fifth part of the Diametre of the Column, whereas in the Dorick it is the sixth part; It may also vary in some other parts, as may be seen in the design, where also is set down the Imposts of the Arches, the which is in height one half more then the thicknesse of the Membretto, that is to say, the Pillaster which bears up the Arch.

The Corinthian Capitel ought to be as high as the thicknesse of the Column below, and a sixth part more which is allowed to the Abacus; The rest is divided into three epual parts, the first is given to the first leaf, the second to the second; and the third is divided again into two, and of that part next the A­bacus is made the Caulicoli with the leaves, which seem to sup­port them whence they grow; And therefore the stalk from whence they grow must be made thick, and in their foldings must diminish by little and little: The example hereof is taken from plants, which are bigger at the root then at the extre­mity of the branches. The Bell which is the body of the Ca­pitel under the leaves, ought to be direct to the bottoms of the flutes of the Column.

To make the Abacus, that it may have a convenient Proje­cture, make the square A B C D. each side whereof must be a Model and half, and the Diagonal Lines must be drawn in it from one Angle to the other, and where they intercect each other in the point E. which is the middle and centre of the said square; The fixed foot of the Compas must be placed, and to­wards each Angle of the square must be marked a Model; and where the points F G H I. are, the [...]ines must be drawn, which intercects at right Angles with the said Diagonals, and that they may touch the sides of the square in L M N O. These shall be the bounds of the Projecture, and how much the length is, so much shall be the bredth of the hornes of the Abacus.

The Curvature, or hollowing of the Abacus, is made by laying a long a thred from one horn to the other which is from the point L. to the point N. then from the said points, draw two Arches of Circles, then set in one foot of the Compas in the intersection at the point P. with the other describe the Arch, which will make the hollowing or curvature of the Astragal of the Column, and is so made that the tongues of the leaves toucheth it, or rather advanceth a little beyond, and this is their Projecture. The Rose ought to be as large as the fourth part of the Diametre of the Column at the foot: The Archetrave, Frize and Cornice, (as I have said) are to be a fifth part of the height of the Column, and the whole is to be divided into twelve parts, as in the Ionick; But here is the difference; in this the Cornice is divided into eight [Page 94]parts and half, of one is made the Intabliment, of the other the Denticuli, of the third the Ouolo, of the fourth and fifth the Modilions, and of the other three and half the Coronna, and the Scima. The Cornice hath as much Projecture as it is high, the Coffers or places of the Roses that go between the Modilions must be square, and the Modilions as big as half the plain of the said Roses. The members of this Order have not been marked with Letters as the foregoing, because by them these may easily be understood.

CHAP. XVIII. Of the Composita Order.

THe Composita Order, which is also called Roman, because it was an Invention of the Ancient Romans, and is so called because it partakes of two of the aforesaid Orders; And the most Regular and Beautiful is that which is compounded of the Ionick and Corinthian; It is more slender then the Corinthian, and may be made like it in all parts, except in the Capitel.

These Columns ought to be in length ten Models; In the designe of Columns alone, the Inter-columns are one Diametre and a half, and this manner is called by Vitruvius Picnostilos. In those of Arches the Pillasters are half the light of the Arch, and the Arches are in height under the Vault two squares and half, that is to say, two Diametres and half of the light of the Arch.

And because (as I have said) this Order ought to be made more neat and slender then the Corinthian, Its Pedestal is to be the third part of the height of the Column, and is divided into eight parts and half; of one part is made the Cimatium of the Base, and five and half remaines to the Dodo or Plinth of the Pedestal; The Base of the Pedestal is divided into three parts, two is given to the Zocco or Plinth, and one to its Terus with its Cimatium.

The Base of the Column may be made Attick as in the Co­rinthian, and it may also be compounded of the Attick and the Ionick, as appears in the design. The Profile of the Impost of the Arches, is by the side of the plaine of the Pedestal, and its height is as much as the thickness of the Membretto.

The Capitel of the Composita Order hath the same measures as the Corinthian, but it differs from it in the Voluta, Ouolo, Fusarolo, or Fuse, which are members attributed to the Ionick; and the way of making it, is thus: from the Abacus downwards, the Capitel is divided into three parts, as in the Corinthian: The first is given to the first leaves, the second to the second, and the third to the Voluta, which is made in the same manner, and with the same points with the which the Ionick is said to be made, and takes up so much of the Abacus, that it seemes to grow out of the Ouolo neere the flowers which are put in the middle of the Curvatures of the said Abacus, and is as thick in the front, as the breadth of the hornes thereof and a little more: The Ouolo is as big as three parts of five of the Abacus, and its lower part begins right against the lower part of the eye of the Voluta; It hath in Projecture ¾. parts of its height, and is with its Projecture perpendicular to the hollow of the Abacus, or a little more:

The Fuse is a third part of the height of the Ouolo, and hath in Projecture something more then the half of its thicknesse, and turnes about the Capitel under the Voluta, and is alwayes seen. The Gradetten, or Moulding, which goes under the Fuse, and makes the Orlo of the bell of the Capitel, is the half the Fuse: The body of the bell answers direct with the bottom of the flutes of the Column; of this sort I have seen one at Rome, from which sort I have drawn the said Measures, because it appeared to me very beautiful, and well ordered.

There are Capitels made after another manner, which may be called Composita, of which shall be discoursed, and the figures thereof shall be put in my Books of Antiquities.

The Archetrave, Frise and Cornice, are the fifth part of the height of the Column, and their Compartiments may be well known by that which hath been said before in the other Orders, and by the numbers placed in the designe.

CHAP. XIX. Of Pedestalls.

HItherto I have discoursed (what to me seemed convenient) of Walls and their Ornaments; and in particular, touch­ing the Pedestals which may be applied to every Order; But because it appears that the Ancients had not a regard to make the Pedestal bigger for the one Order then for another, although this part much adds to the Beauty and Ornament, when it is made with discretion and proportion to the other parts; To the end that the Architects may take notice and serve them­selves upon occasion, and know that they made them sometimes square, that is to say, as long as broad, as in the Arch Di Lioni, at Verona. And these I have assigned to the Dorick Order, be­cause it requires Solidity; Sometimes they are made taking the measure from the light of the Arch, as in the Arch of Titus at Sancta Maria Nova in Rome, and in that of Trajan on the gate of Ancona, where the Pedestal is half the height of the light of the Arch; and of that kind of Pedestal I have put to the Ionick Order; and sometimes they took the measure from the height of the Column, as is seen at Susa, a City scituate at the foot of the Mountain which divides Italy from France, In an Arch made to the honor of Augustus Caesar, and in the Arch of Pola, a City of Dalmatia, and in the Amphitheatre of Rome; In the Ionick and Corinthian Order, in which buildings the Pedestal is the fourth part of the height of the Column, as I have made in the Corinthian Order. In Verona, in the Arch Di Castel Vecchio, which is very beautiful, the Pedestal is a third of the height of the Column, as I have put in the Composita Order; And these are the handsomest formes of Pedestals, and have the best proporti­on with their other parts: And when Vitruvius discoursing of Theatres makes mention of the Poggio, you may know that the [Page 122] Poggio is the same with the Pedestal, which is the third of the length of the Column put for Ornament of the Scene; But of Pedestals which exceed a third of the Column, such are seen at Rome in the Arch of Constantine, where the Pedestals are two parts and half of the height of the Column; And almost in all the Ancient Pedestals, the Bases are observed to have been made twice as big as the Cimacium, as is seen in my Book of Arches.

CHAP. XX. Of Errours.

HAving set down the Ornaments of the Architecture, that is to say, the Five Orders, and shewed how they are made and laid down, the Profiles of each of their parts, which I found that the Ancients did observe; It seems to me not unfit here to acquaint the Reader of many abuses, which being brought in by the Barbarous, are yet observed; to the end that the studious in this art may avoid them in their own Workes, and under­stand them in others.

I say then, that Architecture (as all other arts are) being Imi­tatrix of Nature, accounts nothing tollerable which is estranged, and differs from that which is natural: Wherefore we see that those Ancient Architects who built with Timber, when they be­gan to build with stone, directed that the Columns might be lesse at the top then at the foot, taking example from Trees, which are all lesse at the top then in the trunk and near the root. Likewise because it is very convenient that those things upon which any great weight is put should be pressed, under the Column they put a Base, which with their Torus and Seetia, [Page 123]seem by the burthen over them to be swelled; so also in the Corni­ces, they bring in the Triglifes, Modiglions, and the Dentills, which should represent the heads of the Joices, which in the sealing are placed to bear up the Roof. The same may be observed in all other parts, if you are curious: And being so, you cannot but blame that form of building which deviates from that which Nature instructeth, and from that simplicity which is directed in things by her produced, framing (as it were) another nature, and departs from the true, good and handsome manner of build­ing; For which reason you ought not (instead of Columns or Pillasters, which are to bear up some great weight) to place Cartouches, which are certain Scroles, which to the intelligent seem deformed, and to the ignorant rather confusion then plea­sure, nor do they produce other effects, then incrcese the charge of the Builders. Likewise you must not make any of those Cartonches come out of the Cornice, for it is requisite that all the parts of the Cornice be made to some end, and to make appear what it would be if the work were framed of Timber. And besides, being it is convenient that to uphold a great weight somthing solid and fit to support that weight be re­quired, questionlesse those Cartouches are altogether super­fluous, because it is impossible that any Timber whatever could really perform what these seem; for feigning it self to be soft and gentle, I know not by what rule they put them under any thing heavy and hard. But that which (in my opinion) imports much, is the abuse in making Frontispieces of Doores, Windowes and Galleries, divided in the middle, because they were made to defend the inhabitants from rain; I know nothing more contrary to natural reason, then to divide and open that part which the Ancients instructed by necessity it self did make whole, and raised in the middle, to shew that it ought to serve to defend the inhabitants of the house, and those that enter therein, from Rain, Snow and Haile. And al­though Variety and Novelty should please all, yet we are not to go against the precepts of Art, and that which Reason demon­strates; Whence we see that although the Ancients did vary, yet never departed from the general and necessary Rules of Art, as may be seen in my Book of Antiquities: Also concerning the pro­jecture [Page 124]of the Cornice and other Ornaments, 'tis no small abuse in making them come too forward, because when they exceed that which according to Reason is fit for them, especially if they be in a close place they seem narrow, and uncomely, and put fear in those which stand underneath, threatning al­wayes to fall, you ought as much to avoid making the Cornice disproportionable to the Column, putting great Cornices upon little Columns, or upon great Columns little Cornices, who doubts but that such a building will seem very ill favoured. Be­sides, to make the Columns seem to be of several parts, making rings and wreathings about them, as it were to hold them toge­ther, ought as much as may be to be avoided; because how much the more intire and strong the Columns appear, so much the more they perform the design for which they are placed, which is to render the work above secure and firm. Many other like abuses might be reckoned up, as of some members which in the Cornices are made disproportionable to the other, which by what I have shewed before, and by that which is now said, may be easily known; it remains now to come to the disposing of the particular and principal parts of the building.

CHAP. XXI. Of Galleries, Entries, Halls, Anti-Chambers and Chambers, and of their proportions.

GAlleries, for the most part, are wont to be made on the wings and sides, or on the front; They serve for many ac­commodations; as Walking, Eating, and other Divertisements, and they are made bigger or lesser, according to the greatnesse and conveniency of the building; But ordinarily, they ought [Page 125]not to have less then 16.18. and 20. foot in breadth, and in great buildings unto 24. and their length at least five times their breadth, six, seven, or eight times at most.

CHAP. XXII. Of Floores and Superficies, of Departe­ments, Planchers, and Flat Seelings.

AFter having seen the formes of Galleries, Halls, Anti-Chambers and Chambers, it is needful to discourse of Floores or Superficies, of Departements, Planchers, and Flat Seel­ings.

Floores or Superficies, may be of square tyles or hard stone, or of Marble, or small squares of Carpenters work, and may be made of divers sorts, and divers colours, according to the variety of the materials, which renders them very agreeable to the eye: In lodging Chambers they are seldom made of Marble or other hard stone, because in the Winter they will be too cold; But in Galleries, or other publick places, they will agree very well.

This sort of Flooers of small squares of Carpenters work, may be seen at Somerset-House, of which, being a novelty in England, I thought good to present the Design thereof, although not in my Au­thor.

You must take heed that the Hall, Anti-Chambers, and Chambers, which are of the same story, may have all the Floores or Pavements equal in such manner, that the thresholds may not be higher then the rest.

The Planchers are also made of divers wayes, for some there are that take pleasure to make them very handsome of well wrought Joists; where you may take notice that the Joists must be distant the one from the other, the thicknesse of a Joist and half, and so the seeling will be very handsome: And there will be so much wall between the ends of the Joists, as will be suffi­cient to bear up the wall about it; Whereas if they stand wider one from the other, it will be very ill favoured; and if closer 'twill be as a dividing of the upper wall from the lower; and if the Joists rot or be consumed with fire, the wall of necessity must be ruined.

Others will have Compartements of Plaister, or wood, inrich­ing them with pictures and gilded work, and beautifie them ac­cording to their various humours; Wherefore in this there can be given no certain and determinate rules.

CHAP. XXIII. Of the height of Halls, Anti-Chambers, and Chambers

HAlls, Anti-chambers, and Chambers, are made either arched or flat: if you make them flat, divide the breadth into three parts, and two of those parts shall be the height of the Story, from the floor to the Joist.

CHAP. XXIV. Of the Proportion of the height of Chambers of the second Story.

THe height of Chambers of the second Story shall be a twelfth part lesse then the Chambers below

CHAP. XXV. Of the Proportion of Halls, Anti-Cham­bers, and Chambers, of the first Story which are Arched.

IN great Buildings the Hall, Anti-Chambers, and other Rooms of the first Story may be arched, whereupon they will be much more handsome, and lesse subject to fire: Their height is made by dividing the breadth into six parts, and thereof take five, which will give the height that it ought to have from the Floore or Superficies unto the bottom of the key of the Arch.

CHAP. XXVI. Of the Proportion of the height of Cham­bers of the second Story.

THe Chambers of the second Story must be raised a sixth part lesse then the Chambers below.

CHAP. XXVII. Of the Proportion of the third Story.

IF you would make above the second Story, an Attique or third Story: The second must alwayes be divided into twelve equal parts, nine whereof will give the height of the third Story, from the Floore unto the bottom of the Joist.

In the building of Chambers you ought to have regard as well to the place of the bed, which is usually six or seven foot square, and the passage, as well as to the scituation of the Chimney, which for this consideration ought not to be placed just in the middle, but distant from it about two, or two foot and ½, to the end it may make room for the bed, and by this means the inequality is little discerned if it be not in buildings, the breadth at least of 24 foot within the work; And in this Case it may be placed just in the middle.

CHAP. XXIII. Of the height of Galleries.

THe lower Galleries must be as high as the Halls, Anti-Chambers and Chambers of the first Story, to the end that one may enter therein on even ground, which is to be under­stood then, when the said lower Galleries hath the same framing, which the said Halls, Anti-Chambers, and Chambers, whose Floores ought ordinarily to be raised higher then the ground­work of the Court about two foot at least, or of three or four foot; And is ascended by steps, which ought not to have more then six inches in height, nor lesse then four, and in breadth one foot, or at the most 15 or 16 inches.

But if the Galleries be made all open, so as they enter into it from the Court; In this case you may lay the Floore lower then the neighbouring Roomes, and [...] [...]ffice that the said Floore be one foot higher then the ground work of the Court; Thus doing 'twill appear very graceful; for by this means they come neere to the fair proportion which they ought to have in their height from the Floore or Superficies unto the bottom of the key of the Arch; And their Entrance is by steps which are be­tween the opening of the Arches.

CHAP. XXIX. Of the just Proportion which the upper Galleries ought to have.

THe upper Galleries are made either flat or Arched, if flat, they must be as high as broad: Galleries which are arched must be as high as broad, with a fifth, fourth, or third part over, and above their said breadth.

CHAP. XXX. Of the Measures of Doores and Windowes.

THe certain and determinate Measures cannot be given of the height and breadth of principal Gates of Buildings: nor of Doores and Windowes of Chambers, because, for to make the principal Gates, the Architect must accommodate them to the greatnesse of the Building, and the quality of the Master, and the use that is to be made of them; Neverthelesse we will not omit to give the Measures following.

CHAP. XXXI. Of the Proportion of Principal Gates.

PRincipal Gates of Entrance where Coaches and Wagons ought to passe, and other such necessaries, must not have lesse then seven and ½, eight, or nine foot: and to great Build­ings, unto ten or twelve foot in breadth.

Their height must be their breadth and half at least; And to have it well proportioned, you must give it in height twice their breadth.

CHAP. XXXII. Of the Proportion of Inner-Doores.

DOores within the House in the least Building, ought not to have lesse then two foot and ½ in breadth, and five foot and ½ in height: those from three to four foot broad must have in height twice their breadth; and to great Buildings you may allow even to five or six foot in breadth, and the height double, and sometimes a fifth or fourth part lesse then their breadth.

The Ancients were wont to make their Doores narrower above then below, as may be seen in a Church which is at Tivoli, which Vitruvius teacheth us; and 'tis likely they did so, to give them more force.

CHAP. XXXIII. Of the Proportion of Windowes.

THe Appertures of Windowes must have four foot and ½ or five foot, and to great Buildings unto six; between the two Jaumes their height must be at least double their breadth; and to make them comely and well proportioned, a fourth part, a third, or a half part more then the breadth: And according to the bignesse of these, you may make all the rest in the other roomes of the same Story; But those of the second Story ought to be lower by one twelfth part then those in the first; And if you make Windowes above them, you ought to make them a fourth part lower then those in the second.

CHAP. XXXIV. Of the Proportion of the Soiles of Windowes.

THe Soiles of Windowes must have from two foot eight inches, unto three foot at most in height. The Transoms, or crosse pieces of Windowes, must be four or five inches thick; Their Rebates must be from one inch and ½ unto two inches at most, to the end they may have greater strength, and that the frames of wood which carry the shutters may have convenient strength. The Jaumes of Windowes must be much rebated and let in from two inches, and ½ to three inches at least, to the end that the wooden frames may be strong, and joyn to the wall; when the wall is thin, the shutters of the Windowes ought to shut over the rebates the half or one third onely; Also it is needful to divide the said shutters, that they may not be a hindrance to the Chamber, nor obscure the light.

CHAP. XXXV. Rules to be observed in making Doors and Windows.

IN making Windowes you are to take heed that you do not give them more or lesse light then is necessary, nor make them wider or narrower then is needful; Wherefore you ought to have regard to the greatnesse of the places, which ought to re­ceive the light, it being evident that a great Room hath need of more light then a little one; So that if the Windowes be made lesse then they ought to be, the place will be obscure and dark. And because in Houses some Chambers are made large, some in­different, some little, you must take great care that all the Windowes may be equal one with the other in their rank and Order, so that those on the right hand may answer those on the left, and those above may be right over those below. Like­wise the Doores must be right over one another, to the end that the void may be upon the void, and the full upon the full: and moreover, let the Doores be placed in such manner, that one may see from one end of the House to the other, which is very graceful: and besides, 'tis cool in Summer, and hath many other conveniencies.

It is very secure to turn Arches over Doores and Windowes, which Arches do discharge and hinder that the Doores and Windowes be not pressed with too much waight, which is of great importance for the lasting of Buildings.

The Windowes must be conveniently distant from the Corn­ers and Angles of the Building, because that part ought not to be open and infeebled, whose office is to support and fasten all the rest of the Building.

CHAP. XXXVI. Of the just Proportion which the Pillasters of Doores and Windowes ought to have in thicknesse and Projecture.

PIllasters of Doores and Windowes ought not to be thicker then the fifth part of their Apperture, nor lesse then a sixth.

The Projecture of Pillasters in general is found by dividing their thicknesse into six parrs, and one of those parts must be the Projecture they ought to have.

It remaines to see their Ornaments.

CHAP. XXXVII. Of the Ornaments of Doores and Windowes.

HOw to adorn the Windowes and principal Doores in Build­ings, may easily be known from that which Vitruvius teacheth in the sixth Chapter of his fourth Book, adding there­unto all that the most Reverend Daniel Barbaro hath said there­of, and shewen in design: And also of that which I have said before of all the five Orders; Therefore leaving that, I shall on­ly put some designes of the Ornaments of Doores and Windowes of Chambers, so as they may be made divers wayes; And I shall mark particulary every member which is graceful, and how much Projecture is needful.

The Omaments which are given to Doores and Windowes, are the Archetrave, Frize, and Cornice.

The Archetrave turnes about the Doore, and ought to be as thick as the Pillaster, which (as I have said) ought not to be lesse then the sixth part of the Apperture, nor more then a fifth; and from the Archetrave, the Frize, and Cornice, take their thick­nesse according to the two inventions which follow.

CHAP. XXXVIII. Of Chimnies in Halls, Chambers, Studies, and Wardrobes, and of their Proportions.

HAll-Chimnies ought to be within work fix or seven foot, and in great Buildings unto eight, between the two Jaumes; and 'twill be convenient to make their Funnels in the thickness of the wall, if possibly it can be; if not, they must be set in a place where they may correspond to those of the Chambers, the which spreads it self but little in the middle, as it hath been said; and if it be possible, it must be so disposed, that the Chimney be seen in the front by them that shall enter into the Hall.

Their height must be four foot and ½ to five at most, from the bottom of the Plate-band to the Mantle-tree; they must project two foot and half, or three foot at most, from the wall unto the mantle-tree. The Jaumes must be from eight to twelve inches in breadth: and in great Buildings even to 24, or more, accord­ing to that Order of Architecture, with which they are to be adorned.

CHAP. XXXIX. Of Chamber-Chimnies, and of their Proportions.

CHamber-Chimnies must have in breadth five and ½ or six foot, and in great Buildings unto seven, and must be placed as I have said before, because of the place of the bed. Their height must be four foot, or four and ½ from the Mantle-tree or [Page 192]Plate-band, their Projecture must be two foot, or two and ½ from the back to the Fore-sides of the Jaumes.

CHAP. XL. Of the Chimnies in Studies and Wardrobes.

CHimnies in these Rooms must be four foot, four and ½ or five foot at most in breadth: Their height from the Mantle­tree must be like to that above of four foot, and ½. and also their Projecture two foot, or two and ½, from the back.

CHAP. XLI. Of Funnels of Chimnies.

FƲnnels of Chimnies must be carried thorow the Roofe, and above the ridge, three foot, four or five foot at most, that they may carry the smoak into the Air. You must take care that they be not made neither too wide nor too narrow; for if they be too wide, the wind will drive back the smoak into the Room, and will not permit it freely to ascend and pass forth; And in Funnels too narrow, the smoak not having free passage is repulsed, and returnes backwards: Therefore 'tis that Chamber-Chimnies are not made narrower then ten or eleven inches, nor broader then fifteen, which is the ordinary depth of Funnels of great Kitchin Chimnies, by reason of the great fire that is made therein; And for their breadth, they must be four or five foot at most within the work, from the place where the brest ends unto the top of the Funnel; Now the said brest reacheth from the Mantle-tree unto the Sieling or pitch of the Arch, alwayes diminishing within the work, until you come [Page 193]to the measures of depth and breadth before mentioned; And from thence arising unto the end of the Funnel, it must be carried up as even as you can possibly; for failing in this, it often hap­pens the smoak is offensive.

CHAP. XLII. What is to be observed in making Chimnies, and the fashion which was practised among the Ancients.

THe Jaumes and Mantle-trees of Chimnies must be curi­ously wrought; for rustick work doth not appear well, un­lesse it be in very great Buildings, for the Reasons aforesaid.

The Ancients, to heat their Chambers, did serve themselves in this manner: They made their Chimnies in the middle, with Columns or Corbeaux which bore up the Archetrave, upon which were the Funnels of the Chimnies which conveyed away the smoak; of which kind one may be seen at Bay near the Piscine of Nero, and one which is not far from Civita Vecchia; and when they would not have Chimnies, they made in the thicknesse of the wall pipes or funnels, thorow which ascended the heat of the fire which was under the Chamber, and was conveyed forth through certain vents and conducts which was on the top of the funnels. Much like this, the Trenti Gentlemen of Venice in the Summer refreshed their Chambers at Costoza, their Country dwelling: For in that place there are great Moun­taines in which are certain great Caves, which in times past were Quarries, which (I suppose) Vitruvius meanes in his second Book, where he treates of Stone. In these Caves are ingendred extream coole winds, which these Gentlemen caused to be brought into their house, through certain Subterranean vaults; and by the meanes of certain truncks, like to those whereof I have spoken before, make them to run thorow all the Cham­bers, opening and shutting them at pleasure to take more or [Page 194]lesse of Air, according to the time and season; And this place would be wonderful were it only for this great Commodity, neverthelesse that which renders it yet more admirable and worthy to be seen in the prison of the wind, which is a certain Chamber under ground, made by the most Noble Seignieur Trenti, and by him called Aeola; where many of those trunks and conducts of wind are discharged; And to render it beautiful, and worthy of this name he hath given it, he hath spared nei­ther care nor charge.

CHAP. XLIII. Of Staire-Cases, and their divers man­ners, and the numbers and great­nesse of their Steps.

THere ought to be great care taken in the well placing the Stair-Case; for there is not a little difficulty to find a place convenient, so as the Stairs may be distributed without preju­dice or hindrance to the rest of the Building; 'Tis therefore that ordinarily they are placed in the corner of the Building, or on the wings, or in the middle of the front, which is but seldom, unlesse it be in great Buildings; because much of the Stone-work will be hindred by reason of the Staires being in the middle, unlesse the house be double.

There are three openings necessary to the least Staire-Case, the first is the doore-way that leads to them, which is the better when it is spatious, and pleaseth me most if it be in such a place where, before one approacheth, one may see the best part of the house: for although the house be little, by this meanes it appear­eth much larger; neverthelesse it behoves that the said Doro­way be obvious and easie to be found.

The second opening is that of the Windowes, which are need­ful to give light to the Staires, and when there is but one, let it be in the middle as near as you can, to the end that all the Staire-Case may be inlightned.

The third opening is the landing place, by which we are to enter into the Roomes above, and ought to lead to places large, faire, and well adorned.

Staires will be well made, if they be spacious, light, and easie, so as they may invite people to go up.

They will be lightsome when they have a perfect light, that disperseth it self to all parts equally.

They are spacious when they appear not little, nor narrow in respect of the bignesse and quality of the Fabrick; but they must never be narrower then four foot; to the end, that if two persons meet, they may commodiously passe one by the other; They may be made of five or six foot, or seven and half, and to great Buildings unto ten or twelve foot broad to every flight, and they must be made as commodious as possibly you can.

CHAP. XLIV. Of the Height and Breadth of Steps.

THe Steps ought not to be more then six inches high; and if they be lower, they must chiefly be to long and continued Staires; They will be so much the easier, because one needs not lift the foot so high; but they must never be lower then four inches.

Their breadth ought not to be leffe then a foot, nor more then fifteen or sixteen inches.

The Ancients observed not to make the number of Steps even, to the end that beginning to ascend with the right foot, they might end with the same foot, which they took to be a good Omen, and with greater devotion so to enter into the Temples.

CHAP. XLV. Of Divers manners of Staires.

STairs are made Straight or Winding: the Straight are made spread abroad into two branches or passages; or square, which turnes into four branches or passages; and to make them in this last manner, all the space must be divided into 4 parts, whereof 2 must be for the Staires, and 2 for the vacancy; The middle where­of if it be open, the Stairs receive light. They may be made with a wall within, and then within the two parts which are taken for the Stairs, the thicknesse of the wall ought to be compre­hended and inclosed, which makes the Case or Newel; they may also be made without a wall within: these two sorts of Staires were made by the Invention of Seignieur Lovis Cornaro, a Gentleman of an Excellent Judgement.

Winding-Staires, some are made round, some oval, some with a Newel in the middle, and some open; And such Winding-Staires are made chiefly where there is little room, because they take up lesse room then the straight Staires, yet not so easie to ascend. Those which are open in the middle are very handsome, because they may have light from above, and those who are above may see those who are coming up, and are also seen by them.

Those which have a Newel in the middle, having but little room are made in this manner: you must divide the Diametre into twelve parts, ten whereof are for the Staires, and the two which remain are for the Newel in the middle; Or divide the said Diametre into eight parts, six whereof are for the Steps, and two for the Newel; And if there be much room, you must di­vide the Diametre into three parts, whereof two are for the Staires, and one for the Newel, as in the design A; Or other­wise, you may divide the Diametre in seven parts, of which take three for the Newel in the middle, and four for the Staires. Just in this manner is the Staire-Case of the Column of Trajan at Rome; and if you make Staires winding as in the design B, [Page 197]they will be handsomer and more agreeable, and longer then if they had been straight; But to Stair-Cases open in the middle, the Diametre must be divided into four parts, two whereof must be for the middle, and two for the Staires.

Besides the fashion of Staires which are in practice, there hath been a Winding-Staire invented by Mark Anthony Barbaro, a Gentleman of Venice of an Excellent Judgment, who made excellent experiments in very narrow places, where there is no Newel in the middle; and the Staires in their turning are much longer, and are divided after the manner aforesaid.

Those which are oval divided in the same manner as the Round; they are very handsome and pleasant, because all the Windowes and Doores are in the middle and head of the oval, and are very commodious; I have made one open in the middle in the Monastery of Charity at Venice, which hath succeeded very well.

There is another very handsome manner of Staires which King Francis the First caused to be made in the Castle of Cham­bor near Bloyse, and is in this manner; There are four Stair-Cases which have four Entrances, to wit, one Entry to each, and go up the one over the other in such manner, that being made in the middle of the Building, the four may serve for four Appar­tements; so that the Inhabitants of one need not go up and down the Staires of the other; And because it is open in the middle, they all see each other go up and down, without any hindrance the one to the other. This Invention being new and hand­some, I have placed it here, and marked with Letters from the foot to the head, to the end every one may see where each Staire begins, and where it ends.

There was also to the Porticos of Pompey at Rome, leading to the place of the Jewes, Winding-Staires of an admirable form; for being placed in the middle, in such manner that they could not receive light but from on high, they were set upon Columns, to the end that the light might distribute it self to all parts alike; According to which example, Bramante an Excellent Architect in his time, made one of them at Beluedere, and without Steps, having the four Orders of Architecture, Dorick, Ionick, Corin­thian, and Composita. To make these Staire-Cases, you must di­vide [Page 198]the whole space into four parts, two whereof are for the void place in the middle, and one on each side of the Steps and Columns.

There are many other fashions of Stair-Cases in Ancient Edifices, as Triangulars; and of this sort are those of the Cupolo of St. Maria Rotunda, which are open in the middle, and receive light from above: Those also which are at Sancto Apo­stolo in the same City, by which we go up to Mount Cavello, which are very magnifick, and they are double. Many persons have taken the model thereof, and carried it to a Temple on the top of the Mountain, as appeares in my Books of Temples; and of this sort is this last design.

You must note, that in Stair-Cases which are square or oblong, when you are constrained to place Steps in the Angles, in turning you cannot make more then six in a Semicircle, which are three in ¼ of a Circle, and is then, when the Stair-Case shall have but six or seven foot in breadth within work, which is the least that can be made.

To Stair-Cases of eight foot broad, you must put eight Steps from the Angle, turning to a Semicircle, which will be four to ¼ of a Circle.

And to Staire-Cases from nine to ten foot broad, you must put ten Steps to a Semicircle.

If they have eighteen foot more or less, you may make twelve Steps to a Semicircle.

You must take heed that the landing place of the Staires, which is the space between the wall and the Steps which one ascendeth, and which doth distribute to the Apartements, be broader a fourth part at least then the length of the said Steps.