The history, choice, and method of studies by Monsieur Fleury ... — Traité du choix et de la méthode des études. English

The history, choice, and method of studies by Monsieur Fleury ... — Traité du choix et de la méthode des études. English

Table of contents

Title page

THE PREFACE TO THE Reader.

THE CONTENTS.

THE HISTORY Choice, and Method OF STUDIES.

Containing the History of Studies.

THE SECOND PART OF THE Choice, and Method OF STUDIES.

BOOKS Printed for, and Sold by Richard Sare, and Jo. Hindmarsh.

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THE HISTORY, Choice, and Method OF STUDIES.

BY Monsieur Fleury, Sometime Preceptor to the Princes of Conty, Monsieur D' Vermandois, and to the Dukes of Burgoyne and Anjou.

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Lycensed,

D. Poplar.

LONDON, Printed for S. Keble, at the Turks-head in Fleet street; Iohn Hindmarsh against the Exchange in Cornhil; D. Brown without Temple-Barr; and R. Sare at Grays-Inn Gate in Holborn. 1695.

THE PREFACE TO THE Reader.

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REading not long since in the Lipsick Translations, I therein met with so Fair a Character of this Author, and this Piece of his, that I presently procured the Book; and, having Read it over, I was so well pleased with the Argument, and the Way of handling it, That (having some Spare-time upon my hands) I thought it might not be altogether an Ʋseless Diversion, to try how that would appear in English, [Page] which gave me such Satisfaction in French; and which the Editors of the Lipsick Transactions wish'd to see in the German Tongue.

A work of this Nature is so necessary, and yet so very difficult, that several, who (convin't of the usefulness of it) have attempted it; yet being Discouraged in the Prosecution, or else unfit for the Ʋndertaking, have either left us only some Models-Ʋnfinish'd, or some Gothick Platforms more agreeable to the Barbarous Ages of Learning, than to the State of that wherein we Live. Some have been too Subtle and Scholastical in their Instructions; others too gross and material: The one seem to suppose their Scholars to be meer Intelligences; the other Treat them, as if they were altogether Material: and both have too much restrain'd their Rules, to some particular sorts of Studies and [Page] Professions. As if all Men besides had either no Thoughts, or were under no Obligation to order them after the best manner, and apply them to the most proper Subjects.

Our Author therefore thought himself oblig'd to extend his Instructions to all Mankind; and consider all Reasonable Creatures (who have Minds to Improve) as Students in some sort or other. And indeed, since all Men have Thoughts, and Study is nothing but the Attentive Application of their Thoughts to those Objects which they are the most concern'd to know; 'twould be great Injury to the rest of Mankind, to exclude all, except two or three Orders of Men, from the benefit of Studies. Our Author, that he might not be thus partial in a matter, where all Persons have an Interest, suits his Instructions to all Ages, Sexes, Conditions, and ways of Life.

[Page] He First Prescribes Rules for such Studies as are absolutely Necessary to all sorts of Men whatever. Then he passes on to those which are proper for them, whose Birth and Parts enable them to make some further progress in Learning. In the next place he applys himself unto those whose Condition requires greater Improvements, than may be requisite for the Common Student. Afterwards he gives Directions about Studies that are Curious, as he calls them; not because they are, in no Sense, necessary; but because they are not of so much use, as the others before-mention'd, tho' they be laudable and good in themselves: Whereas those which he calls useless, are such vain and unprofitable Curiosities, as are just good for nothing at all, but to fill the head with Superstitious Conceits, and Fanciful Chymera's. Lastly, [Page] He tells us how Children are to be Instructed according to their several Ages; What Studies are fit for Women; What for Clergy-men, Sword-men, and Lawyers.

This is a short View of the Design of his Second Part; after he has, in the First, given us an Historical Account of Studies: which may well pass for a very Ingenious, and Learned Essay upon that which my Lord Bacon calls, the Historia Literata; and puts amongst the Desiderata, under the Title of Oculus Polyphemi.

I would by no means derogate from the Learned and Ʋseful Labours either of the Ancients or Moderns, who have Written upon this Subject. Yet I must needs say, that to my Apprehension, none ever Managed it with such a Judicious Cboice, and Ʋnaffected Gravity, as he seems to have done. His Great Care is [Page] [...] [Page] [...] [Page] not to make a vain shew and Barade of his Learning. He Writes not like a Man who is full of himself, and possest with the troublesom Spirit of Polymathy, his Business is to give the most useful and solid Advice in the plainest and most simple Words. He is not too tedious and Operose upon some Heads; too scantly and defective in others: but with an equal and steddy hand, has drawn all the parts so, as to agree with one another, and strengthen the Whole. In short, if I did not think that I do Present the Réader with a BOOK of more Value, than any thing I have yet seen in this kind, I should not have given him a needless trouble. Several both of former times, and of late, have laid down many wise and and excellent Rules for the skilful management of Youth; but I know no Treatise, which, (in so short a Compass, [Page] and such a natural Method) comprehends the whole Circle of Instruction, as it relates both to the Scholars Studies, and his Manners. So that I hope the Reader will have Reason to Esteem this little Book above many others which have been Written upon this Subject, either with too little Judgment, or too much Criticism.

'Tis to be observed, that the Author takes upon him to Prescribe to the Universities, and Publick Schools. He undertakes, not to be a Doctor of the Chair; or to indicate unto those Celebrated Places of Education, whose Rules and Methods have been Approved and Established, both by Law and Custom. But, because Private and Domestick Education, has of late been so much in Fashion, and withal, usually so wretchedly managed; He thought himself concerned to visit the Family, take an account of the Miscarriages in this Matter, and do what in [Page] him lay, to Redress them. And he did not Intrude himself into this Office, before he was called. For, in the Preface, He tells us, That he Composed this Book at the desire of a certain Gentleman, for the Use of his Child. Now since there is the same Reason for such kind of Treatises in English, as in French, He hopes, that He shall be accounted no more in our own County, than in his own, a busie Body in other Mens Matters.

But though the Book is not Calculated for the Universities, and Publick Schools, yet if the Tutors of the one, and the Masters of the other, will Examin his Rules and Method with Judgment and Candour; I presume they will see Reason to acknowledge their Obligations to the Author, and will not, I hope, have much Reason to be offended with the Translatour. However, we do, with some Assurance, promise our selves a [Page] favourable, Reception from all those Gentlemen, who Educate their Children in Private; as well as from the Instructers, who shall take the care of them. For I question not, but upon Experiment, it will be found, that a Child of tolerable Parts, Educated after this Manner, will in a far less time than ordinary, to the Joy of the Father, and Credit of the Teacher, be better grounded in real Learning, and more capable to use it, than we commonly see Young Scholars are, after they have been several Years at School, and not a few at the University.

In Truth, the Scheme which He Proposes, is Founded upon the certain Principles of Reason and Experience, and not upon the sole Authority of any Great Name, how Famous soever. He freely inquires after the best Rules, and Method of Instructing Youth, not obliging himself to maintain the Systems and Practices of [Page] others, farther than he finds them agreeable to the Dictates of Eternal Reason, our Common Master, and confirmed by his own particular Experience. The Princes of Conte, whose Studies he had the Honour to Direct, as their Quality required a more Ingenuous and Liberal way of Education; so, I doubt not, but when they came out of their Tutors Hands, they found themselve furnished with a Morality, and a sort of Learning, answerable to their Birth; that is, Wise, Generous, and Active; Built upon the solid Foundations of Reason, and Experience.

As to the Translation, I have observed, as Faithfully as I could, the Author's own Rules, P. 137. not scrupulously, rendering one Word for another, but the French Idiom into the English way of Speaking; yet, always as near as possibly, preserving his Sense: Excepting P. 50. where, what He calls the Heresie, I only Term the Doctrin [Page] of Luther: Such Complements as these, must be expected from one, who professes himself to be of the Roman Catholick Communion. We have some more of them, P. 177 where he refers to the Vulgar Latin, as the version, which the Church hath made Authentick; recommends the knowledge of the Hebrew Tongue, if for no other Reason, yet to silence the Hereticks, and Advises his Priest to Read the Trent Catechism, and Council, and Romish Ritual. These and such like Characteristicks of his Communion, I thought once to have accommodated to the English Church; as likewise the Honours he bestows on the French Nation, to our own. But upon second Thoughts, I judged it more suitable with a Translation, to let these Passages go unaltered: Since the Weakest are in no danger of being harmed by them; and the Wiser will only conclude from them, that Custom and Education, in some things are apt to prevail [Page] over the Judgments of the most Reasonable Men.

To conclude, since Translations out of the French, have of late, been so much encouraged; and to so good purpose, 'tis hoped this will find some place amongst the Excellent Books we have already received, and do still expect out of that Language. Du Pin, and Malbranch have been worthily looked upon, as Originals, in their respective Labours: And when the Learned shall have Impartially considered Mr. Fleury's Writings, they'll find him to be one of those French Writers, who (abating their peculiar Roman Shibboleth) have Written, as if they design'd to serve the Interest of the Church of England, that is, of Primitive Christianity, rather than that of Rome.

THE CONTENTS.

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THe Design of the Treatise Pag. 1

The First Part. The History of Studies. The Studies of the Greeks 2Pag. 2

The Studies of the Romans Pag. 5

The Studies of the Christians Pag. 11

The Studies of the Franks Pag. 17

The Studies of the Arabians Pag. 22

The Studies of the School-Men Pag. 28

Ʋniversities, and their four Faculties Pag. 33

The Faculty of the Arts Pag. 34

Medicks, or Physick Pag. 41

Civil and Canon-Law Pag. 44

Divinity Pag. 45

The Restoration of Humanity Pag. 47

The Second Part. The Choice of Studies Pag. 54

The Way and Method to give Attention Pag. 62

The Division of Studies Pag. 71

Religion and Morality Pag. 73

Civility and Good Breeding Pag. 86

Logick and Metaphysicks Pag. 89

That Men ought to have a Care of their Bodies Pag. 100

Men ought not to Study purely for Interest Pag. 108

Grammar Pag. 111

Arithmetick Pag. 117

[Page] Oeconomick p. Pag. 117

Civil Law, or Jurisprudence Pag. 123

Policy Pag. 132

Of Languages, Latin, c&. Pag. 136

History Pag. 140

Natural History Pag. 148

Geometry Pag. 150

Rhetorick Pag. 161

Poetry Pag. 157

Curious Studies Pag. 160

Ʋseless Studies Pag. 163

The Order of Studies according to the several Ages Pag. 167

The Studies of Women Pag. 171

The Studies of Clergy-men Pag. 175

The Studies of Sword men Pag. 181

The Studies of the Men of the Robe Pag. 184

THE HISTORY Choice, and Method OF STUDIES.

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I ALthough, at present, I only intend to Treat of private Studies,The Design of this Treatise. and to give Advice to those alone, who Instruct Children in Houses, and are at liberty to use what Method they shall think the Best: I have nevertheless judg'd it necessary, First, to Consider the course of Studies, which we find settled in the publick Schools; to the end that we may conform our selves unto them, as much as possible. But to understand well the Order of our publick Studies, it seems to me Adviseable to go to the Fountain-head; that so we may see whence every part is deriv'd down to us; and how the whole [Page] body of these Studies has been form'd in the Succession of many Ages.

Containing the History of Studies.

II GRammar, Rhetorick, and Philosophy, came from the Greeks; The Studies of the Greeks. even the Names themselves of these Studies import as much. From the Greeks they pass'd to the Romans, and from the Romans to us. Now the Greeks had great Reason to apply themselves to these Three Sorts of Studies, as they understood them.Arist. Pol. L. 8. c. 3. Plato Leg. Lib. 7. p. 209. By Grammar they (in the first place) meant the Knowledge of Letters; that is, the Art to Read, and Write, and consequently Speak well. It was of great moment to them, to know how to Read, Write, and Speak correctly in their own Language, with which they contented themselves; for they Learnt none of Strangers. Under the Name of Grammar they also comprehended the Knowledge of the Poets, Historians, and other good Authors; whom their Grammarians profess'd to explain: And 'tis easie to see how useful this Study was to them. At the First, they had no other Books but their Poets; and there they found all kind of Instructions. All their Religion, and all their History were contain'd in them. For hitherto they had no more certain Traditions than these Fables, which now seem so Ridiculous unto us. And as for their Religion, their Poets were their Prophets, whom they looked upon as Friends of the Gods, and Men inspir'd; and for their works they had a Respect not much inferiour (if I may [Page] make the Comparison) to that which we have for the holy Scriptures. Moreover they found in them Rules for the Government of themselves; and Lively Representations of Humane Life. And they had this Advantage, that these Books, so full of Instructions, were perfectly well written: Insomuch that they were a divertisement to the Reader; and besides the Substance of things, they learnt from them to Speak well, and to express their Thoughts nobly. In short, all their verses were made to be Sung, and their most Ancient Study was Musick,Plat. Rep. L. M. Aristoph. de nub. that they might have something wherewithal to divert, and imploy themselves Innocently, at their leisure times, by Singing, and playing upon Instruments.

Rhetorick and Philosophy came later, and began both of them much about the same time, as Men of parts did differently apply themselves; some ingaging in the management of Affairs; and others, retiring from the World, to give themselves wholly to the search of Truth. That popular way, whereby the Greek Common-wealths were govern'd in their publick Assemblies, where all matters were carri'd by the Votes of the People, obliged them, who design'd to render themselves powerful, either by Ambition, or Interest, carefully to seek after the Art of perswading the People to what they wou'd: To this end, besides publick Speeches, they apply'd themselves to the pleading particular Causes before the Judges, that they might gain Friends, and exercise themselves in Speaking. Thus Eloquence became a surer means of Advancement, than Valour, and Knowledge of War: because, a great Captain, if he did not use his Tongue well, [Page] had little power in their deliberations; whereas an Oratour, without being brave, cou'd either form or break the neck of the greatest enterprizes. So that the Rhetoricians were that active sort of Men, whom the Greeks called Politicians. The Speculative Men, whom they termed Sophists, and afterwards Philosophers, did at first apply themselves to the Knowledge of the Nature of things Coelestial, and Terrestrial; that is to say, they were Astronomers, and natural Philosophers. Cic. Acad. quaest. 1. c. 4. But Socrates resolving to leave off all pursuit after that which is without us, and to apply himself wholly to that which might make a Man better in himself, was chiefly concern'd for the improving his mind, that he might reason as exactly as possible, and govern his Life according to the best rules this Reasoning shou'd discover to him. And thus he added to Philosophy, two other parts, Logick, and Morality. In his time and in the times of his first Disciples, Philosophy, as well as Rhetorick, were the serious, and continual imployments of Men grown up, and form'd; and not the transient Studies of young persons. The most noble, and most considerable men thought themselves Honour'd thereby. Pythagoras was of the Royal Race. Plato was descended from King Codrus by his Father, and from Solon by his Mother. Xenophon was one of the greatest Captains of his Age. And from this time Learning was in so great Esteem, and became so much the mark of Men of Quality, that the name Ideot, which in Greek, only signifies a private Person, was taken for an Ignorant, and ill Educated Man, as generally the common sort of People are.

[Page] Among the Kings of Aegypt, Syria, and Macedonia, (the Successors of Alexander) there were many Grammarians, Poets, and Philosophers. And indeed it is very reasonable, that in every Country, they should apply themselves unto the Sciences, who have most candor and Civility, who being Born to good Estates, needing not to be Sollicitous for the necessities of Life, and have most leisure, or, who being call'd to great employments, have most opportunity of becoming useful to others, and most need to inlarge their Capacity, and Knowledge.

III The Romans were instructed by the Greeks, and did imitate them as much as they cou'd,The Studies of the Romans. even to the learning their Language, which hitherto had not been practised in the World. Neither the Hebrews, nor the Egyptians, nor the Greeks, did learn any strange Language as an help to their Studies. 'Tis true, that the Greek was a living Language, and the Trading Tongue of the Mediterranean Sea, and all the East, which made it necessary for Travel, Traffick, and all sorts of Business. It was also easie for the Romans to learn it, as well by reason of the great number of Greeks, both Free-men, and Slaves, who were every where dispers'd through Italy; as by the Neighbour-hood of the Greek Colonies to the Roman Territories.Sueton. de illustr. The Romans then had this Study,Gramm. sub initio. over and besides what the Greeks had; and they first joined Grammar thereunto, which they learnt as the Greeks had done; that is, with respect to the Greek Tongue. Afterwards they apply'd themselves to the Latin, which then was purify'd, fixt, and came to its perfection.

[Page] But when the Romans began to Study, the Studies of the Greeks were very much changed. The Authority of the Poets was much sunk, because the natural Philosophers had taught the World not to be deceived with Fables, and (with all Men of Sense) had discredited their false Religion, Lucret. which had no other foundation but uncertain Traditions, and gross impostures. The Greeks had begun to write true Histories, from the time of their Wars with the Persians; and they had acquired a great knowledge of Geography from the Conquests of Alexander. Plato Rep. II.III. Besides, the Socratick Philosophers taught a morality much purer than that of the Poets: Yet they did not cease to be very much esteemed, and to be looked upon, if not as heavenly and God-like, yet, at least, as great men, and the chief Philosophers. We find in them every where very useful sentiments, and fair images of Nature. They were always pleasant to Read, to Repeat, and Sing: The Ceremonies of Religion preserved the use of them: Their Antiquity, and the Custom of Commending them, did not a little Contribute to the keeping up of their Credit.

Rhetorick it self, and Philosophy, which then were the most solid Studies,Cic. de Orat. 11. c. 5. had degenerated under the Empire of the Macedonians. The Greek Cities, even those which had continued free, had now no Affairs of great Consequence to deliberate upon, as before. The Orators often imploy'd their Eloquence to flatter Princes, or else to make themselves admired. Besides, having seen the great usefulness of this Art, they thought it expedient to have it Taught to the Youth; and for this purpose, they instituted a sort of Masters, whom [Page] they properly call'd Rhetoricians; who having not a Genius sufficient for true Eloquence, practised this Trade, only to get a Livelihood by it. These are they, who have form'd this Art, which is still call'd Rhetorick; or at least, who have incumber'd it with that infinite number of little precepts which we see in their Books. These are they, who have introduced Declamations upon Subjects invented at pleasure, and oft-times very unlikely, exercising Youth to speak without Knowledge, only to shew their Wit. In short, these are they, who have introduc'd the false Eloquence of the following Ages; and those general Discourses, so full of words, and void of things. This Evil was chiefly spread in Asia, Cic. de opt. gen. Orat. where the Greeks were less free, and further from their Original; and it was at Athens, where the true relish of Eloquence and the liberal Arts were the longest time preserved.

Philosophy was become a pretence for Idleness, and a continual War of unprofitable disputes. Aristotle was not satisfy'd with what was useful in Logick, but carry'd the Speculation on to the most minute exactness. He also apply'd himself very much to Metaphysicks, and the most general Reasonings. So many made Discourses upon Morality, and so few govern'd their practice according to its Rules, that they render'd it Ridiculous. For many made the profession of Philosophy, only to lacquey after their little Interests; as to make their Court to Princes, or get Money. And they who sought after Wisdom more seriously gave great offence by the multitude of their Sects; for they treated one another as Fools, and Mad-men. The Romans seeing the [Page] Greeks in this condition, for a long time despised Studies, as Childish Vanities, and Idle Amusements, not worthy of their pains, who altogether apply'd themselves unto Business:Cato. Each particular Man endeavoured to increase his patrimony, by Husbandry, Traffick, and Frugality; and all of 'em together jointly concurr'd in making the State to flourish, by applying themselves to War, and Politicks.

But though they wou'd have it believed, that this frugality, this military Discipline, this firmness in their Conduct, which made them so powerful, were owing to none but themselves, and their own vertuous Resolutions; yet their own History makes it appear, that they had borrow'd much from the Greeks, even at that time, before there were in Greece, either Oratours, or Philosophers by profession. The first Tarquin was a Corinthian by Birth, and he had instructed Servius Tullius. Pythagoras lived in the time of the latter; and it is very probable that some of his Disciples had correspondence with the Romans, their severe and frugal way of living so much resembling this Italick Philosophy. However, it is certain that they brought the Laws of the Twelve Tables out of Greece; which Cicero valued more than all the Books of the Philosophers. Applying themselves with great diligence to these Laws, and their Domestick Affairs, they form'd a Study which was particular to themselves, and lasted as long as their Empire. This Study is Civil Law, which we do not find that any Nation had cultivated before. Not but that the Greeks had diligently Studied the Laws, but they did it rather as Oratours, than Lawyers. I am not [Page] Ignorant that they very well knew the order and disposition of them;Aeschin. in Cteseph. that they dived also into the Reasons of them; and, with good effect, apply'd themselves unto business, both publick and private. But I do not find that they had any, who made it their profession, to explain them unto others, and to give Counsel; nor that they wrote Commentaries upon their Laws.Cic. pro Mur. For as for the Formularies, it is certain that the Greek Oratours left the care of them, to an inferiour sort of Men, whom they called Pragmaticks, or Practitioners. 'Tis true, there were in Greece Legislatours and Philosophers who had studied the Laws after a more noble and extensive manner, since it must needs argue a greater Genius to Compile a whole body of Laws, than to apply them in particular to the least Affairs: And they confess'd that this Knowledge, so useful to the World, came to them from Aegypt, and the East, as did all the rest of their Learning.

To return to Rome: To the end of the Sixteenth Age, after its foundation, Children were then Taught only to Read, and Write, and cast Account. Men Studied the Laws, and the Formularies; Horat. ep. L. 1. 2. either indifferently, for their own particular use; or more Curiously, to give Counsel unto others, and gain Credit, and Reputation. They did not begin to enter upon the Curiosities of the Greeks ordinarily, to Learn their Tongue, and to Read their Works,Gellius. xv. c. 11. till after the Second Punick War.Suet. de illustr. gram. & clar. Rhetor. initio. Hitherto there were to be seen some Ordinances of the Senate against Rhetoricians, and Philosophers by profession; as Men, who introduced dangerous Novelties into the Commonwealth.

[Page] The Romans, when they apply'd themselves to the Studies of the Greeks, did it, according to their own Genius; that is, they sought therein what was best, most solid, and most useful for the Conduct of Life. The old Cato, Scipio, and Laelius, were not Men, who wou'd burden themselves with Trifles. They Studied the Historians, and Oratours, to profit by their Excellent Examples, and good Maxims of the ancient Greeks; and to Learn how to Speak as perswasively upon the Affairs of Rome, as Pericles and Demosthenes had done, upon those of Athens; at the same time studiously avoiding to imitate the Greeks of their times, or to take up with the Trifles of the Grammarians, and Rhetoricians. Nay, they were even afraid of this.Cic. de Orator. L. 2. initio. Cicero says of the greatest Oratours of his time, they were fearful it shou'd be perceived, that they had Studied the Books of the Greeks, least it shou'd be thought, that they overmuch valued them, and so their Reputation of being Learned, might make their Discourses to be suspected of too much artifice.

The Wise Romans came afterwards to Philosophy, and there fix'd upon the principles and Reasons of Morality, and Politicks; of which they already had much Experience, and many Domestick Examples. Lastly, they knew how to take what was best in the Poets. Hence proceeded so many great Oratours in the last Age of the Republick, from the Gracchi, to Cicero; and they also, who may be called the Roman Philosophers, as Atticus, Cato of Ʋtica, and Brutus.

But the Establishment of the Monarchy at Rome, Vid. Dial. de corrupt. eloq. having rendred great Eloquence, and the Motives to it useless; (since the People did no [Page] longer give their Votes in Publick Affairs, nor bestow great Places) Poetry got the upper hand, and flourished under the Reign of Augustus. 'Tis true, it fell soon afterwards, having nothing that was solid to sustain it, and being look'd upon only as a sport, and diversion of the mind. Thus, within the space of about Two Hundred Years, the Studies of the Romans, came to be in the same condition, wherein they had found those of the Greeks. Every place was full of little Grammarians, Juven. Sat. 1. Rhetoricians, and idle Declamers; of prating Philosophers, Historians, and Poets, who tired the World in reciting their Works. Only the Civil Law was always preserv'd, because it was always necessary, and depended less upon the form of Government, or the particular manners of Men. There were also some true Philosophers, though we should reckon only the Emperour Marcus Aurelius, and several others, of whom, mention is made in Pliny's Epistles. But these Philosophers went rather for Greeks, than Romans: The greatest part of 'em also wore the Greek Habit, in what Country soever they dwelt, and of what Nation soever they were.

IV In the mean time, a much more Sublime Philosophy began to be Established;The Studies of the Christians. I mean, the Christian Religion, which soon made this purely Humane Philosophy to vanish; and did yet more severely Condemn all those other Studies, which were less serious. The Principal Study of Christians, was the meditation of the Law of God, and all the Holy Scriptures, according to the Tradition of the Pastours, who had faithfully preserv'd the Doctrine of the Apostles. They call'd all the rest, Strange, and Foreign [Page] Studies; and rejected them, as inticing the Reader to the manners of the Heathens. In Truth, the greatest part of their Books were either useless, Tert. de Idol. c. 10. &c. or dangerous. The Poets were the Devil's Prophets, who breathed nothing but Idolatry, and Debauchery; and made agreeable Representations of all sorts of Passions, and Villanies. Many Philosophers despised all Religion in general, August. ep. 132. ad Memor. and denied that there cou'd be any Miracles, or Prophecies. Others made great endeavours to Establish Idolatry, by Allegorizing natural things, and by the Secrets of Magick. Moreover their Morality was stuft with errours, and all turn'd upon this principle of Pride,Ep. 56. ad. Diosc. That it was in Man's power to make himself good and vertuous. The Oratours were full of Artifice, Lyes, Reproaches, or Flatteris; and the most solid Subjects of their Discourses, were matters of Business; from which the Christians studiously desired to Sequester themselves. They believed, that they shou'd have lost the time given them to gain Eternity, if they had imploy'd it in the Reading Foreign Histories, in Mathematical speculations, and other Curiosities: And they always saw in them, great danger of Vanity, a thing inseparable from the most innocent Studies. So that the greatest part of Christians apply'd themselves to the Labour of the Hands, and to works of Charity towards their Brethren. Their Schools were the Churches, where the Bishops daily explain'd the holy Scriptures. There were also Priests, and Deacons, whose particular Business it was to Instruct the Catechumens, and manage the Disputes against the Heathens. And every Bishop took particular Care to Instruct his [Page] Clergy, chiefly the Younger sort, who attended continually about his Person, to serve him as Readers, and Secretaries; to follow him, and carry about his Letters, and Orders. And thus they Learnt the Doctrine, and Discipline of the Church, rather by Domestick Instruction, and long use, than by formal, and set Lectures. Nevetheless, it cannot be deny'd, but that there were many Christians, who were very Learned in the Heathen Books, and the prophane Sciences. But if we do well examine the matter, we shall find, that the greater number of those persons had Studied them before they became Christians. And being well vers'd therein, they knew how to employ them to the purposes of Religion. All the good they found in them, they vended again as their own, because all Truth comes from God. They made use of the solid Maxims of Morality, which they found dispers'd in the Poets, and the Philosophers; and also of the remarkable Examples of History, to prepare the way to Christian Morality. On the contrary, they took advantage from the Absurdity of the Fables, and Impiety of Heathen Theology, to Encounter Paganism with its own Weapons; and thus employed their Knowledge of History in Disputes against the Heathens. It was with this Intention, that Africanus Composed that famous Chronology from which Eusebius has taken his. It was with this design, that the same Eusebius wrote his Evangelical Preparation; and St. Clement of Alexandria, his Advice to the Gentiles, and his Stromata.

Afterwards the Arians, and other Hereticks, (who made use of Philosophy, to destroy the [Page] Faith) did also oblige the Holy Fathers to imploy Humane Learning to overthrow their Sophisms. Thus they made use of Prophane Books with great Discretion; yet with an holy Liberty. And therefore, when Julian the Apostate forbad Christians to Teach and Study the Books of the Greeks, that is, the Heathens, they lookt upon this as a new sort of Persecution. Whence it is plain, that at that time they profess'd to Teach Humane Learning; which yet was not permitted in the first Ages; if we may believe Tertullian. Tertul. de Idol. c. 10. But the Reasons which he alledges are ceas'd since the Conversion of the Emperours, and the full liberty of Christianity. This happy Change made the Philosophers to be Neglected. St. Augustine Witnesseth, that in his time they cou'd no more be heard to Discourse in the Gymnasia, Ep. ad Diosc. which were their proper Schools; though, in those of the Rhetoricians, some of their Opinions were still recited, but not taught; neither their Books explain'd, of which even the Copies were very rarely to be met with: That no person dared to dispute against the Truth, under the Name of Stoick, or Epicurean; but that to be heard, he was forc'd to Mask himself under the Name, of Christian, and to be enter'd into some Sect of the Hereticks. St. Augustine did not Write this because he was not well vers'd in the Writings of the Philosophers; for in his Youth he had acquainted himself with them all: Insomuch, that it may be said of him, that he was a perfect Philosopher; since there never was any Man of a more penetrating Spirit, profound Meditation, and a more consistent Reason. The greatest part also of the Greek Fathers, were famous Philosophers. [Page] But 'tis very Remarkable, that amongst all the Philosophers, Renowned in Antiquity, Aristotle was he of whom they made least use. They found that he did not speak worthily of the Divine Providence, nor of the Nature of the Soul; that his Logick was too subtle, and his Morality too Low and humane; for this is the Judgment, Greg. Orat. 33. which St. Gregory Nazianzen, gives of him. And although Plato also has his faults, yet the Fathers thought they cou'd make better use of him; because in his Writings they found more footsteps of Truth, and more effectual means of perswasion. In short, 'tis evident, that if they undervalued Aristotle, it was not because they cou'd not understand him, which certainly they did, better than they who have since advanc'd him so high.

Prophane Philosophy was decry'd, because true Philosophers that is good Christians, (and especially the Monks) were every where to be seen. That Contempt of Honours, the Opinion of Men, Riches, and pleasures; That Patience in Poverty, and hardships, which Socrates, and Zeno had so much sought after, and of which they had discours'd so much, the Solitaries of these days practised, after a much more excellent manner, without disputing, and without arguing. They liv'd in perfect Tranquility, vanquishers of their Passions, and continually united unto God. They were troublesome to no Man; and without writing, without speaking, without shewing themselves, except very rarely, they instructed the whole World by their Example, and delighted it with the fragrancy of their vertues. There is therefore no reason to wonder, why they were [Page] had in such great veneration; or to judge of these Ancient Monks, by those that appeared before the late Reformations, whose looseness had caused this name, so much honour'd by the Ancients, to be despised.

It must be remembred, that these were the true Disciples of St. Anthony, St. Basil, St. Martin, and other Saints, whose Rules they practised, and whose vertues they imitated. For the Monasteries were then the true Schools, where was Taught not only Humane Learning and the Curious Sciences, but the Christian Morality and perfection; which was taught not so much by Reading, as by Prayer and real practice; by the living Examples of the Brethren and the Corrections of Superiours.

This perfection of Monasteries drew to them the most wise and intelligent Men; and 'twas often here only that such persons could be found, as were fit for the Service and Government of the Churches: And they who were thus drawn out of the Monasteries, did usually continue the exercises of the Monastick Life, in the state of the Priesthood, and taught them to their Disciples; from whence came the near Relation betwixt the Monastick Life and the Clerical;Thomass. disc. 2. p. l. 1. c. 30, 34, 35, &c. which was so ordinary after the Fifth Age. Many Bishops lived in common with their Priests; which made it more easie for them to instruct them in Ecclesiastical knowledge; and as for the younger Clerks, they who were not near the person of the Bishops lived with some holy Priest, who particularly took Care of their Education. There were still some prophane Schools, where was taught Grammar so far as 'twas necessary [Page] to write and speak correctly, Rhetorick, which daily became more affected and childish; History, which they began altogether to reduce into Abridgments; Civil Law, which always continued, because it depended no more upon Religion than the other; and the Mathematicks, which are the Foundations of many Arts necessary unto Life.

Learning suffer'd very much by the Ruine of the Western Empire, and the Establishment of the Northern People; so that there was scarce any thing of it left but amongst the Clergy and the Monks. In Truth, excepting the Clergy there were scarce any remainders of the Romans, except Peasants and Artificers, who were generally Slaves.

The Franks and other Barbarians, did not Study at all,Maeurs des Christiens n. 46. and if they made any use of Letters for the usual correspondencies of Life, it was only of Latin: for they knew not so much as how to Write in their own Language. Profane Studies, as Philology and History were most of all neglected: It did not become Clergy-men to busie themselves with them. It is well known how sharply St. Gregory Reproved Didier Bishop of Vienna, because he Taught Grammar. Besides having fewer Books, and less Convenience of Studying, than in the foregoing Ages, they betook themselves to that which was more necessary, that is to what immeadiately concern'd Religion.

V CHarlemaign who was truly great in all his Actions,The Studies of the Franks. did all that was in his power towards the Re-establishment of Learning. He drew together from all quarters the most knowing [Page] Men, by Honour and Rewards. He himself Studied too. He setled Schools in the Chief Cities of his Empire, and even in his own Palace; which was like a walking City. It appears by many Articles of the Capitularies what was Taught therein. For it is recommended to the Bishops, (who by the Duty of their place are concern'd to provide for the Instruction of Youth,) that they shou'd take Care that Children were Taught Grammar, Singing, Casting Account, or Arithmetick. (It may be seen in Bede's Works who Lived Sixty Years before) wherein their Studies and all the liberal Arts did consist.

Grammar was then necessary, because Latin was altogether Corrupted, and the Roman Language Rustick; as the Vulgar Language whence the French is Derived was termed. This Language, I say, was nothing but an uncertain and monstrous Jargon, which Men were ashamed to write or use in any serious Business. As for the German Language which was that of the Prince and of all the Franks, it began to be Written and to be used in some Translations of the holy Scriptures; and Charlemaign himself made a Grammar for it: The Singing which was taught, was that of the Ecclesiastical Office, reformed at this time according to the Roman Custom; and thereunto were joined some Rules of Musick. Calculation or Computation served for the finding out on what day Easter was to be kept, and for the Regulating the Year; It comprehended also the most necessary Rules of Arithmetick, by all which it appears, that these Studies were only for those who design'd for the Clergy: Thus all Lay persons were either the Noblemen [Page] who concern'd themselves in nothing but War, or the Commonalty busied in Husbandry and Trades. Charlemaign was careful to disperse all over his Territories that Code of the Canons which he received from Pope Adrian, the Roman Law, and other Laws of all the People under his Obedience, whereof he made new Editions. He had a great many ancient Histories; and he was so curious, as to cause the Verses which preserved the Memory of the brave Actions of the Germans to be Written, and put together. Thus, together with the Holy Scriptures, and Fathers of the Church, then very well known, he furnished his Subjects with all things necessary for their instruction. And if Men had gone on to have Studied according to this Platform, and Laymen had been more ingaged in the pursuits of Learning, the French might easily have attain'd and perfected that Knowledge which is most useful for Religion, for Policy, and for the particular Conduct of Life; which things ought, in my Opinion, to be the end of Studies.

But curiosity which has always been injurious to Learning, insinuated it self into Study from this time: Many Studied Astronomy, many believed Astrological Predictions. There were some, who, in order to Write good Latin, did scrupulously Criticize upon the Words and Phrases of ancient Authors. The greatest mischief was, that the Monks enter'd upon these Curiosities, and began to value themselves upon their Knowledge, to the prejudice of their Hand-labour, and silence, which hitherto had been so advantageous to them. The Court of Lewis the Debonnair was full of them, and no business pass'd in [Page] his Court, wherein they had not a share. Afterwards the State falling into the greatest Confusion by the sudden fall of the House of Charlemaign; Studies also fell with it, all at once. In the time of Charles the Bald, Publick Acts are to be seen even of the Capitularies, Written in a sort of Latin, altogether Barbarous, without Rule, and without Construction; and Books were so scarce, that Lupus Abbot of Ferrier, sent as far as Rome to receive from the Pope, the Works of Cicero to Copy over, which at present are so very common; insomuch, that when the little particular Wars and Ravages of the Normans, had taken away the Liberty of Travel, and broken off Commerce, Studies became very difficult; I mean, to the Monks themselves, and the Clergy; as for others, they never Dream'd of them, besides, they had more pressing business to dispatch: They were often forc'd to remove in disorder,Moeurs Christiens. n. 48. and carry the Reliques with them, to save them from the Fury of the Barbarians, abandoning their Houses and Churches to them, or else the Monks and Clergy were necessitated to take up Arms in defence of their Lives, and to hinder the Prophanation of the Holy Places. In such great Extremities, it was as easie for them to lose their Books, as 'twas difficult to Study them, and Write new Copies of them. Nevertheless, there were some preserved, there being always some Bishop or Monk remarkable for his Learning. But wanting Books and Masters, they Studied without choice, and without any other direction, than the example of their Predecessors. Thus it is Recorded of St. Abbo, the Abbot of the Benedictins upon the Loire, in the time of Hugh Capet, [Page] that he had Studied Logick, Arithmetick and Astronomy; and that afterwards he betook himself to the Study of the Holy Scripture, and the Canons, and to Collect passages out of the Fathers.

From this time, as the Royal Authority became Re-established, and Hostilities began to cease, Studies also revived; so that, in the time of Philip I. about the Year 1060. Men famous for their Learning, were to be seen in several Churches of France. There were likewise some Schools in the Cathedrals, as there were in the Monasteries; where there were Schools within for the Monks, and without for the Seculars. They Studied as before, Divinity, the Fathers of the Church, the Canons, Logick, the Mathematicks. Thus they continued during the following Age, always advancing and perfecting themselves, as we see by the Writings of Ivo of Chartres, the Master of the Sentences, Gratian, St. Bernard, and other Authors of the same time, whose Stile and Method is so different from later Schoolmen.

In the mean time, the first of these Schoolmen followed them so near, that the Change must needs have happened in the time of these great Men; that is to say, about the end of the Twelfth Age: And I can find out no other Causes of it, but the Knowledge of the Arabians, and the imitation of their Studies. The Jews were they, who imitated them first: They Translated their Books into Hebrew, and there being then Jews in France, and all over Christendom, the Books which they had Translated into Hebrew, were render'd in Latin. Some of them might be received even from the Arabians themselves, with whom the Communication was easie, by [Page] the Neighbourhood of Spain, (of which, they as yet held more than half) and by the Travels of those, who went upon the Croisado.

VI THe Vulgar Opinion, that all Mahometans, without distinction,The Studies of the Arabians. did always profess Ignorance, is a great mistake. They had an incredible number of Men, Famous for their Learning, particularly many of the Arabians and Persians; and they have written enough to fill large Libraries. Four Hundred Years before the Twelfth Age (of which I speak) they had diligently given themselves to Study, and Learning was never at so great an height with them, as when it was at the lowest with us; that is, in the tenth and eleventh Ages. These Arabians, I mean, all those who call themselves Musulmen, of what Nation, or Country soever, had two kinds of Study, the one proper to themselves, the other taken from the Greeks, who were Subject to the Emperours of Constantinople.

Their particular Studies, were in the first place, their Religion, that is, the Alcoran; the Traditions which they attributed to Mahomet, and his first Disciples; the Lives of their pretended Saints, and the Stories which they relate of them; the Cases of Conscience upon the practical part of their Religion, as Prayer, Purifications, Fasting, Pilgrimage; and their Scholastical Theology, which contains so many Questions about the attributes of God upon predestination, the Judgment, the Succession of Prophesie, whence proceed so many Sects amongst them, who treat one another as Hereticks.

Others Studied the Alcoran and its Commentaries rather as Lawyers than Divines, to find therein [Page] Rules for the management of Affairs, and the Decision of differences: For this Book is their only Law, even in Temporals. Others apply'd themselves unto History, which had been very carefully Written from the beginning of their Religion, and their Empire, and has been continued down ever since. But they were very ignorant of ancient Histories, despising all Mankind who lived before Mahomet, and calling all that time the time of Ignorance, because their Religion was not known. They contented themselves with the Arabian Antiquities, contained in the Works of their ancient Poets, which to them served instead of the History for those times; wherein (it can't be denied) they have followed the same Principle which the Old Greeks did, of improving their own Traditions, how Fabulous soever. But it must be acknowledged also that their Poetry never had any Beauty, but what was very Superficial, as flashy Thoughts, and bold Expressions. They never apply'd themselves to that sort of Poetry which consists in imitation, and is most proper to move the Passions; and that, perhaps, which made them avoid it, was the despicable Opinion they had of those Arts, which any wise related thereunto; as Painting and Sculpture, which their hatred of Idolatry made them abhor. Moreover, their Poets were useful for the Study of the Arabick Tongue, which then was the Language of the Masters, and most of the People of all this great Empire; and still at this Day, is the common Language of the greatest part, and every where the Language of the Religion. They Studied it chiefly in the Alcoran, and [Page] to learn it by Conversation with the Living: The most Curious went from all Parts to the Province of Irac, and particularly to the City Bassora, which was to them what Athens was to the ancient Greeks: And there being then powerful Princes in Persia, many things were Written in their Language, which have been much improved since. These are the Studies proper to the Musulmen, and were as ancient as their Religion.

Those which they had received from the Greeks, were later by Two Hundred Years; for it was about the Year 820. when the Calif Almamon desired of the Emperour of Constantinople the best Greek Books, and caused them to be Translated into Arabick. Nevertheless, it doth not appear that they ever Studied the Greek Tongue; it was sufficient to make them despise it, because it was the Language of their Enemies: Besides, there were so many Christians in Syria and Egypt, who understood both Arabick and Greek, that they could not want Interpreters; and these Christians Translated the Greek Books into Syriack and Arabick for themselves, and for the Musulmen.

Amongst the Greek Books, there were a great many which were of no use to the Arabians; they could not see the Beauty of the Poets in a strange Language, and with a genius so quite different from them: Add this further, that their Religion would not permit them to Read them; they had such an horrour of Idolatry, that they did not think it lawful to pronounce so much as the names of the false Deities: And amongst so many Millions of Volumes which they [Page] have Written, you shall scarce find one which mentions them. They were very far from Studying all those Fables, about which our modern Poets have been so Curious, and the same Superstition might restrain them from reading Histories; besides, that they despised, as I have already said, all that was older than Mahomet. As for Eloquence and Policy which were brought forth, and nourish'd in the most free Commonwealths; the Form of the Musulmen's Government gave them no occasion to make use of them. They lived under an Empire absolutely despotick, where they were not to open their Mouths but to Flatter their Prince, and Extol every Thought of his, and where they were not concern'd, for that which might conduce to the advantage of the State, or to the Art of perswading, but how to obey the Will of their Master.

So that there were no Books of the Ancients which were useful to them, but those of Mathematicks, of Physicians and Philosophers. But seeing they neither sought after Policy nor Eloquence, Plato was not for them; besides, to understand him, the Knowledge of the Poets, the Religion and History of the Greeks was necessary. Aristotle with his Logick and Metaphysicks was more proper for them, and accordingly they Study'd him with incredible earnestness and diligence. They also apply'd themselves to his Physicks, chiefly to Eight Books, which contain nothing but Generals: For natural Philosophy, in particular, which requires Observations and Experiments, was not so suitable to them. They did not omit to Study Medicks very closely; but [Page] they founded it chiefly upon the general notions of the four Qualities, and the four Humours, and upon the Tradition of Medicines, which they had not at all examin'd, and which they mixed with an infinite number of Superstitions. As to other parts of it, they did not in the least improve Anatomy which they had received from the Greeks very imperfect: 'Tis true, that we owe Chymistry to them, which they have carry'd very far, if not invented, but they have mingled therewith all those corruptions which we can yet hardly separate therefrom; vain Promises, extravagant Reasonings, superstitious Operations, and all those fond things which have produced nothing but Montebanks and Impostors. From Chymistry they passed easily to Magick, and and all sorts of Divinations with which Men easily take up, when they are ignorant of natural Philosophy, History, and true Religion, as we have seen by the example of the ancient Greeks. That which wonderfully assisted them in these Illusions, was Astrology, which was the chief aim of their Mathematical Studies. In truth, this pretended Science has been so much cultivated under the Empire of the Musulmen, that Princes took delight therein; and upon this Foundation, ordered their greatest Enterprizes. The Calif Almamon did himself Calculate Astronomical Tables, which were very famous; and it must be confess'd that they were very serviceable for his Observations, and other useful parts of Mathematicks, as Geometry and Arithmetick. We owe to them Algebra, and the way of Cyphering by Multiplying by Ten, which has render'd the Arithmetical Operations so easie. As for Astronomy, they [Page] had the same advantages, which excited the ancient Egygtians and Chaldeans to apply themselves thereto, seeing they Inhabited the same Country: And moreover, they had all the observations of the Ancients, and all those which the Greeks had added unto them.

The Arabians, who made it their business to Study their Religion, were not only no Philosophers, but their declared Enemies, and decry'd them as an impious sort of Men, and Enemies to their Religion. Indeed it was no difficult matter for any, who could but reason in any degree, to destroy the foundation of a Religion which was built, neither upon Reason nor any Evidence of a Divine Mission. The Philosophers there fore being excluded from the Functions of Religion, and other profitable Imployments, sought the more after Reputation; and they endeavour'd to get it, either from the Names of the Masters, under whom they had Studied, or from their great Travels, or from the singularity of their Opinions. A Learned Man in Spain, was always much more Learned in Persia, or Corasan; and there was a wondrous Emulation betwixt them, each of them Zealously affecting to distinguish himself by some new Logical or Metaphysical subtilty. And this same Humour run through all their Studies, and all their Works. They apply'd themselves only to that which seemed most wonderful, most rare, and most difficult; for this end, disreguarding Pleasure, Convenience, and even profit its self.

The Franks, and other Latin Christians, received from the Arabians, only what the Arabians had taken from the Greeks, that is, the Philosophy [Page] of Aristotle, Medicks and Mathematicks, disregarding their Language, their Poetry, their Histories, and their Religion, as the Arabians had neglected those of the Greeks. But what is most surprising, is, That our Learned Men did little less than the Arabians, neglect the Greek Tongue, so useful for the Study of Religion. For it was not before the beginning of the Fourteenth Age, that it was, that the Languages might very much contribute to this end, chiefly in order to the Conversion of Infidels and Schismaticks. It was with this design, that the Council of Vienna held in the Year 1315. ordered that Professours, for the Greek, Arabick and Hebrew should be Established, which yet was not put into Execution till a long time afterwards. Men did not begin to Study Greek before the end of the Fifteenth Age; Hebrew in the beginning of the Sixteenth; and Arabick in our Age. Hitherto there were but some few curious Persons, who apply'd themselves thereto, and they seldom bestow'd their pains upon Books of History which would have been most useful.

VII TO return to the Twelfth Age. They who Studied then,The Studies of the Schoolmen, or those which were Scholastick. were not at all concerned to be curious in Languages, not so much as in Latin, which they used for their Studies, and in all Affairs of Moment? But I cannot accuse them for this, but the unhappiness of the Times. The Incursions of the Normans, and the particular Wars which yet continued, had made Books so scarce, and Studies so difficult, that they were forc'd first to Labour in that which was of most importance. There was, as yet, no Printing, and there were scarce any but Monks who [Page] could Write; and they were fully imploy'd in Writing Bibles, Psalters, and such-like Books for the use of Churches. They Write also some Works of the Fathers, as they fell into their Hands, some Collections of Canons, and some Formularies of Acts, which were most ordinary in transacting business: For 'twas to them Application was made to cause them to be Written, and 'twas from amongst them or the Clergy that Princes had their Notaries and their Chancellours; they had scarce any time to Transcribe the Prophane Histories, and the Poets. 'Tis true, that the Knowledge of Languages and Histories, is necessary to understand the Fathers well, and even Scripture it self; but either they did not apprehend it to be so, or else the extraordinary difficulty of attaining this Knowledge through the want of Dictionaries, Glossaries, Commentaries; and the scarceness of the Text it self, made them lose all hopes of it.

Hence it was, that they who would superadd any thing to the meer reading of the Scripture, and the Fathers, did it only by Reasoning and Logick; as St. John the Sophist, the first Author of the Nominals, who lived in the time of Hen. I. and his followers, Arnold of Laon, Roscelin of Compeign, Master Abalard. This way of Philosophizing upon Words and Thoughts, without examining things in themselves, was most certainly a good expedient to ease themselves of the Knowledge of Matter of Fact, which is not to be attained but by reading; and it was an easie way to confound the ignorant Laymen, by a singular way of speaking, and by vain subtilties. But these subtilties were dangerous, [Page] as it appeared by Berengarius, Abalard, and Gilbert of Poirée. This is the Reason why the wisest Persons, as St. Anselm, Peter of Blois, and St. Bernard, firmly resolved to follow the Example of the Fathers, rejecting these new Curiosities: And the Master of the Sentences, giving himself more liberty, made fome false steps.

In the mean time the Books of Aristotle came to be known, as I have said, and whether for the Disputes against the Jews and Arabians, or for some other Reason, I know not; the Divines thought they had need of them, and therefore did accommodate them to our Religion; whose Doctrines and Morality they Explain'd according to the Principles of this Philosopher. This was done by Albertus Magnus, Alexander Hales, St. Thomas, and many others after them: And their Method of Divinity may be reckoned the third, for there are two more ancient. The First was that of the Fathers of the Church, who Studied the Holy Scripture immediately, chiefly drawing from thence the Knowledge which was necessary for the instruction of the Faithful, and the refutation of the Hereticks; this Theology continued till towards the Eighth Age. The Second was that of Bede, of Raban, and others of the same time, who not being able to add any thing to the Instructions of the Fathers, contented themselves with Copying them, making Collections and Extracts out of them, and taking Glosses and Commentaries upon the Scripture out of them also. The Third was that of the Schoolmen, who handled the Doctrin of the Scripture, and the Fathers, by the Form and Instruments of Logick and Metaphysicks, drawn from the Writings [Page] of Aristotle:Perr. Euchar. C. M. c. 29. And thus Cardinal Perron defines it.

At the same time the Studies of Civil Law and Medicks were revived, but it was impossible then to Study Civil Law well since they wanted Laws. The Roman Laws, and those Barbarous Laws which had been observed under the two first Races of our Kings,V. Hist. de droit Franc. were abolished by contrary Customs, or by Forgetfulness and Ignorance. They were not in a Condition to make new Laws, because as yet, they had not Re-establish'd the Foundations of Civil Society; the liberty of Travel, the security of Trade and Industry, the Union of the Citizens, the Common People were either Slaves, or look'd upon as such: The Nobles lived dispers'd, and Cantonized every one in his Castle, with his Arms always in his Hand. There were no other Laws in France, but unwritten Customs, very uncertain, and very different, by reason of the prodigious number of Lords, in whose power it was to give Law. It is true, that in Italy, the Books of the Justinian Law were recovered, and it began publickly to be Taught at Montpelier and Tholouse. But these Laws were not Laws for us, because the Gauls had been freed from the Roman-Yoke, before Justinian was in the World. Furthermore, they were not able to understand them, by reason of Ignorance of Languages and History; there not being any Tradition of them preserved amongst us by the practice of our Courts, for Six Hundred Years after they were Written. They did not however omit to Study, and apply them as they could to their present occasions; and they gain'd a great deal of Authority by the great Name of [Page] Roman Law, and by the extream necessity there was of some Rules in judicial proceedings.

The Ecclesiastical Law was not in such an ill condition. The practice of the Canons was preserved, though Discipline began to be remiss. There were many Collections of ancient Canons; amongst others, that of Gratian, who lived in the middle of the Twelfth Age. 'Tis true, they were not very Correct, and they were intermixt with many passages of the Fathers, which ought not to have the force of Laws, together with the Decretals Fathered upon the first Popes, which at last have been own'd to be Suppositious. This Example makes it appear, of how great importance it is, for the preserving Tradition in its Purity, that there be always in the Church, Persons who are skill'd in Languages and History, and who are well vers'd in critical Learning.

Medicks was still worse treated than Civil Law: Hitherto it had been in the Hands of the Jews; excepting some Secrets of Old Women, and some Traditions of Receipts, which were preserved in Families. The first Books which they Studied, were those of the Arabians; and amongst others, the Writings of Mesua and Avicenna. They received their Fooleries and Superstitions; and in the mean time neglected as these had done Anatomy, and they consulted them also for the knowledge of Plants. As there were none but the Clergy and the Monks who Studied, so there were none but they who were Physicians. Fulbert Bishop of Chartres, and the Master of the Sentences, Bishop of Paris, were Physicians. Obizo, one of the Religious of St. Victor, was Physician to Lewis the Gross: Rigord, Monk of St. Denys, who has Writ the Life of [Page] Philip the August was one also. One of the Councils of Lateran, held under Innocent the II. in the Year 1139. takes notice of it, as an abuse long practised; that Monks and Regular Canons, to get Money, profess'd themselves Advocates and Physicians. This Council speaks only of those Religious, who were profess'd; and Medicks ceased not to continue in the Hands of Clergymen Three Hundred Years after. But it being never permitted to the Clergy to shed Blood, nor to keep a Shop of Ware: This might probably be the cause of the distinguishing Physicians from Chyrurgeons, and Apothecaries. This distinction has for a long time kept Physicians in the Speculation only, without applying themselves to Experiments.

VIII THus all Studies were reduc'd to four sorts or faculties. The three principal,Ʋniversities and their four Faculties. Divinity, Law, and Physick. The fourth comprehended all Preliminary Studies, which were accounted necessary to arrive unto these higher Studies, which were called by the general Name of the Arts. Doubtless Reason requires that Men should Study what is most useful: first for the Soul, and then for the Body, and the advantages of Life. Upon this project, Ʋniversities were Founded, especially that of Paris, which could hardly have its beginning later than the Year 1200.

For a long time there had been about the Bishops Houses two sorts of Schools: The one for the Young Clergy, to whom Grammar, Singing, and Arithmetick, were taught; and their Master was either the Chanter of the Cathedral, or the Ecolatrés, otherwise called the Capiscol, that is, the Head of the School. The other School was for Priests, and Clerks of an higher Form; to [Page] whom the Bishop himself, or some Priest Commissioned by him, Explain'd the Holy Scriptures, and the Canons; Theologal. afterwards the Theologal was expresly erected for this Office. Peter Lombard Bishop of Paris, better known by the name of Master of the Sentences, had made his School very Famous for Divinity: and there were some Religious of St. Victor, in great repute for the Liberal Arts. Thus the Studies of Paris became Famous.Decretal. The Decretal also was taught there; that is, Gratian's Compilation, which was look'd upon as an intire Body of the Canon Law: There also Medicks were Studied. And thus joyning these four principal Studies, (which were called Faculties) together; they named the Compound of them all, Ʋniversity of Studies. And at last, simply Ʋniversity: To denote that in one City alone, all things were Taught which were useful to know. This Establishment seemed so considerable, that the Popes and Kings favoured it with great Privileges. Persons came to Study at Paris from all Parts of France, Italy, Germany, and England; in a word, from all Parts of Latin Europe, and thus the private Schools of Cathedrals and Monasteries came to be neglected: Let us see more particularly what was Taught in each Faculty.

IX UNder the Name of Arts, were comprehended Grammar and Humanity; The Faculty of the Acts. the Mathematicks and Philosophy: But to speak properly, this Name ought only to comprehend the Seven Liberal Arts, of which we find Treatises in Cassiodore and Bede, viz. Grammar, Rhetorick, Logick, Arithmetick, Musick, Geometry and Astronomy. A Master of Arts should be one, capable to teach all these. For [Page] Grammar, they read Priscian, Donatus; or some other of the ancients, who had Writ upon th [...] Latin Tongue, rather to acquaint the Roman of their Times, (to whom it was natural) with its utmost Niceties, than to teach its Elements to Strangers.

In the Thirteenth Age, Latin was no longer in Common use, amongst the People, in any place of the World; and in France the ordinary Tongue was that which we see in Ville-hardoüin, in Joinville, and other Romancers of the same time. It seems to me, that they ought to have apply'd the Art of Grammar to this Language, chusing the most proper Words, and the most natural Phrases, fixing the inflexions, and giving Rules for Construction and Orthography. The Italians did so; and about the end of the same Age, there were some Florentines who Studied to Write well in their Vulgar Tongue; as Brunetto Latini, John Villani, and the Poet Dante. As for our Language, it was not purified, but by Time; and they did not set upon it, by publick order in the French Academy, till Four Hundred Years after the Institution of Ʋniversities. 'Tis true, that Latin was still necessary for the reading of good Books, and the Exercise of Religion; and they who Studied at that time, were all Church-men. Latin also was necessary for business, and for publick Acts; and so it was for Travel, so that Interpreters were called Latinizers. It was therefore impossible to be without Latin; but it was also impossible to Establish the ancient purity of it, by reason of scarcity of Books, and upon other accounts, which I have observed. They were forc'd to be contented with speaking, [Page] and Writing it meanly. They made no scruple of mixing therewith many Barbarous Words, and to follow the Phrase of the Vulgar Tongues; they were satisfied with barely observing the Cases, Numbers, Genders, Conjugations, and Principal Rules of Syntax. To this they wholly reduc'd the Study of Grammar, looking upon all the rest as an unprofitable Curiosity, seeing Men speak only to be understood; and a more Elegant sort of Latin would have been more hardly understood. And thus that Barbarous Latin came to be formed, which has so long been used in the Palace; which is with difficulty corrected in the Schools; and which is spoken yet in Germany and Poland, for the convenience of Travel. Thence comes the necessity of Glosses and Commentaries, for the Explication of the ancient Books, Written in a pure Style.

Poetry consisted only in knowing the measure of Latin Verse, and the quantity of Syllables; for they went not so far as to distinguish the Characters of Composures, and the difference of Styles. This appears by the Poems of Gunther, and William of Breton, which are only meer Histories of a flat Style, and as bad Latin as that wherein they wrote in Prose. To the restraint of quantity and cuttings off, they added that of Rhimes which made their Leonine Verses; and often neglecting even quantity; they only made simple Rhimes in Latin as in French, and this was that which they called the Church Hymns; this was all the Poetry of Men which were serious. As for the Vulgar Poetry, which began to be in request about the Twelfth Age (as may appear by so many Romances and Ballads,) it soon became [Page] the peculiar Talent of Debauchees and Libertines. Such generally were the Country Trombadours, and other Poets of this time, who followed the Courts of Princes. In the mean time it must be confess'd, that several of them were Men of Wit, and (considering the time) of Politeness also; yet their Works were full of fulsom Love, and Extravagant Fictions. From this time they continued more and more to separate the pleasure of Discourse, from reasoning and solid Studies; and this is that which made Rhetorick neglected in the Schools; for there they were not solicitous, either to please, or to move the Passions.

They chiefly apply'd themselves to Philosophy, and they believed, that it needed no Ornament of Language, or any Figure of Discourse. Thus endeavouring to render it Solid and Methodical, they made it very dry and ungrateful; not considering, that a Natural and Figured Discourse, spares a great many Words, and helps the Memory, by the lively Images it imprints upon the Mind. In the mean time, there being no Study without Curiosity and Emulation: Our Learned Men, did as the Arabians had done, either through imitation, or by the same principle, and stuff'd their Philosophy with an infinite number of Questions, more subtle than solid, falling short extreamly of the Idea of the ancient Graecians.

The Logick of Socrates, which we see in Plato and Xenophon, was an Art of seriously seeking after Truth, and he call'd it the Dialectick Art, because this search cannot be well made, but by Conversation betwixt two Persons, both careful to reason well. This Art then consisted in answering [Page] rightly to every Question in making exact Divisions, in well defining Words and Things, and attentively weighing every Consequence before 'twas granted, without being in an Heat, without fearing to be overcome, and to confess their Errours; and without desiring (through Prejudice, or any By-respects) that one proposition should be true, rather than another. So that in this Logick, Morality enter'd, and Eloquence found a Place. For since Men are usually Passionate, or prevented with some Errour, their Passions must first be calm'd, and their Prejudices removed, before Truth be proposed, which without this preparation, would only offend them. Now, this Method requires marvellous Discretion and Address, for Men to accommodate themselves to the infinite variety of Minds, and their Distempers: And this is that which we admire in Plato. Arist. Ret. 1. 'Tis upon this Foundation, that Aristotle Parallels Logick with Rhetorick; and says, that both the one and the other has the same Design, which is to perswade by Discourse. Logick uses more solid and convincing Reasons; because, in particular Conversation, we better know the disposition of him to whom we speak; and we have liberty to try all necessary ways to Conduct him to the Knowledge of Truth. Instead of which, Rhetorick, which is the Art of discoursing in Publick, is often obliged to follow the Prejudices of its Auditours, and to bottom its Reasonings upon that which they acknowledge; because it is impossible to perswade them to Change, by speaking to them a little while, and in a great Assembly. And upon this account, Aristotle says, that Rhetorick only uses Enthymems; that is to say, such Reasonings [Page] as are partly in the Auditours Mind, and which it is not needful to Explain. Such was Logick amongst the Greeks: The Art of finding out Truth, as far as possible, by natural means.

Our Philosophers seem to have considered Truths, only in themselves, and the Order which they have to one another, independently upon us. And 'tis true, that this was always done in the Mathematicks; because their objects raise no Passions in us. It is no Man's interest to maintain, that a Right Line is a Crooked one; nor that an acute Angle should be an Obtuse one. But, since Logick is the Instrument of all Sciences, and especially of Morality, it ought to comprehend every thing that is necessary to make all sorts of Truth to enter into Men's Minds; and rather those which the Passions do obstruct than others. Nevertheless, it doth not appear, that our Philosophers had sufficient regard to the dispositions of their Disciples. They have apply'd to all sorts of Subjects the dry Method of Geometricians; and being the first of them had to do with very dull Disciples (for it was not known in France what was Politeness 500 Years ago,) they took great care to separate all their Propositions, to put all their Arguments in Form, and evermore to distinguish the Conclusion, the Proofs, and the Objections: So that it was impossible for the dullest Pupil to mis-apprehend them. They thought that they mightily shortned the Work, by cutting off all Ornaments of Discourse, and all the Figures of Rhetorick; but probably, they did not consider, that those Figures which render the Discourse lively, and animated, are nothing but the natural Consequences of that effort, which [Page] we make to perswade others: Besides, these Figures do much shorten the Discourse; often they discharge an objection by one Word, often an handsom Turn is a better Proof, than an Argument in Form; and always thereby, the tedious repetitions of Terms of Art are avoided.

Let the Experiment be made, and one Page of Scholastick Discourse will be reduc'd to the fourth part, by changing it into an ordinary, and natural Discourse: And yet they who are accustomed to this way of Reasoning, believe that Figurative expressions, contain nothing but Words, and cannot own any thing to have Reason in it, that is not distinguished by Articles, and Titles. I'm very sensible, that 'tis sometimes necessary to argue in Form, or to use Terms of Art, and name the Major and the Minor, to give Light to some important Reason, and unravel a Sophism: But it doth not therefore follow, that this must be always done. Men do not ordinarily Express themselves by set Forms of Speech, because these are necessary in Contracts and Oaths. Something should be left to be done by the Scholar, who ought not to be so injuriously Treated, as to be supposed uncapable of observing the Strength of a Reason, if he be not pointed to it by the Finger.

The Study of Philosophy consisted chiefly in Studying Aristotle, whom the Professors Read, and Explain'd in Publick. But as the greatest part of Commentatours are very Copious upon the beginnings of their Authors; so here, in time, they made very tedious Treatises upon all the Praeliminaries of Logick. Of Aristotles Categories, which are only a short Explication of all the simple Terms which can enter into Propositions, they [Page] have made a very large Discourse, and have therewith mix'd a great deale of Metaphysicks, and even Theology For speaking of Relation, some have enter'd very far into the Mystery of the Trinity. They have also made very long Comments upon Porphyry's Introduction; whence proceeded the Famous Treatise of Universals. They have also joyned thereunto Questions upon the Name and Essence of Logick it self; as whether it be an Art, or a Science, &c. And in these Prefaces they dilated so much, that they were forc'd to be very short upon the Rules of Syllogisms, and all things else which make up the main Body of Aristotle's Logick.

The same almost has likewise been done in Morality. There they have dilated upon the general Questions concerning the End, of the Soveraign good, of Liberty, &c. So that they wanted time to treat of Vertues in particular, and to give special Rules for the Conduct of Life; which nevertheless, seems to be the end of Morality. And herein, Aristotle might be of great use; for he knew perfectly well the manners of Men, and if his thoughts did not always soar so high as Plato's, yet he reasoned more according to the actions of ordinary Life, and the Practices of Men. But after all, this is but a low degree for Christians to aim at, who ought to have learn'd from their Infancy, a Doctrin infinitely above, even that of Plato himself.

X OF all Sciences, Physick was the most imperfect,Medicks. or physick. at the time when Ʋniversities began to be Form'd. This Science was wholly taken from the Arabians; and instead of Founding it upon [Page] Experience, and beginning by well assuring themselves, what things were real and in Truth, they Founded it altogether upon Aristotle, and his Commentatours, and upon general Reasonings. And truly it was not easie for the Learned Men of this Time to make Experiments: They were all either Monks or Clergymen, shut up in Monasteries and Colleges; for most part Poor, either by Profession or by their Fortune. The Arts were at a very low Ebb; a great many inventions were lost, and few, as yet, of them were found again. The Artisans were generally Slaves, and very despicable; Men would not easily believe, that any thing could be learn'd of them. However, whether this had been so or no; Men's Minds were not disposed to examin Matters of Fact, and consult Experience: They rely'd upon the Authority of Books, and took all for granted which they said of the effects of Nature, and their Causes. They were so far from despising what was extraordinary, that the most marvellous things always seemed most worthy of their Notice. Hence came the belief of an infinite number of Fables, with which the World is still infected, though Pains are daily taken to undeceive Men; so many occult Qualities, so many Sympathies and Antipathies, so many imaginary properties of Plants, and Animals: This also was that which raised the credit of Magick and Astrology, which then was but too high. The Doctrin of the influences of the Stars, was supposed, as an undeniable Truth; and these good Men thought themselves happy enough,S. Tho. 1. 2. q. 9. art 5. ad 2. & 3. by proving, that they could not Act upon the free Wills of Men; giving all the rest of Nature, even the Organs of Human Bodies, to [Page] their direction. They believed, that there was a sort of Natural Magick; and every thing, of which they knew not the Cause, they ascribed to that which was Supernatural, that is, the Power of Wicked Spirits. For, being assured by Religion, that there are such Spirits, and that God permits them sometimes to Deceive Men, nothing did more handsomly conceal their Ignorance, than to attribute to them all that, of which they could give no Account. Thus the Fictions of the Poets of this time, were not, by much, so absurd, as they appear to us. It was probable, even in the Opinion of their Learned Men, that there had been, and that there were still in divers parts of the World, Diviners and Enchanters; and that Nature Produced Flying Dragons, and divers kinds of Monsters.

This Belief of Fables in Natural History, introduced a great many Superstitious Practices, especially in Medicks; where People always love to do something that is Useless, rather than omit any thing that may be of Advantage. To Study Natural Philosophy (under which was comprehended Medicks) was onely to Read Books, and Dispute; as if there had been no Animals to Dissect; no Plants, or Minerals, whose Effects were to be Try'd; as if Men had not had the Use of their Senses, to have satisfy'd themselves of the Truth of that which others had said. In a word, as if no such thing, as Nature, had been in the World, to have been Consulted in her Self. Much after this manner were Arts, and especially Medicks, treated in the Universities.

[Page] XI THe same Method was pursued in Law.Civil and Canon Law. Since the ignorance of Latin and History hinder'd them from Understanding the Texts, they betook themselves to the Summaries, and Glosses of those who were presumed best to Understand them: and who themselves,V. Glos. in c. 1. extra de summar. in verb. Diabolus. Item in Institut. de jure nat. &c. S. 4, 5, 6. having not the help of other Books, did onely Explain one place of the Digest, or the Decretal, by another; comparing them, as exactly as they could. The Faults of these Masters easily deceived their Disciples; and some so far abused their Credulity, as to mix with their Glosses Ridiculous Etymologies, and Absurd Fables. Whether it was, that they did not Apprehend that they could not Practise the Laws, if they did not understand them, or that they despaired to understand them better: However it was, their greatest Endeavour was to Reduce them to Practise, to handle Questions upon the Consequences which they had drawn from the Texts, to give Counsel, and Decide Cases. But when they undertook to apply this Roman Law to our Affairs (which was so ill understood by us, and so different from our Manners) and yet, at the same time, preserve our Customs, which it was impossible to Change; The Rules of Justice became much more uncertain. All Civil Law was reduc'd to School-Disputes, and the Opinions of Doctors, who, having not sufficiently penetrated into the Principles of Morality, and Natural Equity, sought sometimes their particular Interests. They also, who sought after Justice, knew no other Means of procuring it, but particular Remedies against Injustice; which made them invent so many New Clauses for Contracts, and [Page] so many Formalities for Judgments. They, as the Physicians did, labour'd onely to heal Present Evils, without taking care to stop the Fountains of them, and prevent 'em for the future; or rather they could not do it. For, to take away the General Causes of Vexatious Process and Injustice, it is requisite, that the Soveraign Power be Concern'd; that there be some certain and stable Laws known to all the World, and Publick Officers fully Authorized. A great many Means of Inriching, as well as Ruining themselves, must be taken away from particular Persons; and, as far as possible, they must be reduc'd to the most Simple and Natural Way of Living; as we see in that Law, which God himself gave to his People, and which, whilst they observ'd it, made them so happy. But then Europe was so divided, and Princes so weak, both in Power and Intellectuals, that it never came into their heads to make such Laws.

XII DIvinity was more purely Studied. And indeed we find in all Times,Divinity. a Sensible Protection of God over his Church, always to preserve therein the Sound Doctrin. But though the Doctrin was the same, as in the foregoing Ages, the manner of Teaching was different. The Fathers of the Church being, for the most part, Bishops, very much imploy'd, scarce Writ any thing, but when they were necessitated, for the Defence of Religion, against Hereticks and Pagans, and they Treated onely of such Questions as were really proposed. A good part of their Works are Sermons, which they made to the People, in Explaining the Holy Scripture. But the Doctors of the Ʋniversities, being [Page] wholly taken up in Studying and Teaching, did separate even all the parts of Ecclesiastical Studies one from another. Some confin'd themselves to the Explication of Scripture, which they called Positive Theology: Others to the Mysteries and Speculative Truths, which is called by the general Name of Scholastick: Others to Morality, and the Decision of Cases of Conscience. Thus their end in the Schools, being to Teach, they made it their Business to Treat of as many Questions as they could, and to place them Methodically. They thought, that to Exercise their Disciples, and prepare them for Serious Disputes against the Enemies of the Faith; they ought to examine all the Subtilties, which Human Reason could furnish them with upon these Subjects; and Obviate all the Objections of Curious and Restless Spirits. They had Leisure for it; and they were provided with Means of doing it, out of Aristotle's Logick, and Metaphysicks, together with the Commentaries of the Arabians. Thus they did much the same thing, which is done in Fencing-Schools, and the Academies; where, to give Activity and Spirit unto Young Men, they Teach them many things, which are very rarely made use of, in Real Encounters. In Explaining the Master of the Sentences, whose Book was lookt upon as the Body of Scholastick Divinity, they form'd every day New Questions upon those which he had Propounded: and afterwards they did the same upon St. Thomas's Sums. But now, it must be confess'd, that this Forming, and Resolving of Questions, and, in general, This meer Reasoning, did, for a long time, Lessen Mens Application to Positive Studies, which consist in Reading and Criticism; as the [Page] knowing the Literal Sense of Scripture, the Sentiments of the Fathers, and Matters of Fact in Ecclesiastical History. 'Tis true, these Studies were very difficult, through the great scarcity of Books, and the little Knowledge of Ancient Languages. A Bible, with the ordinary Gloss Compleat, was not to be found but in Great Libraries. A private person was rich when he had Gratian's Decretal; and the greatest part knew not the Fathers but by this Collection.

XIII THis was very much the State of Studies in France, The Restoration of Humanity. and in Europe, when Men began to apply themselves to Humanity, I mean, chiefly to Grammar and History. This Restoration may be reckoned from the Year 1450, and the Taking of Constantinople, which made so many Learned Greeks retire into Italy with their Books. For though Petrarch and Bocace had revived these Studies in the foregoing Age, yet hitherto they had made but little progress. But in Greece Studies were yet well enough preserved. The Commentary of Eustathius upon Homer is enough to shew, that, to these latter Ages, there were remaining an infinite number of Learned Books, and Men. Thus, after the Middle of the Fifteenth Age, a Whole Shoal of Learned Men appeared, all at once; (first in Italy, then in France, and proportionably in the rest of Europe) who, with incredible diligence ayply'd themselves to the Reading all the Books of the Ancients they could find, to the Writing Latin as purely as 'twas possible; and Translating Greek Authors. The Art of Printing (found out at the same time) made it much easier for them to procure Books, and to have them Correct. So that several afterwards labour'd in putting out [Page] excellent Editions of all the Good Authors, according to the best Manuscripts; enquiring after the most Ancient, and comparing several together. Others made very exact Dictionaries, and Grammars; others Commentaries upon difficult Authors; others Treatises upon all those Requisites which might help to the Understanding of them; as their Fables, their Religion, their Government, their Art of War; and even to the least particulars of their Manners, their Habits, their Eating, their Diversions. Insomuch, that they have taken all the pains necessary to make us understand as much as 'tis possible, after such a Long Interval, all the rest of the Ancient Greek and Latin Books.

But some have too much dwelt upon these Studies, which are onely Instruments for other Studies more Serious. For there have been some Curious Persons, who have spent their Lives in Studying Latin and Greek, and in Reading all Authors, for the Laaguage sake; or only to understand the Authors, and explain some difficult passages of them, without going any farther, or making any use of them. There have been some who have gone no farther than Mythology, and some other Antiquities which I have mentioned; who have sought after Inscriptions, Medals, and all that might give any Light to Authors, seeking onely the pleasure, which they found in these Curiosities. Some proceeding farther, have Studied the Liberal Arts, according to the Ancient Rules, as Eloquence, and Poetry, nevertheless without Practising them; whence it came, that we have so many Modern Treatises of Poetry, and Rhetorick, and yet so few True Poets and Orators: and so many Political Tracts, made by those, who never were concern'd in Business. Lastly, The diligent reading the [Page] Books of the Ancients, produc'd in many such a blind Respect for them, that they chose rather to follow their Errors, than to give themselves the Liberty to Judge of them. Thus it was believed, that Nature was, in all Respects, such as Pliny has describ'd her to be; and that she could do nothing but according to the Principles of Aristotle. The worst of it is, that many have admired their Morality; and did not consider, how much it was below that Religion which they had learn'd from their Cradle. Others, though but a few, have exceeded on the other hand, having affected to contradict the Ancients, and run as far as they could from their Principles. But of those who have admired them, the most ordinary fault has been, an aukward Imitation of them.

It has been believed, that to Write as they did, it was necessary to Write in their Language; without Considering, that the Romans Writ in Latin, and not in Greek; and that the Greeks Writ in Greek, and not in the Egyptian, or Syriack Language. They thought themselves happy, if they could attain to the making good Verses in Latin; they have also composed some in Greek, at the peril of not being understood by any Body: And they, who, as Ronsard and his Followers, began to make French Verses, after their Reading of the Ancients, have fill'd them with their Words, their Poetical Phrases, their Fables, their Religion, without concerning themselves, whether such Poems might please those who had not Studied as they had done: It was sufficient, that they made them Admired for their Profound Learning. They imitated also the Oratours; they made Harangues in Latin, and stuff'd their Discourses [Page] in French, with Latin sayings. In a word, they thought to make use of the Ancients, was to get them by heart, to speak of the things of which they spake, and to repeat their own proper words: in stead of which, well to have imitated them, they ought to have pitcht upon Subjects which had more relation to us, as they had chosen those which appertain'd unto them to have treated them, as they did, after a solid and diverting way; and to have Explained them, as well in our Language, as they had Explained them in theirs.

This new kind of Study rais'd a sort of War amongst the Learned. The Humanists, Charm'd with the Beauty of their Ancient Authors, and valuing themselves upon their New Discoveries, despised the common sort of Doctors, who, following the Tradition of the Schools, neglected Style, to follow Things; and preferr'd what was profitable, to what was pleasant and agreeable. The Doctors on their side, I mean the Divines and Canonists, lookt upon these New Philologers as Grammarians, and Poets, who amus'd themselves with Childish Toys, and Vain Curiosities. But the Humanists made themselves heard, because they Writ Politely, and by the Reading of the Ancients, V. Epist. obscur. vir. Erasm. had learnt to Railly with a good Grace. The Doctrine of Luther, who arose a little while after, fomented these Quarrels, and made them more serious. He was for Reforming Studies as well as Religion. He was for having no Philosophy, and no Prophane Sciences. He was for Burning Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, and all the Ancient Books,Ep. ad nov. Germ. an. 1520. that nothing might be Studied but the Scripture, and all the remaining part of time spent [Page] in Hard-Labour. Thus carrying the thing too high, he exposed the most Holy Maxims of Antiquity to Censure. The Resistance which he found among the Doctors of Divinity, and the Censures of the Faculty of Paris, and other Ʋniversities, made him their Irreconcileable Enemy. He treated them with the last degree of Contempt; and Melancthon, his Faithful Disciple, imploy'd all his Wit, and all his fine Learning, to render them Ridiculous. But the Reformers did not long continue in this their first Severity against Prophane Studies. They soon became more Zealous in Studying Humanity, seeing that Eloquence, and an Opinion of their singular Learning had drawn a great many Followers to them. They now lookt upon these Studies as a necessary Means towards the Reformation of the Church;Hist. Eccles. de Beze, initio. and would have this Restoration of Learning pass for a Principal Sign of the Will of God in this Matter. It seemed, if you wou'd have believed them, as if this Knowledge of Languages, and Histories, which they had by constant Pains acquired, was a certain Mark of an Extraordinary Mission; and making them to be Admired by the Ignorant, they easily perswaded them, that the Catholick Doctors were no better Skill'd in Religion, than they were in good Learning. But they had not this weak advantage very long. The Catholicks soon ingag'd them with their own Weapons; and used successfully against them the Original Languages, and the Ancient Authors, according to their own Editions. Then Men began again to Study the Greek and Latin Fathers, very little known in the Foregoing Ages. They Studied Ecclesiastical History, the Councils, the Ancient [Page] Canons: They ascended to the original of Tradition, and took the Doctrin from the Fountain-Head. The literal sense of Scripture was sought after by the help of Languages and Criticism. I well know, that many, even of the Catholicks, have driven these inquiries to vain Curiosities, and that several also continued too much Wedded to the old Style of the Schools. So difficult a thing it is, for Men to keep themselves in a true Mediocrity.

The Language of the Scholastick Philosophy, which came to us from the Arabians, is not in it self, worthy of any particular respect; it is like the Architecture of our ancient Churches. This Architecture which we call Gothick, and which truly is Arabick, is neither more Venerable, nor more Holy, for having been apply'd unto Holy uses in times, when Men knew no better. It would be a ridiculous delicacy, to resolve never to enter into any Churches built after this manner; as it would be also a vain scrupulosity not to dare to build any of a better Model. It is by chance, that these Idea's come to be joyned to those of Religion; and that which comes from the Customs and Institutions of Men, ought to be distinguished from what things are in themselves.

If on the one Hand, this Restoration of Humanity has render'd Studies more solid and agreeable than before; on the other, they have made them more difficult; for they have been rather augmented than changed, and Men were desirous to retain all. Thus by little and little, and by a long Tradition, that course of Studies which is at present observed in the publick Schools, has been Formed. First of all, Grammar with the [Page] Latin Tongue, Poetry, that is, the making of Latin Verses, Rhetorick, and upon occasion, History and Geography, then Philosophy, and afterwards Divinity, Law and Medicks, according to Men's different Professions. I leave it to those who have pass'd through them, to judge, whether nothing is taught in the Schools, but what is useful, and whether all that is necessary be taught therein. My design, as I said at first, is only to speak of private Studies. And this is the Reason why I have thought, that I may be permitted to set aside the Authority of Custom, and to reason freely concerning the matter of Studies, as Philosophers, (who are the most obedient to the Laws of their Country) nevertheless, take the liberty to reason upon Politicks. I shall speak of Studies in general, though my principal purpose is to restrain my self to those, which are most useful to Youth, instructed in private; and I shall only propose my Reflections, which are founded upon Experience.

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THE SECOND PART OF THE Choice, and Method OF STUDIES.

I WE ought, in my Opinion, first to inquire what Study is,Of the Choice of Studies. and what end Men should propound to themselves in Studying. To heap together an abundance of Knowledge; though it be with great Labour, and to distinguish ones self from the common sort, by knowing that which others are ignorant of; is [Page] not sufficient to denominate a Man a Student. For if so, then to count all the Letters of a Book, or all the Leaves of a Tree, would be to Study; since this would be a very difficult task, and would end in a very singular sort of Knowledge. But, why would this Pains taking be ridiculous, but because it would be neither a profitable, nor a grateful Work? That therefore ought not to be called Studying, which hath not for its end, at least, the Pleasure of Knowledge; but yet, Pleasure cannot justifie those Studies which prejudice others that are better, or such imployments as are more useful. We should pity that Sick Person, who should be sollicitous about nothing, but to dress himself according to the Mode, and Eat every thing that is grateful to his Palate, instead of seriously seeking after the means of a Cure. A young Artisan would deserve to be Laugh'd at, who in the time of his Apprenticeship, should entertain himself with drawing of Pictures, and playing upon Instruments, instead of learning his Trade. He might think it a fine Apology, to say, that he takes Pleasure therein, and that Painting and Musick are more noble Employments than those of the Carpenter or the Smith. But nevertheless, his Father or his Master would read him another Lesson. Leave these things, would they say, to Musicians and Painters, the time which you shall spend in their Trades, will hinder you from learning your own. You are wholly to apply your self to that, and are permitted, only to spend the Holy-Days in your Innocent Diversions, instead of Debauchery. Much after the same manner young Scholars may be accosted.

[Page] ‘Your Education must be the Apprenticeship of your Life; you are to learn how to become an Honest Man, and skilful in the Profession, which you shall undertake; apply therefore your self altogether to that, which may make you so. But Grammar, Poetry, and Logick (he'll say) divert me: I find great pleasure in the Knowledge of the Tongues, in drawing Etymologies, and making different Reflections upon the Language of Men: I love to judge of Styles, and to examine the Rules of Poetry: I love these Learned Speculations upon the nature of Reasoning, and these exact Enumerations of all those things which may Form a Conclusion. You have reason to do so; all these pieces of Knowledge are pleasant: They also are praiseworthy, and you may use them to such a Degree: But beware least Pleasure carry you too far, and that you do not bestow too much time upon them: Natural Philosophy also has great Charms; if you give your self up too much to Mathematicks, you have Work enough in them for your Life. Some have thought it too short for the Study of History; and others have spent it in mere Curiosities of Travel, of understanding the pleasant Arts, as Painting and Musick, of inquiring after things that are Rare. In the mean time, when will you begin to learn to provide for your subsistance? When will you instruct your self in the things which are proper to your Profession? You ought wholly to renounce these Pleasures, if you cannot tell how to moderate them; but if you would pursue them in a reasonable degree, and seasonably, bestow upon them that time, which [Page] others squander away in Eating and Drinking, in Play and unprofitable Visits. But nevertheless, observe your times of Exercising your Body and unbending your Mind; for Health and Liberty of Mind, is to be preferr'd to all Curiosity.’

Besides Pleasure, there is still another great Temptation to be avoided; which is Vanity. How many Studies are there which Men have sought after, only to make a show, to distinguish themselves, and astonish the Ignorant. The way to know which they are, is to think what we should Study, if we were to live in Solitude, and never to speak to any Body.

Nothing therefore should be called Study, but the Application to such kinds of Knowledge as are useful in Life. And there are two sorts of them; one whereof are profitable for Action, teaching Men how to acquit themselves worthily in respect of those Duties which are common to all Mankind, or of those which are proper to each Profession. The others are useful in Retirement, furnishing us with means how to imploy our selves honestly in our times of Repose, and to make advantage of our leisure Hours, avoiding Idleness and Debauchery. The first ought to be the end of a Man, as a Man, whose perfection is Moral Vertue; who is in the next place to be considered, as a Member of Civil Society. It is also of great Importance, that he should improve the Intervals of Action: All Men's Actions tend only to rest, and leisure; and this Estate is most dangerous unto those, who know not how to use it well. But they who know how to profit thereby, gain such knowledge, as may be serviceable to them in the [Page] Conduct of their own Lives, and those of others; and moreover, in acquiring it, taste the purest pleasures of this Life. For, as by bodily Labour, Men gain their Bread, which the Body receives with Pleasure, and gives new Strength unto it for new Labour: In like manner, by business and the actions of Life, we obtain rest; wherein we learn how to manage the following actions of our Lives, and that with pleasure. And providence hath so disposed the Bodies of Children, that whilst they are not yet capable of Labour, they require a great deal of nourishment, to make them grow, and become strong. The same also is true of the Soul, there being no Age, wherein we learn so easily, and desire so much to learn, as during our Childhood, when we are unfit for action; instead of which, old Age, wherein Men become uncapable of Learning, is very fit to instruct, and hath a great inclination thereunto; insomuch, that there is no State of Life, of which we may not make a good use, if we know how to co-operate with the intentions of the Creatour.

Youth therefore is a very precious time; Curiosity and Docibility are never so great as then. Children would know all things, all Objects are new to them, and they look upon them with attention and admiration; they continually are asking Questions, they are for attempting all things, and imitating all that they see done. Besides, they are Credulous and Simple; they take Words for that which they signifie, till they be Taught to be Cautious, by finding that those about them do Lye to them, and deceive them. They take what impression you will, having neither Experience nor Reason to resist them. The Memory [Page] is never more pliable, nor more sure; and what things they have in this Age been accustomed to think on more than others; to the same they apply themselves with more Facility and Pleasure all the days of their Lives. 'Tis evident, that God hath given all these qualifications to Children, to the end that they may learn that which may serve them all the rest of their Lives. And it is also from the same Providence, that they have not these dispositions bestow'd upon them in vain; but that, at the same time, is given to them a capacity of retaining all that is necessary to them, and the external means of Learning it.

It is the fault of those who have instructed Us, and Ours afterwards; if we want any of that knowledge which is necessary: Whence it is, that the ignorance of our Duties, renders us truly culpable. Now the capacity which we have to know, and to retain, is not little; and there is no Man so meanly instructed, and of so gross an understanding, provided he be not altogether stupid, who knows not a vast many things. Take a Peasant, who knows not how to Read, and never learn'd a Trade, he knows how the most necessary things of Life are done; what is the price of them, what are the means to come by them; he knows the Trees and Plants of his own Farm, the nature of the Soil, and the different ways of Tillage it requires; together with the Seasons proper for each: He knows the way of Hunting and Fishing, according to the custom of his Country; and an infinite number of such like things which are useful and solid, and yet not ordinarily known by those who are called Learned. The ignorant therefore are not such as think of nothing, and who [Page] have nothing in their Memory. They have fewer things therein, and think oftner of them, without Order and Connexion; or else they think of a great many things, but yet such as are little, mean, vulgar, and useless. The first are more dull and heavy, these more light and unstable. On the contrary, Learned and Skilful Men, have not always their Heads better made than others, but they use them more, they think more upon Great, Noble, and useful Objects.

But yet, how large soever this capacity of Learning and Retaining is, in those, whose natural Dispositions are most happy, it is clear nevertheless, that it is limited, since it depends (at least in part,) upon the Disposition of the Brain, and the Soul it self is a Creature, whose Vertue is Finite. Besides, Life is short, the greatest part of it is imployed about the necessities of the Body, and the rest is given us, rather for Acting, than for Learning. In short, without speaking of that which is above our reach, we may say, that no particular Person can know all that, which yet the Mind of Man is capable of knowing. Whoever should have the Vanity to pretend to it, would leave a great many things unknown, to burthen himself with many which are superfluous; and yet even in these, would daily discover Countries, which were before unknown to him.

We therefore ought to husband our time; and with great care chuse that which we are concern'd to know, and so much the more, because we cannot forget, when we would. For Knowledge is not like Pictures or Medals, which we put into a Cabinet, that we may look upon them [Page] when we have a mind, and set them out of sight when we would not see them. We have no other place, wherein to put our Knowledge, but our Memory, and our Soul it self; there it remains, often as long as we live, and those things we desire the most to be rid of, are they which most frequently offer themselves. Moreover, 'tis our Good or Evil Thoughts, which Form our Manners; insomuch, that an Errour which we have embraced, is like a Poison we have suck'd in; the effect of which is no more in our power to prevent.

And if we be obliged to be careful in our choice of what we Study our selves, we ought to be more careful for the instruction of others, especially Children. It is more injustice to lavish away the Goods of another Man, than our own; and it is a sort of cruelty to cause them to go astray, who are committed to our Conduct. It is ordinarily thought, that this choice is of no importance to little Children. As soon as the first sparklings of Light begin to appear in them, they are generally suffered to receive a great many ill impressions, which must afterwards be blotted out: Instead of helping them forward, they are usually encouraged in their defects. They are credulous, the Story of the Ass's Skin, and an Hundred other impertinent Fables are related to them, which take possession of their Memory, in its first rawness. They are fearful, they are told of Hob-goblings, and Horned Beasts; they are continually threatned. All their little passions are indulged; their Greediness, Anger, Vanity: And when they are catch'd in the Net, when they say some Foolish thing, by drawing a right consequence [Page] from an impertinent Principle, which has been instill'd into them; how are they Laugh'd at, and Triumph'd over, for having been deceiv'd! And presently, how are they Kiss'd, how are they caress'd, as if they had done well! Poor Children are used as if they were made for the Diversion of great Persons; as little Dogs, or Apes. In the mean time it should be considered, that they are reasonable Creatures,Mat. xviii. 10. whom the Gospel forbids us to despise: Upon this high consideration, that they have the Blessed Angels for their Guardians. How much therefore are Men, especially Parents, obliged to take care of them, to cultivate their Minds, and form their Manners? But what! (may it be said) Must Children be Educated in a Dull and Melancholy way, by speaking to them of nothing but serious and high Matters? Not at all; Men ought only to take the trouble of accommodating themselves to their Capacity, that so they may be assisted gently, and led along with sweetness.

II THere are wanting in Children only two things towards their Reasoning well, The way and Method to give Attention. Attention and Experience. The moveableness of their Brain, which causes them continually to be in Motion, and not continue long in one Place, is the Reason, why they cannot consider any one Object for any considerable time, much less observe the Order and Connexion of things. The little Knowledge they have of particular things, is the cause why they want principles of Reasoning; which are drawn from Matters of Fact, from Laws of Nature, and the institution of Men. As for Principles, which proceed purely from the Light [Page] of Nature, they have the same then, they will have as long as they shall live. They may therefore Err, when they lay down a positive Principle, or when they do not sufficiently attend to natural Principles; but they draw their Conclusions aright, and if they had not then the notions of the great Principles, and of good Consequences, they would never have them: For Men do not give these notions to one another, they proceed only from the Creatour, since they are the Foundation of Reason it self. The defect of Experience is that which may be first supply'd, by answering all their Questions with the same simplicity, with which they proposed them; telling them the Truth in every thing as far as 'tis useful for them to know it, and explaining it to them very clearly. Nor is it enough to satisfie their Curiosity concerning all the sensible Objects, which make them speak; but they should also be informed in useful Histories, as that of Religion, and of their Country. But great care must be taken, to Explain to them every thing, of which, as yet, they have had no Experience, that so, if possible, they may say nothing, of which they have not a distinct Idea in their Minds. They may also be Taught some Fables, as those of the Famous Gods of Antiquity, and the Fables of Aesop, which may be useful to them for Morality. These Toys do divert them, and do them no harm, when they are not given to them, as things of greater value than they really are. But they ought never to be deceived.

[Page] As for Attention, they must be brought to it with Sweetness, and a great deal of Patience. It will come with time. And when they shall begin to be more capable thereof, at first it may be excited, by the pleasure of some kind of Knowledge which Invites them: afterwards, by Fear, Threatnings, and even Chastisements themselves. But let these last Means be never used, but after all others have been Attempted.

As for their first Instructions, I would have them given so, as that they should not perceive there is any Design of Instructing them. Their Intervals from Play may be made profitable to them. When they are weary with Running▪ and Exercising themselves, Relate to them the History of the Terrestrial Paradise, sometimes the Sacrifice of Abraham, or the Adventures of the Patriarch Joseph: At another, some Fable (as I have Advised) without obliging them to repeat that they have Learnt, but leaving it to them, of their own accord, to do it, when they shall be in Good Humour. There are besides, divers Artificial ways of Exercising the Curiosity of Infants in this first Age; as by Pictures, and Images set before them, that they may desire the Explication of them: By Discourses held before them, as not thinking of them; and continuing them, if they shall hearken to them, directing the Discourse even to them also. When several are together, Emulation may be of great use: That may be said to one before another, which we would have the other to Learn: To him who shall be most obedient in other things, it may be propounded as a Reward, to [Page] tell him some Fine Story. Knowledge and Study should frequently be commended before them, without letting them see, that it is upon their Account. In short, the Natural Temper, and Particular Inclination of each Child should be Studied, that he may be brought to be Attentive, either by Pleasure, or some other Motive which Affects him. For this end, Nets must be set for them on all sides, that they be deceived, for their own good as much as possible; not so, as to render them Quarrelsom and Malicious; and this is Cheating them to their own Advantage. Above all, care should be taken, in these first years, when Impressions are very strong, never so to joyn the Idea of a Rod, with that of a Book, that they shall never think of Study, but with Dread: This makes Study a Pain to them; and there are some, who never will be wrought upon after this manner. On the contrary, they ought to be drawn on with Joy, which is Natural to this Age. We should Laugh, and Jest with them sometimes, provided, that Authority doth not suffer thereby; and rather expect some years before we enter them upon Serious Instructions, and Regulated Study. As the Brain of Children is very tender, and all things to them are New, they are much affected with the Sensible Objects which surround them, and are continually Attentive to them. Hence it is, that they do easily joyn together what affects them at the same time; such a certain Sound, with such a Figure, or Smell, which yet have no Natural Connexion with one another. Hence it is, that they Learn so easily to Speak; Hence also it is, that Chastisements have their effect upon them. But [Page] this also is that which is the cause of their Errors: for they take all that for good which is agreeable to their Senses, or which is joyned to any agreeable Object; and the contrary for evil. These First Impressions are so strong, that often they form the Manners of the Child, for all the remaining part of his Life; and seems to be one of the Causes of the different Customs of whole Nations. So that, he who could be so happy as to joyn agreeable Sensations to the first Instructions, which are given of things useful, for Manners, or for the Conduct of Life: In a word, to joyn that which is truly good with pleasure: This Man would have found the Secret of Education; [a Secret much more valuable than that of the Philosopher's Stone.] I know, that, upon this Principle, Sweet-Meats, Images and Money, and Fine Cloaths are given to Children, to Recompence their Diligence, and Excite them to do well: But, by this, we do them more harm than good. Hereby we Cherish in them the Seeds of Gluttony, Covetousness and Vanity. They should be Invited by more Innocent Pleasures than those of Eating, of Possessing any thing, and making themselves Gazed upon and Admired: and I know none so suitable to this end, as those of Sight; such are the Beauties of Nature, Pieces of Painting and Architecture, Symmetry, Figures and Colours. As the Sight makes us Attribute all its Impressions to External Objects, so its Pleasures carry us onely to Admire and Love these Objects, and not our Selves, which is the great danger. Agreeable Sounds, and Good Smells have proportionably the same effect; and this perhaps is the [Page] Reason, why, in the Solemn Office of the Church, it has been thought Expedient, to yield something to these Three Senses. For this Reason I should Advise, that the first Church to which the Child is carried, should be the Fairest, Clearest, and most Magnificent; That he be rather Instructed in a Fine Garden, and in the sight of a Pleasant Prospect, when the Weather is Serene, and when he is in the best Humour. I would have the first Books he is to use, well Printed and Bound; that the Master himself, if possible, be Well-made, Proper, Speaking well, with a good Tone, an Open Countenance, and agreeable in all his Deportments: And seeing it is difficult to meet with these Qualities joyn'd with others more Essential, I would, at least, that he have nothing, that is Unbecoming, Rude and Distastful.

The little care that is taken to accommodate our selves to the weakness of Children, in all these things, is the Reason, that, for the most part, they have an Aversion, and Contempt as long as they live, for that which they have been Taught by Old, Ill-humour'd, and Melancholy Persons; and that the Disgust they take against Publick Schools, built after an Old Fashion, which have neither Light nor good Air, often Influences even their Latin, and other Studies.

But whatsoever is done to make Children Attentive, it is not to be hoped they will continue so any long time; nor that they can always be led on by Pleasure. There is often need of Fear; Joy Distracts them, and joyning it self, to their Natural Levity makes them, in a Moment, pass from one Object to another. It is also [Page] to be feared, that they will be too Familiar with their Master, if he be always in a Pleasant Humour; and that seeking always to divert them, he be too Airy, and discover some Weakness. He must therefore often take upon Himself the Character which doth more properly belong to him, which is the Serious. He must sometimes shew Anger both in his Looks, and by the Tone of his Voice, to stop the Carreer of these young Minds, and make them enter into themselves. And sometimes if it be necessary, to pass from Threats to Chastisements, they may be managed several ways before they come to Corporal Punishments: and they ought to be made sensible, that they are only Punished for want of Attention, or some Fault relating to their Manners; and not meerly for their Ignorance, and want of Wit; to the end, that they may not look upon Punishment as an Evil, but a Piece of Justice. Above all, all possible care should be taken, never to be really Angry at them, what Mein soever may be put on. I know very well that this is not easie; The Office of Instructing is not always Pleasant; If the Disciple begins to be tired, (though he often is diverted by seeing something New:) The Master has Reason much more to be so. And, in this Case, Resentment is soon taken, and it is ever and anon excited by the continual Fooleries of Children, so opposite to the Humour of an Old Man, or one arrived to the years of Maturity. Besides, Threatnings and Chastisements are much a shorter way to give Attention, than that Insinuation, and those Pleasant Artifices of which I have spoken. But what is more Commodious [Page] for the Master ought not to be regarded; and it is certain, that it is always more profitable for the Scholar to be Conducted by Sweetness and Reason.

At least, great care should be taken that they be not Corrected without cause, tho' it be but by a Word, or a Look▪ For, how just soever the Reprimand may be, it is always Harsh; especially in an Age wherein the Passions are so strong, and the Reason so weak. It is a sort of Wound, which imploys all the Attention of the Soul, and ingages her in thinking on the Grief which she feels, or the Injustice which she imagines she has received. Insomuch, that if the Injustice be real, and the Child perceives it, either by something which goes before, or something which follows, (as the Judgment of others, or that of his Master himself, when he shall, but never so little, come to himself;) If, I say, he perceives that his Master is Passionate, or that he is not exactly Reasonable; He will not fail either to hate, or Despise him; and, from that time, his Master becomes useless to him. And it ought not to be imagined, that Children are easie to be deceived herein: They are very sensible whether they have Right, or Wrong done to them; and they have a very quick Sense whereby they can discern the Passions by the Visage, and all External Motions; though, as yet, they know not how to express them, and do not so much as reflect that they do observe them.

They have this Good Quality, that their Ill-humour and their Anger do not last long, and that they soon return to that Joy which is more natural to them. Let us be cautious not to oppose [Page] it: Not to make them sad, by putting Fear into them for a long time; not altogether to discourage them, by driving it to excess. It is better that they should be a little Wanton, then to be Drooping and sad against their Nature. On the contrary, they ought not, at any time, to be Afflicted, but to the end that they may make good use of that Composed State they shall be in afterwards. For it must not be expected, that Reprimands, or Instructions, will have any great effect upon them, as long as Fear, or Grief do possess them. They see nothing then but the Evil with which they are Threatned, or which they feel; and, if the Punishment be violent, their Sighs oppress them, and they are besides themselves. But as soon as the Tempest is over, and they are return'd to a reasonable Temper, they fall to Study afresh, and 'tis then we should give them Instructions, when they are in a condition to understand them. Not that we should always expect so much Reason from them, as to condemn themselves. But, at the same time, when they make their frivolous excuses, they see that they are in the wrong, and often do Correct themselves afterwards.

Though I have ingaged my self to speak of this Method of giving Attention, with respect to the first Instructions which are given to Children; yet it is easie to see, that it extends to all other Studies proportionably. In the beginning, they should, as much as possible, be ingaged by Pleasure, and afterwards retain'd by Fear. As their Reason shall become stronger, there will be less need of these Artifices.

[Page] III LEt us return to the Choice of Studies, from which I have a little digress'd,The Division of Studies. to speak of the first Instructions, and the General Method of Teaching▪ Study is the Apprenticeship of Life, it should furnish us with the Means of acting well, and using our Leisure well. Life is short; The Capacity of the Brain is Stinted; Youth is the most proper time for Learning. I think I have established these Principles, and have reason thence to conclude, That we ought to chuse with great Caution, what is to be Taught to Young Persons. But, to make this Choice well, we must not confine our selves to one certain sort of Persons, or one certain kind of Studies. We should, as much as possible, consider all at once; all Differences of Men, and Knowledge which are proper for them. Let us consider all Reasonable Creatures of both Sexes, of all Conditions, as well those which are ascribed unto Fortune, as Riches, Poverty, Greatness, and the Private Life; as those which proceed from Choice; as the Sword, the Gown, Traffick and Trades. And though we do not consider them but in one Age onely, yet we shall not fail to examin all the degrees of them, from the first Infancy to the Ripe Age, and perfect state of each Person concerned in them.

As for Knowledge, the Profitable ought well to be distinguished from the Pleasant; and the first should be divided according to the Three Sorts of Goods for which they may be useful: The Goods of the Soul; as Understanding, and Vertue: Those of the Body; as Health, and Strength: And those which are called the Goods [Page] of Fortune, and which are the Subject of Business. Amongst those Pieces of Knowledge which are Profitable, those may be distinguished which are most so; and they, without which none can be without, may be reckon'd as Necessary. These Distinctions being supposed, it will be easie to Regulate the Choice of Studies of which we now Treat. For 'tis evident to any one, how little soever he will follow the Dictates of Reason, that, what immediately concerns our Selves, as we are Composed of Body and Soul, is to be preffer'd to all that which is without us; and that amongst External things, those which are necessary for our Subsistence, ought to be chosen before those, which onely give Pleasure. It is sufficiently clear also, that they who have less Leisure for Study, or less Capacity, as Artisans, Soldiers, Poor People, and all Women, ought to be Instructed in that Knowledge which is more Generally Useful: For, it is not just, that they, who have Reason as well as others, should Live without any Instruction at all. To Conclude, as for the Distinction of Ages, it is evident enough, that Children must be so managed, that they be not over-charged at first; and yet, that the Time, when they are most capable to Learn, should not be suffer'd to be spent unprofitably. I shall follow these Distinctions through all the rest of this Treatise; and first, shall examin the Studies which are most necessary to all the World; afterwards those which are of no use, but to them who have most Leisure (as the Rich, the Honourable, &c.) whether they be those which are very profitable, or those which are the most Curious. Afterwards, I shall observe in what order [Page] Studies may be Taught to Youth. And Lastly, I shall shew which are those, every Man ought to Apply himself unto, all the rest of his Life, according to the Profession which he embraces.

AMongst the Instructions necessary to all the World, the Care of the Soul is most urgent: and it concerns us more to Govern our Wills well, than to enlarge our Knowledge. The first Study therefore is that of Vertue. All Men are not bound to have Wit, to be Learned, and Expert in Business, to excel in some sort of Profession; but there is none, of what Sex and Condition soever he be, who is not obliged to live well. All other Goods, without this, are unprofitable, since this shews the use of the other. We can never have enough of this, and yet the greatest part of Men have so little of it, that thereby it appears how difficult it is to attain it. We cannot therefore Labour after this too soon, and ought not to think, that Morality may be deferr'd to the end of our Studies, and then that we should onely bestow but a little part of our time upon it, and thence presently pass to another Study. For it should he begun from the Cradle, at least as soon as the Child is put into the Nurses Arms, and continued as long as he is under Tuition. The Master has hitherto done nothing, if his Scholar goes not from him with Resolutions to apply himself unto it all his Life. I know very well, that it is the Church, from whom the Faithful ought to Learn Morality and Religion; and that the True Professors of this Science, are the Bishops and the Priests. But it is but too well [Page] known how little effect publick instructions have, at least, if Domestick instructions do not assist, and prepare the way for them.

Divers Methods, according to the condition of the Child, ought here to be observed, by speaking of it to him, much less at the beginning, than when Reason begins to exert it self in him, and always to augment your instructions, as it only grows stronger. At first, Maxims ought to be laid down, without rendring a reason of them; there will be a time to do that afterwards.

And because I suppose a Morality, which is Christian, whose Precepts are founded upon the Doctrins of Faith. I would begin with these Doctrins, first of all to instruct the Child. I have already touch'd upon this, when I said, we ought to begin with them, by teaching them Matters of Fact, and mentioned those, which should be first planted in their Memories. For the first instructions of Religion should then be instill'd into them, when it is not yet advisable to imploy them in any formal Lessons; being careful to recount to them a great many Matters of Fact, and Maxims, to the end, that they may be furnished with Principles of Reasoning, when they shall afterwards come to have the strength of Attention, and the habit of Thinking. These Discourses will be as it were, Seeds sown at all Adventures, which spring up, and bring forth more or less, as the Soil is fruitful, and Heaven is favourable.

I shall not here dilate upon the particular Method of Teaching Religion. What I have said upon this subject, may be seen in the Preface [Page] to the Historical Catechism. When Children have learn'd this Catechism, or any other that is better, and are capable to read the Holy Scripture, care should be taken to make them know the outward beauties thereof; I mean, the Excellency of the different Styles that they observe in the Histories, how Choice and Orderly plac'd the Matters of Fact are; how short, lively, and (at the same time) how clear the Narration is: That they take notice, in the Poetry of the Nobleness of the Elocution, the variety of Figures, the sublimity of the thoughts: In the Moral Books, of the Elegance, and Brevity of the Sentences; in the Prophets, the vehemence of the Reproaches and Threatnings, and the richness of the Expressions: That all this be shewed to them, by comparison with prophane Authors, whom the Learned esteem so much; and that it be by no means forgotten to signifie unto them, that the Translations do not come up to the beauty of the Original Language. The same prophane Authors will further help them to understand the Manners of this first Antiquity, and cause them not to be surprized by a great many Modes of Acting and Speaking, which offend the ignorant, when they read the Scripture; which is that which I have endeavoured to do, in the Manners of the Israelites.

I believe it will be useful to give them some slight Knowledge of the Fathers, and other Ecclesiastical Authors; for I am concerned to see, that the most part of Christians, who Study, know Virgil and Cicero, better than St. Augustin, or St. Chrysostom. You'll say, perhaps, that in them we do not meet with that Wit and Knowledge [Page] which we find in the Pagan Authors; and that Christian Authors are proper for none but Priests and Devout Persons: Their Title Holy, is a prejudice to them; and doubtless, makes many Persons believe, that their Works are full only of ungrateful Exhortations, or Meditations. Men seek Philosophy in Aristotle, and put him to the Torture, much against his Will, to accommodate him to Christianity; and yet, they have in St. Augustin a Philosophy altogether Christian; at least, Morality, Metaphysicks, and the most solid part of Logick: For, as for natural Philosophy, he did not apply himself thereto. Why should we not seek for Eloquence in St. Chrysostom, in St. Gregory Nazianzen, and in St. Cyprian, as well as in Demosthenes and Cicero? And why in them should we not also look for Morality, rather then in Plutarch and Seneca? Prudentius, indeed, is not so good a Poet as Horace was; but he is not to be despised, for he has Writ with a great deal of Wit and Elegance, without borrowing the Ornaments of the Ancients, which did not agree with his subject. In a word, I would have the young Man early advertised, that several Saints, even those who were most zealous for Religion, and most severe in their Manners, as St. Basil, St. Gregory Nazianzen, St. Athanasius, were great Wits, and very polite Men; and if they have undervalued Human Learning and the Sciences, it was not because they wanted knowledge, but because they knew better.

Moreover, to balance the Human Vertues which are to be seen amongst the ancient Greeks and Romans, I would make my Scholar observe, not only the same kind of Vertues, but much [Page] greater, and others altogether unknown to the Pagans, such as are to be found, either in the Holy Scriptures, or the most approved Ecclesiastical Histories. I would let him see the Wisdom and the Constancy of the Martyrs, by the most Authentick Acts yet remaining, as those of St. Pionius, Priest of Smyrna, of St. Euplius Deacon of Catanea in Sicily, of Pope Stephen, and of so many others: The reading of which is most delightful. I should make him admire the Patience, and Angelick Purity of the Solitary, by the Relations of St. Athanasius, St. Jerom, Palladius, Cassian, and many other grave Authors. Lastly, I would let him know those, who lived as good Christians, in the midst of worldly Business, and great Imploys; as the Emperour Theodosius, St. Pulcheria, Charlemaign, St. Lewis. Though it be necessary to know that there never was any Age wherein the Church had not her great Saints; and to observe their different Characters: nevertheless, to have a great and holy Idea of Christianity, it is adviseable chiefly to dwell upon the first Ages, wherein the Vertues were more frequent, and the Discipline more vigorous. Thus the Manners of the Christians, whether in the times of Persecution, or the beginning of the Churches Liberty, should be plainly represented: Their Domestick way of Living, the Form of their Assemblies, the Prayers, Fastings and Administration of the Sacraments, particularly of Penitence: All this might be related very agreeably. A young Man that had these Ideas of Religion, would have the great Principles of Morality, or rather, he would have the thing it self. For I would advise, that during this time, he [Page] should be Taught the Rules thereof, by the reading of Holy Scripture, particularly the Epistles and Gospels for Sundays, the principal Holy-days, and Lent, and some little Works of the Fathers, as the Confessions of St. Augustin, the Offices of St. Ambrose, the Considerations of St. Bernard. And because this Study should be carryed on by little and little, together with other Studies of Humanity and Philosophy, care should be taken in his reading of prophane Authors, to advertise him of all the Errours which are to be met with in them, and the imperfection of their purest Morality, in Comparison with the Christian; to the end, that he may value these Authors no more than they deserve.

It is very useful to accustom Children to judge of that which they read, and often to ask them what they think of such a Maxim, or such an Action, and what they would have done upon such an occasion. Hereby their Sentiments are Discovered, which if bad, may be rectified; if right, encouraged. It is good also to Exercise them without Books, upon the subjects of which they can talk; as upon the occurrences of Life, chiefly upon their little differences; if several of them be brought up together, the Matter will more affect them, and they will better understand the Maxims. For here we ought not to deceive our selves, as if Study consisted only in reading of Books. All that is useful to know, has not yet been Written; and 'tis impossible to Read all that has been Written. We should account Reflexion and Conversation to be a great part of our Study. There are a great many things not to be learn'd, but by Tradition and Viva voce; and also there are some which every one apprehends, [Page] by observing what others do, and Reflecting upon himself. But 'tis chiefly Morality which is thus learn'd: Every one Forms his Maxims, much less from that which he reads, than from that which he hears spoken; especially in familiar Conversation, which he thinks more sincere than publick Discourses; and from that which he sees those do, whom he accounts most rational. Hence it is, that Example and Authority have so great an effect upon Manners. For, seeing there are but few Persons who have Strength and Patience enough for Reasoning (especially amongst Youth) and yet none would willingly be deceived: It follows, that they will believe the Wisest, yet, not so much what they say, as what they do; because Actions are surer Proofs of their Sentiments than Words.

And here; behold the great difficulty we meet with in Teaching Morality, I mean ill Example, and the Corruption of Manners, not only in publick, but often also in private: For, you do well to tell a young Person what you know to be the best, and to convince him by strong Reasons. But he has always in the bottom of his Soul, a violent Prejudice, which renders all your Reasonings Suspicious; and this is the common Opinion. It seems to him, that common sense requires, he should prefer it to yours, and that 'tis more reasonable to suppose that you are deceived, than that all the rest of Mankind are so: And if, by chance, the Master shall discover any Weakness (as where is the Man, who doth not betray something of it sometimes?) If he be peevish, if his Manners be ungrateful, or singular; in a word, if he comes (through his own fault, or otherwise) [Page] to be hated, or despised; Presumption presently becomes a Conviction, and his Remonstrances have no further effect; unless it be to prejudice the Truth, and to render good Maxims odious, or ridiculous to the Scholar, all the rest of his Life. Men much rather follow the Maxims of those, whom they Esteem, and Love; and (seeing Men Act by imagination, especially in their younger Years) they esteem, or love those, who are grateful to them, or seem to be happy, as Persons of Quality, the Rich, those who have a good Mien, who Speak well, who are Straight and handsom Men. Now these shining Qualities are much more ordinarily to be met with in those who have less Vertue, and more rarely in those who Teach, than in others. Besides, there are some Men by general Prescription, are supposed to be Wise and Vertuous, and yet are not so in effect; as some Fathers, old Men, Magistrates, and perhaps also Clergymen and Religious. Insomuch, that young Persons, though never so well inclin'd, are very hard put to it, how to chuse those whom they ought to follow. In the mean time, their Passions grow, become stronger, and hold Intelligence with those many Enemies which attack them from without.

Yet all these difficulties should not discourage us; and though we ought to hope for nothing, but by the Power of the Divine Grace; yet it is not sufficient only to implore this Assistance by continual Prayer, all Human means should also be imploy'd. The Success which doth not depend upon us, shall not be reckoned to us, neither shall we be Reproached for it; and whatsoever shall become of the Scholar, the [Page] Master shall be punished for his negligence, or rewarded for his pains. Admonish therefore your Charge, that to do well, he must draw himself out of the Crowd, and not follow the greatest number: Prove it to him, both by the Authority of the Gospel, and by Reason, since whatsoever Principle of Morality you ground him in, all that you can account good in the World, will be very little, in Comparison of the contrary Evil. There are few Rich Men, a great many Poor; few that enjoy Pleasure, and Honours; few Learned, few Wise Men, abundance of Sots and ignorant Persons; very little Vertue, in what sense soever you understand it. Make him observe that there is scarce any one whose actions are all of a piece, and who follows the same Principle, whether it be good or bad. Make him sensible, how Ridiculous these Contradictions, so ordinary in common Life, appear. The same Father, who Preaches to his Son in general, Wisdom, and a Regular Life, at other times unwarily uses before him, Licentious Discourses, with Pleasure relates the Follies of his Youth, and thus teaches him to be a good Companion, and a Spark amongst the Ladies. The Mother, who carries her Daughter often to Prayers, carries her also to a Ball, and to a Play; and holding the Catechism in one Hand (which she makes her repeat,) with the other she puts on her Ribbons and Patches to make her fine. It cannot be avoided, but that Men will fall into these absurdities, unless they stick to one only Principle with an immovable firmness.

In truth, it is not Morality, if it be not perfectly one, and built upon one only Principle. You ought not therefore to speak to your Scholar [Page] of Human Morality, of Worldly Wisdom, of Politicks, or the Prudence of this World. Nothing of this should enter into his Mind, but it ought presently to be balanced with the Maxims of the Gospel, by making him comprehend well, that we must be Christians altogether, or not at all; that it avails nothing to be so by halves, least being abandoned of God, we should renounce our Baptism: It is to belye our selves, not to follow the Law without reserve, which we have owned as Divine. But to establish a young Man in this Doctrine, it will not be unuseful to remove certain gross Calumnies, which are often Form'd against Christian Piety.

There are some so little acquainted with it, that they think it allows, or at least, excuses Sottishness, and meanness of Spirit; and that bravery and greatness of Mind, are Vertues only to be found in the Men of the World.

Nevertheless, Prudence and Magnanimity are Vertues recommended in the Scripture, as well as Temperance and Justice; and the contrary Vices render us no less culpable before God, than before Men. The difference is, that Men often are not reasonable enough to excuse Defects, which are purely involuntary. Besides, Devotion is accused for making Men sad; and if they durst say, it Unhappy; because, a great many of those who pass for Devout Persons, are ill Humour'd, Critical, and Complaining, whereas, nothing is farther from Christianity; for that is a Spirit of Sweetness, Tranquility and Joy: And Melancholy, is reckoned by the most ancient Spiritualists, amongst the Seven or Eight Sources of all Sins, as well as Gluttony and Impurity.

[Page] Besides these Considerations, and many other such-like, which may be useful to weaken the Objections against Morality, or altogether to remove them according to the Masters ability, and the Scholars Docibility: Method is of great Consequence, for there is no part of Studies which requires so much Art and Care. If Children at first be over-charged with many Precepts, they are tired, and discouraged, or if they take Pleasure in them, they are apt to grow Conceited, and to read Lectures of Morality before their time. They are admired and commended for the fine Discourses they Rehearse, which infuses a great deal of Vanity into them. Nevertheless, they cease not, at the same time, to act as Children, that is to say, to follow their Passions; insomuch, that they so soon accustom themselves to speak well, and do badly, that they become more incorrigible than others; because the excellent Maxims which they know by Heart, when yet they do not Practise them, do not affect them at all; and because they think they know more of them, than they who would Correct them. 'Tis also very dangerous to make them reflect upon their Faults, without seriously endeavouring to bring them to amend them: Otherwise, these Reflections will be like those idle Discourses of such as tire the World, by telling of their Faults, as well as of their Distempers; meerly out of Vanity, to make themselves admired and distinguished from the rest of Mankind, by the delicacy and unaccountableness of their Sentiments. I am, say they, strangely afraid of Thunder: I have a wonderful aversion to Sots: I am impatient with my Servants. [Page] I am very apt, every Moment, to be Transported with Passion: And an Hundred such like Fooleries which they complain of, as of their Megrims, and their Vapours. Nothing is more pernicious to a Child, than to accustom him to this sort of Language: The surest way is, to make him put your Directions into Practice, and as much as lies in you, make him sensible of all that you say, by his own Experience. Some Men have heard much Discourses about Morality, and have spoke of it much themselves, who yet are ignorant; that what we call the Passions, are those lively Motions which a Man feels in his Heart, and in his Bowels; when he fears, desires, and is in anger. He is accustomed to speak of them, as of the Heavens, the Stars, and of all things without him. Young Men therefore should be shown by the Finger, and by the Eye (as I may so say) what is every Vertue, every Vice, every Passion, both in those with whom they converse, and Principally in themselves. But above all things (as I have said) they must be taught to practise that which they know; and in this, there is need of great Patience and Discretion. They are Weak and Light every Moment; they fall, and fall again into the same Faults. They easily forget all their Morality, when a new object of Pleasure presents it self: And though they should recal themselves, they have not strength enough to resist it. To expect that they should attain, in a few days, unto this firmness of Mind, is to expect, that a young Plant, set to Day, should to Morrow have a solid Trunk, and deep Roots. We ought to wait a long time, and not to think it too much to Labour often, and Water the Soil daily.

[Page] This Levity of Children is indeed hard to be born with: But doth it not excite our Resentment, rather because it is Irksome to us, than because it harms them? Let us enter into our selves, Are we proportionably wiser than they, in respect of the more perfect Age to which we are advanc'd? Have we not, as well as they, our Passions? Are we not addicted to our Pleasures? And if our Divertisements seem to us to be more solid than theirs, perhaps to Men more wise than we are, they would appear more ridiculous. Let us make the Comparison with Justice. Let us suppose our selves at the Age of our Scholars, and ingenuously confess, that at that Age, their Thoughts were ours. Thus we shall find all Children to be very near a-like. I say this, not as if we should neglect in others, the Faults of which we our selves are, or have been guilty; nor as if our Scholars ought to take Advantage thereof, if they should happen to come to the knowledge of them: But I say that this consideration should make us very gentle and patient; least by pressing a Young Man too much, to ascend all at once to the highest Pinnacle of Vertue, by the most difficult ways, we cast him into Despair.

The Instructions therefore of Morality should be managed with great Caution, and Proportioned to the Scholar's Capacity, and much more to the Strength of his Soul. We should be always watchful to spy out the Properest Occasions, when they may be given most usefully, without scrupulously observing the order which we have proposed to observe in Studies. Often, from some fault which your Scholar has committed, or [Page] some Reflection made by himself, or which you occasion him to make, by Reading some History, or Book of Humanity to him; you'll have a fit opportunity to Instruct him in some Important Maxim, or to Rescue him from some Error. Do not lose these happy Opportunities. Quit all things for Morality. The occasions of Teaching him History, or Humanity, will occur oft enough; but your Scholar perhaps may come no more to be in so favourable a Disposition: And that which is thus said, besides the Business, as it were, and without Design, doth ordinarily more good, than that which is discours'd to him in a Formal Lecture; where he is upon his Guard, because he knows that you will speak of Morality before-hand. We ought not to be afraid of making Digressions, which Treat of something more useful, than the Subject at first proposed.

V CIvility is a part of Morality. Civility and Good Breeding. It is not sufficient to observe the Essential Duties of Probity, which makes a Good Man; but also, we should Practice those of Society, which make a Well-bred-Man. Rudeness and Incivility are not to be found in a Vertuous Man, because they proceed either from Pride, or a Contempt of others; or a Neglect to Instruct ones Self in what he owes to them, and how he ought to Behave himself towards all Men; or from a Proneness to fall into Anger. Insomuch that it is impossible but a Man must be Civil and Well-behaved, if he be Humble, Patient, Charitable, Modest and Cautious. But, to the end, that Vertue alone may doe this, it must be arrived to a very high Perfection; as it was amongst [Page] the Ancient Monks of Egypt and the East, who were Courteous and Civil in the most Affrightful Solitudes. Conversation with the World is indeed a shorter way to Good Breeding: and the Necessity of being continually one with another, Obliges Men, at least, to have all the Appearances of Vertue, which may render Society easie. And usually they go no further than these Appearances, making Civility onely to consist in an Habit of hiding ones Passions, and disguizing his Sentiments, that so he may testifie that Respect, or Friendship for others, which most commonly he has not. So that Civility prejudices the Substantial part of Vertue; whereas it should be a Consequence of it, and like that Flower of Beauty which naturally accompanies an Healthful Body.

Nevertheless these Flattering Compliments, and Appearances of Civility, are generally the first Instructions given unto Children; and those which are the most Inculcated, as if all Education consisted in this.

And doubtless these Expressions of Submission, Esteem and Affection would be Excellent, if they were True; for then we should be all Humble and Charitable. But since it is not so, it would be better to Talk more Truly; or rather to Talk less, and Doe more. There is a great difference betwixt shewing Contempt, and testifying Esteem, or Respect to all without distinction. And that which shews the Ridiculousness of our Compliments are the serious Transactions of Business; where the Language is wholly changed; and where the least Interest is Disputed with them, unto whom the Moment before, we seemed willing [Page] to have granted every thing. Children, not having, as yet, Judgment enough to distinguish the different Subjects and Occasions, accustom themselves from these first Instructions, to Lye, and Dissemble upon all occasions.

Besides, an abundance of Unprofitable Lyes are told in this Matter. Civility consists more in abstaining from what may be troublesome to others, in being Gentle, Modest and Patient, than in Speaking much, and using much Cringing. One Obliging word, well placed, gains more upon us, then all the Great Complements with which some Country Gentlemen do oppress us. They who equally Caress and Honour all Men, Oblige none; and have nothing whereby to signifie their True Friendship.

But the worst sort of Civility, is that, which consists in Constrain'd and Forc'd kinds of Gestures; That Methodical Civility, which appears onely in the Forms of some Starch'd Compliments, and Impertinent Ceremonies, and which are more Ungrateful than Natural Clownishness: This Affectation to do all things in Mode and Figure, is one of the Principal Characters of a Pedant. And for this Reason Scholars ought, above all things, to avoid it. For, since their Condition restrains them, for the most part, from Conversing with Great Men, which requires an extreme Politeness; I think that their Civility consists chiefly in knowing how to hold their Peace, without affecting Silence; and, in speaking nothing but what they know, and as much as Charity requires for the Instruction, and Satisfaction of their Neighbours; and, as for other things, to Speak and Act just like other Men: And [Page] because Faults are more sensible in Feigned Representations, than in the Natural, it will not be amiss to consider the Character which the Italians give to their Doctor in the Comedy, who would always Speak, and always Instruct, and be every Moment Angry at those who should be so bold as to Contradict him.

VI THOUGH Morality should be the Principal Design of all Education, Logick and Metaphysick. yet, at the same time, Care must be taken of other Studies. But since all our Knowledge depends upon Reasoning, or Experience, and Experience availeth little, if it be not Inlightned by Right Reason; we should begin, by forming the Mind, before we come, in particular, to Matters of Fact, and things that are Positive. This Application, to the Cultivating of Reason, is, in the Natural Order, the first of all Studies, seeing it is the Instrument of all; For, in Truth, this is nothing else but Logick. And the first Objects to which we should apply our selves, are the Great Principles of Natural Light, which are the Foundations of all Reasoning, and consequently of all Study. Now this Study of First Principles is truly Metaphysicks. Thus Logick and Metaphysick should be the first Studies. And they are so truly the first, That Morality it self, as far as it depends upon Reason, and not upon Supernatural Faith, can have no other Solid Foundation. But yet I have Spoken of Morality before them, because it is more necessary to be a Good Man, than a Good Reasoner. Besides, that I could not say that at the same time, which yet I would doe at the same time, if I should Instruct a You [...]g Person. Upon [Page] this account, I shall reserve it to the Close of all the Young Persons Studies, to observe, to what Age I should Assign them each in particular.

Here I understand that Solid and Real Logick which Socrates profest to Teach, when he said, That it was the Midwise to Mens Minds: That it helped them to bring forth that which was already formed in them: That it taught them nothing new, but made them onely call to Mind what they knew before. In truth, as I have already observed, 'tis not in our Power to Imprint in Children the most Simple Notions, which are the Foundations or Instruments of all others. I call the Foundations of Knowledge, Simple Ideas; as the Idea of Being, of Substance, of Thought, of Will, of the Ʋnderstanding, Number, Motion, Duration: The Sentiments; as the Idea of White, Heat, Grief, Fear, Anger, Hunger, Thirst: The Judgments also which make the first Principles do belong to these Foundations; as, The Relation betwixt the whole, and its part; Nothing produces nothing; Beings ought not to be multiply'd without Necessity; The Will always seeks after Happiness. We bring into the World with us these kind of Thoughts, and Judgments, which are the Foundations of all other Judgments and Reasonings, which we make as long as we live: and it is the Attentive Consideration of these Principles, by Abstracting them from other Notions less clear, and less certain, and which are onely the Consequences of them: 'Tis this Consideration, I say, which, is properly, that which is called Metaphysick▪ Logick is the Consideration of other Ideas, and other Judgments, which are no less clear, and certain, and are also born with us; but such as respect rather our Knowledge, than the [Page] Objects of it. And hence it is, that I call them Instruments. Such are the Ideas of True and False; Affirmation and Negation; Error and Doubting: and, above all, the Idea of a Consequence, whereby we understand that such a certain Proposition follows from another certain one; that such a Reason is Concluding, and that such an one is not. None of these Notions can be given to those who have them not, and there is no Man that hath them not, if he hath the use of Reason; for herein precisely it doth consist.

Logick and Metaphysicks, are not, as 'tis ordinarily supposed, difficult Studies of Abstracted and High flown things, and which do not concern us; nor of fine Speculations, which appertain onely to the Learned. They are of use to all the World, because they have for their Object, that onely, which passes within our selves, and which we know the best; and have no other Design but to accustom our selves never to be deceived, nor to rest satisfy'd but with clear Ideas; and not to be over-hasty in passing Judgment, and drawing of Consequences therefrom. It is to be wisht that all, which doth not truly serve this end, might be taken away from them.

Without entering here, in particular, upon this Instruction (since I do not Write a Logick) I should desire, that a Child be early accustomed, to say nothing but what he understands, and not have any Ideas, but the clearest that possibly can be. To this end, in all that he should Learn, he ought continually to be Exercised in Dividing and Defining, that hereby he might Learn exactly to distinguish each thing from others, and to give to every thing that which appertains unto it. Not [Page] that I would, as yet, charge his Memory with Definitions, and the Rules of Division and Definition; but make him Practise them, upon those Subjects, which should be most familiar unto him. When he shall have strength enough to retain several Ideas, or several Judgments likewise, at once, I would make him apprehend the difference of True, of False, of Uncertain; and I would Convince him, that he ought not to deny every thing, nor to doubt of every thing; but that 'tis necessary to follow some certain Rules in passing our Judgments. In the next place, I would have him to observe those Truths, which are the first, in the order of Knowledge, and, upon the certainty of which, depends that of all the rest: Whence would follow the Knowledge of the Soul, and its distinction from the Body, the Knowledge of God, and the Rules of True, and False: from which all the rest of Logick might be easily deduced. I would have it to consist in a very few Precepts, that is, as many, neither more, nor less than such, as should really assist Reason. For, if upon strict examination, it did appear, that Men might Reason as Surely, and as Justly, without all these Observations, I should Condemn them only upon this one account, that they would be Unprofitable; and should place them in the Number of Curiosities, how True and Pretty soever they may be. But doubtless it will be found, that some Rules of Logick (to how little a number soever they be reduc'd) will be very useful to help Reason: and also some Axioms of Metaphysicks, to which every Man, that Reasoneth, will be obliged to have Recourse; and which, consequently, will be the Foundation of all his Reasonings.

[Page] All the World sees the Usefulness of Reasoning justly, and upon Solid Principles (I do not say onely in Sciences, but in Business, and in all the Affairs of Life.) But perhaps many may not see the necessity of ascending so high, as the first Principles, because, in effect, there are few that doe so. The greatest part of Men Reason onely within a certain Compass, from a certain Maxim which the Authority of others, or their own Passions has Imprinted upon their Mind, to the Means, necessary to acquire that which they desire. As for Instance, I ought to be Rich: Therefore I will take upon me such an Imployment; I will take such a Journey; I will suffer this, and that; and so of the rest. But what shall I do with my Wealth, when I have gotten it? But is it really Advantageous to be Rich? This is that which they do not at all inquire after. They, who Reason thus, never had other than Vulgar Spirits, of what Profession soever they were: though they were the Learned, and the Doctors; though they were Ministers of State; though they were Princes. I call that a Vulgar Spirit, which is limited to certain Pieces of Knowledge, which is not imploy'd but upon particulars, and Reasoneth onely upon Experience. And I find, that one of this Spirit is always the same, what Object soever he proposes to himself. He doth not become greater for applying himself to Publick Affairs; and is not more Knowing for concerning himself in matters of Science. He will never do more than Reason probably upon the Experience of that which he has Read, and guess at one Fact from another; but he will never go so far, as to Judge of what he Reads, and refer every thing to its proper use.

[Page] He who is truly Learned, and truly a Philosopher, goes further, and begins higher. He takes not up with the Authority of others, nor with his own Prejudices; but rises always, till he has found a Principle of Natural Light, and a Truth so clear, that he cannot call it into question. And, when he hath once found it, he, with assurance, draws from it all its Consequences, and never departs from it. Whence it comes to pass that he is firm in his Doctrin, and in his Conduct; that he is inflexible in his Resolutions, patient in the Execution, equal in his Humour, and constant in his Vertue. Now this Learned, this Wise Person may be found in all Conditions. Amongst the Patriarchs we have Examples of Wise Shepherds and Husbandmen; amongst the Ancient Monks, of Wise Artisans; and of what Profession soever a Man is, he will never be as happy as he can be in this Life, if he acts not upon certain Principles; or if a most immoveable Faith doth not supply the defect of Reasoning. But to speak in our own way, and with Relation to those who have used to Study amongst us, these Solid Reasonings, and these certain Principles are chiefly necessary unto those who are to Conduct others; as Clergymen, Magistrates, and those who Govern, or are concern'd in the Management of Publick Affairs. To Speak better, we ought not to reckon, that there are any True Studies without this Foundation: for, to know matters of Fact, and gain Experience, Use is sufficient; or if Reading be joyned thereunto, there is no need of much Instruction. But to form the Mind, for a Man to see clearly what he doth, to conduct himself by sure Evidence, and not by uncertain [Page] Opinion; This is what ought to be sought after, and it is this Inquiry which ought to be called Study.

The greatest part of Men are more capable of this Philosophy than is believed. It requires no Extraordinary Talent of Memory, Imagination, and Briskness of Spirit; but onely a good Common Sense, Attention and Patience: So that there are none, but very Light Spirits, who cannot attain unto it. Even Peasants themselves, if they be not altogether Stupid, may be often further Instructed in this Philosophy, than they who are more Sprightly.

To Conclude, Every one must be managed according to his Genious; and the Master ought not to spend so much time in the Instruction of those whom he Teaches with Pleasure, because their Minds are open to receive what he says; as thereby to neglect others, because they put him to more trouble. On the contrary, these last require more Care, more Affection, and more Dexterity in the Instructor: and 'tis a sad thing, yet not to be remedied, that the most ignorant, and dullest Learners, have ordinarily the worst Masters.

Here, since I have enter'd upon the Subject, I will go on to Explain my self concerning Philosophy. I think that a Master should endeavour to make all those under his Charge Philosophers; Principally such, whom he sees to have good Natural Parts: but he must not wait till he has a considerable number of such who shall succeed therein. It is a great Undertaking to form one True Philosopher, that is to say, one Man who Reasons aright, who is always upon his Guard [Page] against all the Causes of Error; who, in the Conduct of his Life, follows onely Reason and Vertue; who seeks, in all things, to know the Truth, and to ascend unto the first Causes. The greatest part of Men, 'tis true, would be capable of this, if they did use their Reason well, and if they were not precipitant in their Judgments. But 'tis rare to find any of them, whose Will is so Regular, and Strength so much, as to be able to resist their Passions. It must also be confest, that the greatest part of the Professions of Life, may be perform'd reasonably well, without coming to this Perfection. One may be a good Physician, provided he knows the History of Nature, and the most Assured Remedies approved by Experience. For though a Man should know all that has been yet discovered in Natural Philosophy, to this present time, he would scarce know the first Causes of Distempers any better thereby. Skill in the Law obliges a Man to go no higher, and to seek for no other Principles of Reasoning, than the Laws already Established among Men: The rest belongs to the Legislatour. The Roman Lawyers, whose Decisions we do with Reason admire, were no Philosophers at all; and this Science was form'd at Rome, before they knew either Philosophy, or Grammar. As for War, 'tis evident likewise, by the Romans themselves, and most Nations, that there is no need of Philosophy, to be a good Soldier. The Romans were never greater Warriours, than whilst they continued in their Ignorance. Mummius and Marius were not less skilful therein, than Pompey and Caesar; and these last, though they were more Learned, were not more Philosophers than the other. As for other Professions less considerable, as [Page] Husbandry and Trades; Philosophy is not at all required of them, who apply themselves unto them; though the most useful Arts were not at first invented without Philosophy. I know, that 'tis believed, that it is useful to Divinity; and it is indeed to be desired, that all Clergy-men were true Philosophers. But yet I have shown, that, in the first Ages of the Church, the Christians made little account of Human Philosophy: Nevertheless, it cannot be doubted, but that the Bishops and Priests of that Time, did perfectly well discharge all their Duties. I leave it to those who Labour usefully in the Church, to judge, whether that which they have learn'd of Philosophy, be of any great use to them, for the Conduct of Souls.

But as to the rest, since a Man should neither be deceived himself, nor deceive others; I would not give the name of Philosopher, but to him, who should really deserve it. I would not make my Scholar so vain, as to believe himself to be a Philosopher, because he can say some distinctions and divisions by Heart, though he be never the wiser or better for them: I would not contribute any thing to the making this great name despicable to the unlearned. For Women, and Men of the World, judge of the ancient Philosophers, by the moderns, and equally despise them all. Hence it is, that Plato, of all prophane Authors, the most Excellent, and most Delightful, is little Read, even by the Learned, and not yet Translated into our Language. Hence it is, that they who read the Translations, of Xenophon, Epictetus, and others, do admire that these Philosophers reasoned so well. 'Tis the same abuse, that has [Page] brought into dis-esteem the name of Rhetorick, Poetry, and the greatest part of the Liberal Arts; and which has given false Ideas of them, which makes us practise them so ill. For 'tis natural to believe, that a thing is really that, which its name imports.

Therefore, although it is to be wish'd, that all Men (at least they who Study) were truly Philosophers, yet, there is so little reason to expect it; that it seems to me, that the greatest part of Men, ought not to pretend to it. At least, all the Philosophy they ought to learn, should be reduc'd to a good Logick: The rest is not necessary for the attaining other Sciences. On the contrary, all the Sciences joyned to the practice of all Vertues, make up the true Philosopher; to which, therefore we cannot arrive before the Age of Maturity (if any one be so happy, as ever to attain unto it.) But, it is more certain, that Grammar, Rhetorick, and whatsoever goes under the name of Humanity, are not at all necessary to Philosophy and Logick. To learn how to reason well, there is no necessity of knowing Latin, or any other Language; it might be Taught to a Mute, provided there were signs distinct enough, to Explain to him the Reflections upon Thoughts. Eloquence supposes Reasoning already formed, seeing it adds thereunto Motion, and Expression; for it doth not (as the Ignorant believe) consist in speaking fine Words, but in giving Weight to good Reason.

Since our Logick consists not in certain Words and Rules, wherewith the Memory is charged, that we may talk of them, or understand those who do speak of them; but in a real Exercise of [Page] good Reasoning: It is not to be thought, that it is to be learn'd only once, as an History, and never after to be minded. It must be constantly practised, during the whole course of Studies; and I speak of it in this place, only to observe its Order, and to shew that it is of more worth, and more necessary than all the Studies I have mentioned; at least, then those which consist only in the Knowledge of Matters of Fact, or things Positive and Conjectural.

But though Reasoning be necessary, Experience and the Knowledge of particular things, is so likewise. A Man cannot be truly learned, nor eminently skilful, without this depth of Reasoning which I have spoken of, but he may be skilful enough to perform the Duties of Common Life, without this Reasoning; provided that he has a particular Knowledge of the things which are practised: Whereas, without this particular Knowledge, the best general Reasonings, as long as they continue General, will never come to any thing. 'Tis these general Reasonings, which have at all times discredited the Philosophers and Learned Men, when to them they did not joyn the Knowledge of particular things, especially, the Institutions of Men: And this is the Essential Fault of Raimund Lullius his Method, which imploys its Scholars only in such general Notions, as are of no use; and do not render them, at all, more Learned in Speculation; since they add nothing to what all Men know naturally, but only Names, and Arbitrary distinctions. I more value a Peasant, who knows of what Corn the best Bread is made, and how this Corn is made to increase; than a Philosopher, who reasons only [Page] upon Goodness, Perfection and Infinity, without ever Descending Lower. Let, therefore, your Scholar have a true and distinct understanding; let him reason upon general Principles, and put what he knows into a good Order. But let him be satisfied with a few Principles; and let him be furnished with something to set in Order; I mean, with distinct and particular Observations.

VII HItherto, I have spoken only of those Studies which tend to the perfection of the Soul,That Men ought to have a care of their Bodies. by forming the Mind and the Manners. Something also must be said, of those which may be useful to the Body; since, next to our Soul, there is nothing which ought to be so precious to us, as this other Part of our selves: And since also, the strict Union of the one with the other, is the reason, why the Soul is not in a condition to act well, if the Body be not well disposed. I know that this sort of Study is not in use amongst us; we are sensible enough, that Health, Strength, good Behaviour and Beauty, are Goods of the Body; but we are apt to suppose, that they must all be given by Nature. The Art of procuring them, is so much forgotten; that, was it not certain, that the Ancients had it, and also had carry'd it to as great Perfection, it might not probably be believed, that it was possible. This is the Art which the Greeks called Gymnastick; which chiefly consisted in the Exercise of the Body; and upon this account, it is Foreign to my subject; for I have not undertaken to treat of all that relates to the Education of Youth, but only of their Studies. I shall therefore leave this Treatise of Exercises to some Person, who shall be better [Page] vers'd in it than I am; and I shall, in the mean time, only speak of that Knowledge, which may be useful for the preservation of Health. I will not call it by the Name of Medicks, because we do not now undertake this long and difficult Art, which imploys Men all their Life; and which is conversant about the healing of Diseases, rather than the preventing of them: Whereas, that which I here understand by this Study, necessary to all Men, is only some certain, plain and easie Precepts, for the preserving, and increasing Health.

I would therefore, from the first Infancy, have Sobriety instill'd, as far as this Age is capable thereof; not by making Children Fast, for it is not yet time: But by not permitting them to Eat as much as they would, nor all that they have a mind to, nor offering any thing to them which might Tempt them, or giving them such Rewards or Punishment which depend upon Eating. In their Presence, Gluttons and Luxurious Person, should be exposed to Contempt, sometimes by way of Raillery, sometimes by serious Discourse; Diseases and other Mischiefs observed, which proceed from the Excesses of the Mouth; Sobriety commended, and the good effects of it Demonstrated: And all these Discourses, as much as may be, should be made, without seeming to have any design of instructing them, and without directing your Speech to them, that so they may be less upon their Guard: But, above all, great care must be taken, not to bely these Discourses, by any contrary Speeches, or by any Action. In a word, to enforce them, by your Example. We see, by the Manners of whole Nations, how powerful the Opinion, Custom, [Page] and Impressions of Infancy are in this Matter. Drunkenness so frequent in the Northern Countries, is a Monster in Spain. The Indians live all their Life upon Rice, Pulse, and Fruits, without Eating Flesh or Fish; and some of them are so Exercised in Fasting, that they can abstain for Fifteen or Twenty days together, without taking any Nourishment. Perhaps it may be thought, that these things belong rather to Moral Instructions; but they are also proper means for preserving Health: And it is not my purpose to enter, in particular, upon a large description of the Vertues. In the mean time, since these Instructions are useful to several ends, they are doubtless upon that account, the more Excellent.

To be in good Health, it is convenient to be Neat and Clean, to Breath a pure Air, to Drink good Waters, to Eat simple and plain Meats; and though Nature sufficiently teaches all this; yet, 'tis not amiss to put Children in Mind of it, and cause them often to Reflect thereupon; for Custom easily gets the Upper-hand. Whatever gives Strength, doth also very much conduce to Health; which Strength doth necessarily suppose. Now that which Strengthens, is not (as the Vulgar commonly believe) to Eat much, and to Drink much Wine, but proportionably to our Nourishment and Rest, to joyn Labour and Exercise. The Exercises most in use with all Men, are Walking for a long time together, Standing upright for a considerable while, carrying Burthens, drawing at Pullies, Running, Leaping, Swiming, Riding, Exercising Arms, playing at Tennis, and other such-like, according to the [Page] Ages, Conditions and Professions to which any one is designed. I shall leave the particulars to those, who perhaps, may sometime give us a Treatise of Exercises. I will only observe, that it is of great importance, for Children early to have a good Esteem for them; together with a great Contempt of the Soft and Effeminate Life.

He should be Taught, that a Man is capable of very little, if he cannot (without altering his Health) sometimes take excessive pains; breaking, if need be, all the Rules of Sleep and Diet▪ In short, that there are many Vertues, which cannot be practised, but with a good Body. 1 Tim. iv. 8. St. Paul says, indeed, That Bodily Exercise profiteth little: But he says this, in comparison with Exercises of Godliness; and in a time, when the Emulation of the Greek Athleticks, had carried them to an excessive Curiosity. For many lived under a very severe Discipline, and in very great Hardship, without any other end, but to make themselves admired in the Games. St. Paul himself,1 Cor. ix. 25. elsewhere, makes use of this Example, to shew Christians how earnestly they ought to strive for the incorruptible Crown. The Christians, 'tis true, did not ingage in these Gymnastick Exercises, which would have spent too much of their Time; much less in the Combats and their publick shews, founded upon Idolatry; yet they did not omit to Exercise the Body by useful and hard Labours. St. Clement of Alexandria, Paedag. [...] III. c. 10. in his Paedagogue, doth expresly advise it; and the greatest part of the ancient Monks have practised it. So that St. Paul doth not say that the Exercise of the Body is [Page] good for nothing; and though he thought it good for very little, in comparisan of Christian Vertues, he would doubtless have accounted it great in Respect of that which we do now commonly preferr before it. For that which now a-days, makes Exercises so little valued, is, because they do not conduce to the attaining unto Honour, or gaining Money; and because they do not agree with Feasting, Sleep, and Idleness, wherein the greatest part of Men make their happiness to consist.

In truth, there are none among us, but they who are designed for the War, to whom any Exercises are taught Methodically: And yet, even herein, there are, in my Opinion, two considerable Faults. The one, that no care is taken to Form the Soldiers, who Compose the whole Body of the Troops: They are not taught to Manage their Arms, and perform their Exercises, till they be Listed. The other Fault is, that, in the Academies, where Gentlemen are Exercised, no reckoning is made of that which is most essential; that is, to make them Healthy, and render their Bodies Robust. For they do not accustom young Men to live upon simple and common Meats; to suffer sometimes Hunger, Heat, Cold, and the injuries of the Weather; to pass whole Nights without Sleeping, to lie usually Hard, to be upon Horse-back whole Days together: In a word, to inure themselves to all sorts of Fatigues. In the mean time, these Fatigues are ordinarily of much more use in War, than Dancing, and the extream fineries of Fencing, and the Art of Riding. Nevertheless, this care that is taken to Form the Bodies of [Page] Gentlemen, as indifferent as it is, is a very sensible Proof of the usefulness of Exercises. Hence, doubtless, it comes to pass, that Persons of Quality, and the Officers of the Army, have ordinarily Bodies better made, Walk and Move, in all Respects, with a better Grace, not only than Artisans and Citizens, but than the Men of the Robe, who have not pass'd through these Exercises. Nay, even the meer difference of Labours has a very great effect, without any care taken in Education. Gardiners and Labouring-Men, have Bodies generally otherwise Formed and Proportioned, than Shooe-Makers and Taylors, and other Sedentary Artists. But to speak only of those, who are Educated with most care (though they are not designed for the War,) amongst so many other things which they are Taught, why should not the Exercise of the Body be one? Is it because they have a Soul and no Body at all? Is it because Latin and the College-Philosophy are more necessary to them than Health? Let us confess the Truth. It is because we never considered this Matter, we believe, that Health comes of it self; that we always have enough of it, and that the most important business, is to get a great deal of Money, and be preferr'd to high Imployments; as if we could enjoy these Goods, and these Honours without Living, and having our Health.

When I speak of having a care of Health, I do not mean those Cautions of Women, Sedentary and Lazy Men, who are feeling their Pulses every Moment; and▪ who by fearing Diseases, are almost always Sick, or, at least, imagin themselves to be so: Who take Broaths every Morning, [Page] who cannot Fast, nor suffer Hunger, nor Eat later, than at such a certain Hour; who cannot Sleep, if they do not lie very soft, and very far from Noise; who never have Window Shuts, Skreens and Counter-doors enough: In a word, who are extreamly afraid of the least inconveniencies. These Persons abuse those comfortable things, which were invented for the truly Sick; and for them whose Health is impared by long Labours, or by extream old Age. And that which shews their softness, is, that they never use the means which I have mentioned of Labour and Abstinence; but had rather take a Medicine, than deprive themselves of a meals Meat. It is therefore of great Consequence, that Children should betimes apprehend the Error of these pretended Valetudinarians; for they do Educate Children the worst of any People. They wrap and cover them to the end of the Fingers, they suffer them not to do any Exercise, least they should hurt, or over-heat themselves. They regularly Purge them at certain Seasons, and perswade them so much, that they are of a weak and delicate Complexion, that the poor Children believe it all their Lives; and pretend thereby to distinguish themselves from the common People, as well as by their Riches, and Quality. For, since none but the Rich, and such who have Leisure, can observe all these Niceties; they perswade themselves, that it appertains to none but Peasants and Porters to have good Bodies; and pride themselves in their weakness, as a mark of their Wit. Nevertheless, if we would take the Matter aright, a Man ought more to be ashamed for being weak, and unhealthy, than for being [Page] Poor: Since there are more Innocent means of acquiring Health than Riches; and these means are more in our Power.

Young Persons also should be delivered from a great many Superstitions (which the ignorance of former Ages has introduc'd into Medicks) concerning the quality of several Meats, which are accounted Cold or Hot, without Reason, and against Experience; concerning many effects which are attributed, without Foundation to the Moon and other Stars. In this Rank may be reckoned a great part of the Precepts of Schola Salernitana. On the contrary, I would have them Taught that which has been most constantly agreed upon, by the most skilful Physicians, for the ordinary Regimen; the means of preserving Health, the Remedies for the most common Diseases; and especially, all that relates to Wounds: For it is more difficult to avoid them, than great Diseases; and of greater importance, to be able to cure ones self of them. For all this, 'twould be useful to know Anatomy reasonably well, besides other great Use which may be made of it in Morality, to understand the Passions, admire the Wisdom of God, and make us sensible how much we depend upon his Power. It would be well also to know the quality of the most ordinary Meats; the most common Plants, those Remedies which are most easie to be found; and all this, according to the most approved Experiences. More or less of these things may be Studied according to the capacity of the Master, and the Leisure and Inclination of the Scholar. It would not be amiss to make the effects of some of the most terrible Diseases, to [Page] be observed, thereby to imprint upon young Men, a great horrour of Intemperance and Debauchery; and, on the other hand, to carry them sometimes into a Kitchin, or some Office, there to see all the while, how much Artifice, Labour, Time and Money, are spent in preparing the Ragou's and Sauces, which are only the Ornaments of Eating.

VIII THe foregoing Instructions, are those, wherein all Persons are concern'd,Men ought not to Study meerly for Interest. seeing there is no Man but has a Body and a Soul to take care of. The following Instructions relate to the preservation of Estates, and consequently, are not of use to those who are extreamly Poor. So that, the Advice which I shall give, is scarce Practicable, but by such Children as are Born of Parents, who are at least, indifferently accommodated. The Poorest sort of all, have neither Money nor Leisure, to lay out in the Instruction of their Children in Private; and if they will have them to Study, it is by sending them to the Publick Schools. But perhaps, before I go any farther, it will not be out of the way, to say a word of that, which should invite those who are very Poor, to Study, or diswade them therefrom.

Regularly Study, is not the means to acquire Wealth, and belongs only to those who have an honest Leisure. Good sense requires, that a Man should first begin by purveying for his Subsistance, before he satisfies his Curiosity. For they who apply themselves to Study, when they have not whereupon to live, are like those Travellers, who being Landed in a Desert Island, should amuse themselves in Contemplating the [Page] Stars, and discoursing upon the Ebbing and Flowing of the Sea; in stead of making themselves Cottages, and seeking out Provisions. It may be said to them, ‘If you desire to have the Goods of Fortune, as the most part of Men do, Why do you thus amuse your selves? Why do you not take the ordinary and natural Means to procure them? You are born for the Country; continue there: Till the Lands of your Fathers; or, if he has left you none, serve a Master, do Journey-work, Learn a Trade; Traffick, if you have wherewithal; chuse some Profession, whereby you may live honestly, and leave Studies unto those who have leisure, who are Rich; or else do not concern themselves to be so.’ But, may some say, Studies themselves are one of those Professions whereby Men gain a Livelihood; at least they lead to several Profitable Professions, The Church, the Court, Physick: and in any of these ways a Man may live more Comfortably than by Tilling the Earth, and Labouring at a Trade. Behold! the vain hope which makes so many poor Priests, and so many poor Advocates.

I do not say, that all who are Poor ought to be debarr'd from Studies, for then few, who could live at their own ease, would give themselves the trouble of Teaching and bringing up Children; much less would they take upon themselves the Charge of Parishes, especially in the Country. I should desire therefore no more, but that the number of these Poor Students were not so great; that those of them might be chosen who have better Abilities, and more Vertue; and the others who Study for base and sordid ends, rejected. For [Page] it cannot be enough Lamented to see, into what Extremities Young Persons often are cast, who rashly Embark themselves in Studies, and then find it too late to Learn a Trade, yet think any other way of Living unworthy of them. Several, not knowing what to do, betake themselves, without any Calling, unto Religious Societies: or if they be afraid of being shut up, and becoming subject to a Rule, they seek after some practical Imployment, belonging either to the Treasury, or (as their Genius is) they turn Musicians, Poets, Comedians, Mountebanks, or any thing you can imagine.

Also Studies themselves suffer, by being handled by Ill-bred and Selfish Persons, who are either wholly Sollicitous how to get a Livelihood, or how to grow Rich. Their end is not the Knowledge of Truth, and the Perfection of Reason, but Interest: So that they force their Thoughts, to make them comply therewith▪ They Study not that which is best in it self, but what makes the best Return; They endeavour not really to become more Skilful, but to be thought so, and to please others. In a word, with them those are Profitable Studies, not which tend to the Publick Advantage, as the Advancement of Arts, and the Perfection of Manners, but those which make the Students Rich. But let us return to our Subject.

Hitherto I have endeavour'd to speak of those Studies, which are of Use to all sorts of persons, to Women as well as Men, Rich and Poor. These Studies are such as respect Religion, Manners, and the Conduct of the Mind, for Reasoning Justly, and Health. I treated of them in all the Latitude [Page] wherein he may Teach them, who Instructs a Child that is Honourably Born, Design'd to Great Imploys, and on whom the Master bestows all his Care, having all the Encouragements he desires. Proportionably, it may be Judged, how much of them ought to be Taught to an ordinary person, a Woman, or an Artisan. Thus, to the Poor, the Instructions of a Curate, careful of his Duty, of a Master of the private Schools, or of an Intelligent Father, will suffice. They may also, for the most part, omit Learning either to Write or Read: for I account it much more necessary, that they should be Instructed in all that I have mentioned, as far as they shall be capable. I now come to Studies, which are useful for Business, and consequently are likewise common to all who have Estates, of what Sex and Condition soever they be: And these Studies are, Grammar, Arithmetick, Oeconomicks, Skill in Law. But I must explain in what Sense I understand all these words.

IX BY Grammar I onely understand Reading and Writing, Grammar. Speaking French well, and Writing Correctly; so that a Man is not at a loss, either for Choice of Words, or Construction of Discourse; and also can Write well, even the most Common Things; as a Letter of Business. I do not think a Child should he Taught to Read before he be Six years old, unless he be naturally one of very happy Intellectuals. For this is a troublesome Study; there is nothing of that in it, which Children seek after, which is Pleasure: and there is need of a great deal of Patience, of which they have none. Let us Judge [Page] of them by our selves. How difficult is it, at the Age, when Reason is perfect, to begin to Read Hebrew, or Arabick? We are push'd on by Curiosity, we desire, with all our hearts, to Learn these Languages, and we are accustomed to Study and Industry. Nevertheless 'tis very ungrateful to fix our eyes a long time upon the same Figures, so often to gather together the same Letters, to supply, by Memory, what is wanting in the Writing; (as there wants something in all sorts of Languages) and, at last, for all the Fruit of our Labour, onely to pronounce words which we do not understand. And yet we take it ill, that poor Children, who seek after nothing but their Play, do not take all this trouble in good part; and Severely Chastise them because they do not pore long enough upon their Book. But, after all, Why should we press them on so much; especially, if their manner of Living will oblige them to Write and Read all their Lives? Are we afraid that they shall not know how to do so when they are grown up? But do we see any of them, who, when they are Ten or Twelve years old, are without this Learning? It may be said, we do not see any such, because there are none who are not obliged to Learn these things in their Childhood. But do we think, that Emulation, The shame of not being like others, and the Necessity of Writing and Reading in all our other Studies, will not also do very much in these?

In the mean time, the harshness of these first Lessons, makes them, for a long time, disgust all Study. We should have a great deal of Patience with them, make them Read but a little at a time, [Page] and insensibly increase, as it becomes more easie to them; and, at the same time, Teach them Histories, or other Things which may divert them. At first we make them Read in Latin, because 'tis pronounced more as it is Written, than the French. But, I believe, that the Pleasure a Child would have to understand what he should Read, and to see the Fruit of his Labour, would make him go on faster. For this Reason I should presently give him some French Book, which he might understand. It easily appears, that the same difficulties which there are in Learning to Read, are also to be found in Latin, and other Languages; and that they continue longer. There is also, by the Custom of the Schools, added to them another difficulty, which is that of the Rules, and all the Art of Grammar. For tho' we are not accustomed to Learn Latin, but with the Grammar; nor the Grammar but in Latin, or upon the Foundation of the Latin Grammar; it is clear nevertheless, that these are two different Studies; since there is no Language which may not be Learnt by Use; as likewise there is none which has not its Grammar. I have shewed, that this Method began at the time when Latin was the Vulgar Language; and that the Greek Grammar, which is the first which we know, was made also by the Greeks.

Thus, to imitate these Ancients, whom we do, with so much Reason esteem, the Grammar should be Studied in our own Language, before it be Studied in another. Since this Study would consist onely in causing the Child to make Reflexions upon a Language which he already knows; he would often take pleasure therein: [Page] and the Difficulties which he should meet with would be less than they would be, when added to those of Learning a Language. There would be always this advantage, that he might be made perfectly to understand all the Precepts by familiar Examples. But I would not load him with over many Rules, since the great Curiosity in Grammar consumes much time, and is of no use.

You have perhaps labour'd a whole day, to get by heart one Exception, whereof probably you'll have no use three times in all your Life. I should content my self with the Principal Definitions, and the most General Rules; and should propose no more to my self, than to Speak and Read well, to observe a very exact Orthography in Writing; to understand all that I Say, and all that I Read, as far as the Knowledge of the Tongue may conduce thereunto. For this, it would suffice, to know the Divisions of the Letters, the Parts of Speech, and their Subdivisions, and other things which I cannot mention in particular, at least, unless I should make a Grammar. Now, that these Precepts should not be dry, and jejune, as they are in Books, I would render them sensible and pleasant by the way of Teaching them. When a Child should have Read in his own Language, for some time, the things which he understood, and wherein, if possible, he should take pleasure; One would begin to make him observe, that all that Writing consisted onely in Two and twenty Letters, and that all the Large Discourses are Composed onely of Nine sorts of Words; that there are two kinds of Articles; that there are Genders in Nouns; Tenses and [Page] Persons in Verbs; Numbers both in the one and the other; and thus of the rest. As soon as he shall know how to Write a little, you might cause him to digest those Histories which have been recited unto him; and here the mean and improper Words, the bad Constructions, and the faults of Orthography should be Corrected. He might be told the Rules of Etymologies, and Taught many of them occasionally. They serve very much for the Understanding the meaning of Words, and Orthography, and are diverting. Thus by a few Precepts, and a great deal of Exercise, he might Learn in two or three years as much Grammar as a Gentleman need to have for the Use of Life; and more than ordinarily they know, who have been Eight or Ten years in the College.

The greatest part might stop here, and Learn no other Language at all. Sword-men, Practicioners, Accountants, Merchants, and all below these; as also the greatest part of Women may let Latin alone: Experience shews this. But, if they knew as much Grammar, as I have said, it would be very easie for them to use good French Books, and the Translations of the Ancients; and perhaps, at last, they might be disabused, and not imagin, That that Person must be a Fool who does not understand Latin. 'Tis true, Latin is necessary for Clergy-men, and Men of the Robe, and that it is very useful for Souldiers, tho' it was onely for their Travels; and, amongst Women, to the Religious, for understanding the Office which they Read. But I believe, it would be much more easie to Learn, if it was not Embarassed with so many Rules of Grammar. Not [Page] that I believe, it should be Taught by use alone; though there have been some examples of it, even in our time; but the Method of doing this is not sufficiently established, to propose it to the World. Add to this, that whatever habit of Speaking Children might have, I should scarce believe that it would continue constant, in a Language, which is not continually used, without the help of Rules. 'Tis true, we have an Example in the Jews, who Teach their Children Hebrew, without any Rule, and make them very knowing therein; but this is with a very long time. Let us therefore rather make use of Rules, provided that they do assist, and not over-burthen Children.

Now, if they know them in their own Language, the rest will be very easie. It will be onely making them observe what is different in the Latin Language. The want of Articles, the Declension of Nouns, the Passive in Verbs, the Liberty of placing the Words differently, and the like. This, for the most part, onely would be Exceptions from the General Rules which they had learnt.

To Conclude, They should be continually exercised in Reading some Author, which they understood with Pleasure (if it might be;) and they should be Taught the Rules, much rather by use, than the strength of Memory; though it should not be forgotten also to cause them to get things by heart. That which will best Imprint them upon their Minds, will be Composing; but yet it must not be begun so soon, nor continued so long as Reading, which ought to be their Chief Exercise, and continue, during the whole course of their Studies. For there is this Advantage in [Page] Grammar, and the Study of Languages; that, being as Instruments, he who has once Learnt them will confirm himself therein, proportionably as he shall use them: Because the Books wherein he Learns things, are Compounded of the words of a certain Language put together, and placed according to Grammar.

X ARithmetick comes afterwards; and I think it should be begun later;Arithmetick. that is, when Reason is already formed; as at Ten, or Twelve years. At first the Scholar should be Taught the Practice of the Four Great Rules; he must be exercised in Casting Account, either with Counters, or with the Pen; to make use of all sorts of Cyphers; to reduce the most usual Weights and Measures. Afterwards he may go on to the Rules which are more difficult, and be shown the Reasons of all; and the Knowledge of Proportions may be Taught him, as his Leisure and Genius shall serve.

XI IT will be thought strange, doubtless, that I reckon Oeconomicks amongst Studies, Oeconomicks. and amongst the most necessary too: but hear what I would say for my self. The Design of young Persons Studies should be, to acquire, in the first Age that Knowledge, which must be serviceable to them all the rest of their Lives; or at least, the Principles of this Knowledge, as I think I have already shewn. Therefore, that which is necessary to the most common and ordinary Affairs, that which respects the Maintenance of Life, and the Foundation of Civil Society; This Knowledge surely ought to have the first place next after [Page] that which refers to Man in himself, and directly conduces to the perfecting the Soul or the Body. So that it is principally the Scholars ignorance of these kinds of things, which makes several despise both them and their Studies. What are the thoughts of the Eldest Son of a Family, who comes from the College? to divert himself, to boast of his Knowledge, and if he be pleas'd with Study, to follow his Curiosity: He never concerns himself how he subsists; whence comes that which nourishes and cloaths him, and the like. He only considers how other young Persons of the same quality live, and would, by no means, be less accounted of, nor want Money to Game, or satisfie his Passions. In the mean time he fills his head with Comedies, Romances, Musick; or, if he wants Wit, he confines himself to more gross pleasures. Some great Change in his Fortune must happen, the Death of a Father, some Great Estate fall which he must take possession of, some great Law-suit, a Marriage, or an Office to make him open his eyes, and see that there is any such thing as business in the World; and that he has something to take care of as well as other Men. I know that in all this, there is a great deal that is natural to Youth, which is hurry'd on to Pleasure by violent Passions; and has not experience enough to have any esteem for things that are useful. But this is the Reason also why Youth ought to be assisted and restrain'd, in stead of which it seems, as if Men had a design to encourage their Faults. Young Persons, 'tis true, will never love Labour and Business. Yet it ought, at least, to be endeavour'd, by preparing them early for them, that they may not appear so harsh [Page] and burthensome when they shall come to the Age, when they must apply themselves unto them for good and all. Upon this account, amongst Studies necessary to all, who have any thing to Manage and Preserve, I reckon Oeconomicks, and Skill in the Law: and observe wherein I make Oeconomicks to consist.

Seeing the first Objects which make impressions upon Children, are those within the House, as its divers Parts, the Servants, and their different Offices, the Moveables, and Working Instruments. There is nothing to be done but to follow the humour of their Natural Curiosity, to Teach them with pleasure the use of all these things, and make them understand, as far as they are capable, the Solid Reasons, which put Men upon inventing them, by letting them see the Inconveniencies which they remove. Thus also they would be accustomed to admire the Goodness of God in all things which he Furnishes us with for our Wants; the Industry which he has given unto Men to make use of them; the Happiness of being Born in a Country that is Cultivated, and in a Well-instructed and Polite Nation: to take Noble Ideas of all things, which an ill Education, and the Vanity of our Manners make us despise; and not so much to disdain a Kitchin, the Back-yard, the Market-place, as the most part of Persons Gentilely bred do.

To Conclude, Thus they would be accustomed to make Reflexions upon all that presents its self to them, which is the Principle of all Studies. For Men mightily deceive themselves, when they imagin, that they must seek a great way off for that wherewith Children are to be Instructed. [Page] They are not to live, either in the Air, or amongst the Stars, much less in the Imaginary Spaces, in the Country of the entia Rationis, or Second Intentions; but they must live on the Earth, in this Low World, such as it now is, and in this Corrupted Age of it.

They ought therefore to know the Earth which they Inhabit, the Bread which they Eat, the Animals which are Useful to them; and, above all, the Men with whom they are to Live and to Act. And let them not, in the least, imagin that, to consider all the things which are about them, is to debase themselves.

In a great Family there will be more occasion for these Instructions than in a less; and there will be yet more, if Children be sometimes in the City, and sometimes in the Countrey. Thus the Children of Persons of Quality, who may have all these Advantages, ought to know more things than others. As they grow in Age, more may be told them concerning these things; and, in some sort they might be indifferently well instructed in those Arts, which respect the Convenience of Life, by letting them see Men work at them; and by explaining to them every thing carefully. They should then be shewn, either in the House, or elsewhere, how Bread, and Cloth, and Stuffs are made. They should see Taylors, Tapistry-makers, Joyners, Carpenters, Masons, and all who are concern'd in the Building-trade, Work in their particular Callings. They should also be, some-ways, so far Instructed in these Arts, as to understand the Language of the Workmen, and that they may not be easily impos'd upon. Now this Study will, all this [Page] while, be a great Divertisement for them: And seeing Children desire to imitate every thing, they will be sure to play over all these Arts. And herein they should not be roughly Opposed, or Laughed at, but gently assisted, by shewing them what will be Chymerical in their designs, and what Feasible. This might be an occasion of Teaching them a great deal of Mechanicks; and they would have the Pleasure of Succeeding in some things, which in this Age, is very great. It would also be well to acquaint them with the common Price of the Works which they may have occasion for, and the things which they may Buy themselves, and even those which they may order others to Buy. For, though these Prices often change, yet, they who have known them once, will not be so much to seek; especially, if they be once well told, why some Commodities are so dear in respect of others; and the most ordinary Causes of the Change of Price. I should also desire that a young Man be soon instructed, either by Experience, or an exact Relation, in all that is necessary for Travel. This is the Study which I call Aeconomicks. It easily appears, that I do not pretend to make it a Study in Form, or that it should be learn'd by Books. It might be learn'd by Conversation and Practice; and would be, not so much the Office of a Master, as the care of a good Father, or an affectionate Tutor. Other Studies would assist it, and it would help them. To Exercise the Rules of Arithmetick, the young Person might make up the Accounts, and keep a Register of Receipts and Expences, which is so necessary a Practice to every Man, who has any thing to [Page] take care of,Eccl. xl. 11. 7. that it is recommended in Scripture it self. In Human Authors, as Cicero and Virgil, it may be observed to them, how much the Romans did then esteem Husbandry, and a diligent application to their Domestick Affairs. This might be seen more in those Authors which treat of Country Businesses; as Cato and Columella, and in some Books of the Law. The young Romans must needs have been very soon fit to Act, and manage their Affairs, since at Fourteen Years they were out of Tuition; were accounted grown Men at Eighteen, and took their Place, and argued freely before the Magistrates. As for the Greeks, the Aeconomicks of Xenophon, Aristophanes, Theocritus, Hesiod and Homer, do shew, that they busied themselves very much within their Houses, in Management, and all kind of Husbandry; and that the Richest and most Civilized Persons, did then make that their business and delight, which at this day is looked upon as the Lot of the miserable. The Authority of these great Names, and the Consent of such Excellent Writings, might give Noble Ideas of all, even the most common things of Life. This also might make the Scholar much more capable of profiting, even by the Holy Scripture; seeing that all which is accounted so mean and dull, came from the simple and solid Manners of that wise Antiquity, when no Person disdain'd to Labour, more than he did to Eat: And this, I think, I have shewn in the Manners of the Israelites. But whether the Scholar shall read these Authors, or the Master relate to him what they say; I would have him careful to make all things very sensible, and refer [Page] all to our own Country Usage and Custom. Let us leave it to the Grammarians by Profession, curiously to inquire after all the Plants which Virgil names, and the Description of all the Instruments of Agriculture which Hesiod mentions. Let us only take occasion from what they say, to make our Scholar understand that which at present is done in our Country, and let us not be discouraged, if they use some word which we may not understand, provided that we know our way of Management, as well as they did theirs.

XII AS for the Law, since it depends less upon the imagination,Civil Law or Jurisprudence. and has more Reasoning in it, we should wait till the Mind be more accustomed to attend, and the Judgment be form'd; that is, till Thirteen or Fourteen Years, and till our Scholar be towards the end of his Studies. Nevertheless, it is much more easie to make this sensible and agreeable, than it is Philosophy, which is the ordinary Study at this Age; especially, after this Foundation of Aeconomicks, of which I have spoken, it would be a great deal more easie.

You may suppose, that, by skill in the Law, I do not here understand that long and difficult Study, which makes Lawyers by Profession, and which contains the Knowledge, not only of all the Laws that are used in a Country, upon any subject whatsoever, but of all that also, which serves to explain and apply them to particular Matters. I only speak here of those Studies which are necessary to all Men of ingenuous Birth. Thus, as to Law, I only understand that [Page] which every private Person is obliged to know of it, in order to keep what he has, and to do nothing against the Laws. Every one is thus far obliged by the Laws themselves, which presume that all Citizens are instructed therein, since they impute the Ignorance of them as a Fault, and Punish it, either by the loss of Goods, if they have failed to observe the Laws, in getting or preserving them, or by more severe Punishments; if this Ignorance has betray'd them to some Crime. Nevertheless, no care is taken to instruct young Persons in them, except those, who are designed for the Gown; and questionless, it will be thought strange, that I desire this should be done.

But to examine things without Prejudice, this Study is as useful, at least, as Philosophy, which they are Taught; and is not more difficult. But Philosophy, it may be said, Exercises the Minds of young Persons, and makes them subtle. So will also the subtleties of Law, by which the Principal points will be better understood: But 'tis feared, that they would be tired, should they be told of the Ʋsus fructus, and Propriety; of the difference betwixt the right of Heir-ship, and Bodies Hereditary, betwixt the parts Individible, and the parts Divised, although solid effects of all these distinctions may be shown to them. Is it not to be feared likewise, least the Universals, the Categories, the Infinite in Act, and in Power, and the Entia rationis, should put them out of Humour? In short, the knowledge of Right, whether pleasant or not, is necessary to all, who live under the same Laws.

[Page] This Study would be very easie, if we had certain and fix'd Laws, as the Romans had those of the Twelve Tables; the Athenians those of Solon; the Hebrews those of Moses, or rather of God. A Man should need only to read these Laws to know his Duty. But it is not thus, a great deal of Experience is required to distinguish, in the large Volumes of the Edicts of our Kings, those which are observed, from those which are not. Customs speak not but of certain Matters. We follow a great many Rules of the Roman Law; the greatest part of which, nevertheless, is not received; at least, not into the number of our Customs. Our Law therefore, being so mixed, and so uncertain, there is great need of Study, to understand it: I mean, to have such an indifferent knowledge of it, as is to be supposed in private Persons. For to know it exactly, it is the Study of a Man's whole Life.

Now this indifferent Knowledge thereof, necessary to all, I make to consist in these things. First, in understanding the Terms, ordinarily used in speaking of Business, and which we meet with, in the Ordinances, Customs, and other Law Books;Fee, quitrent, inheritance, purchase, to quit, to warrant. as fief, Censive, propres, acquest, déguerpir, garantir, and all the rest, which are not commonly used in the ordinary way of Speaking. Children may learn all these words betimes, especially, if care be taken to make them understand the sense, by sensible Examples; and the sooner they shall have learn'd them, the less Barbarous they will appear afterwards. It will be much more worth their while, to charge their Memory with them, than with Names, Figures of Rhetorick, and the Terms of Philosophy. After [Page] this Knowledge of their way of Speaking, which implies a great many Definitions; I would have the Scholar learn the most general Maxims of the Law, which relate to particular Subjects; as of Tutelage, Successions, Marriages, the most usual Contracts, without entring into the Subtleties of the Law, or much affecting the Method; but only observing therein a little Order, for clearing up the Understanding, and assisting the Memory. In the next place, the manner of Prosecuting ones Right in the Courts of Judicature, should be Treated of; and, without Descending to all the particulars of the Process, the order of it in general, should be observed, and the necessity there is, of exactly observing in Judicial Proceedings, the Forms Established. The difficulty will be for the Master to chuse out of Books, that Knowledge which is necessary; and is so dispersed, and blended in them. For it must be confess'd, that, as yet, we have no Book, where all that which I have spoken of is put together, and separated from the rest. Till some Person shall undertake this. Justinian's Institutes, the customary Institution of Loisel, that of Coquil, and the Index of Ragueau, and other such-like Books may be made use of. Moreover, it would be well to Read to the Scholar, the whole Custom of his Country, and shew him some of the most common Contracts, that he may understand the Principal clauses of them.

But some will say, have we not wrangling Pettifoggers enough in France, without desiring that all Men should be so? Behold! The ordinary Language of ignorant Persons, to call those Wranglers who understand Business, and speak of [Page] it in proper Terms. On the contrary, one of the greatest Causes of Litigious Pleadings, is this ignorance of Law. Hence it is, that Men make disadvantageous Agreements; which afterwards they will not perform; that so many Revocations, and Restitutions are required against Surprizes; that they rashly undertake a Process, the Consequences whereof they do not foresee; that having Equity at the bottom, they commit it to the management of a Sollicitor, who spoils a good Cause, by his ill Proceeding. So that if any knowledge of Business produces Wrangling, 'tis that confused and uncertain knowledge of some little part of Practice, without Order, and without the Knowledge of Principles. Whence it is, that the greatest Pettifoggers are always the meanest sort of Practitioners. Now Men must needs have these obscure and imperfect Notions, when they are only instructed by use. Besides that, this is a very slow Master, and scarce ever informs, but by the Faults which are committed. Further, after a long time, you will hereby know only some certain particular Matters, and which indeed you may know, even too particularly, and, at the same time, be intirely ignorant of all the rest. To me therefore it seems, that it would be better, not altogether to depend upon Experience, but to be first prepared for it, by some general Knowledge. For though it be true, that many are sufficiently vers'd in business, by use alone; it ought to be confess'd, nevertheless, that they would be still better, and more easily instructed, if they joyned some Study thereunto. And seeing there is a certain Age, wherein we desire that young Persons should [Page] Study, though it were only to imploy them; why should we not rather busie them, in that which may be serviceable to them afterwards; than in that which is only for the School, that is, for nothing? For the School is not of use, but so far as it fits us for the remaining part of Life. Now in this Matter, there is no need to fear, least they should learn a little more Law, than may be absolutely necessary for them. It is difficult, exactly to measure this Necessary; and they will retain (we may be sure) no more than the sum of that which they learn.

This Study, which of it self, is a little dull, may be made more delightsome, by the Knowledge of many Matters of Fact; which giving to the Scholar a little Experience before his time, would render both the Maxims and the Reasonings of Law, more sensible. I would then, that the young Man be often told, what are the different Conditions of Men of the same Country, what their Imployments, and what it is by which they subsist: That he knew how a Peasant, an Artificer, a Citizen lives, what a Judge is, or any other Man of the Robe; I say, that which they are, and not that which they ought to be; what was their Birth, how they came to Offices, how they live: That he be acquainted how the Soldiers and the Officers of the Army subsist; and also that he be inform'd concerning Clergymen, and the Religious: In a word, concerning all Men, with whom he must live. The different nature also of Men's possessions should be describ'd unto him from the least Farm, to the greatest Lordship; and how the Rents of them are made. What is Trade and the Bank, and [Page] how Men grow Rich thereby. The different natures of Rents; to conclude, the different ways of Living and Subsisting, according to the difference of Countries. And seeing they cannot Learn all this, but by Conversation, young Persons ought to be taught to profit, by discoursing with all sorts of Persons, even with Peasants and Servants. The way is, to make each of them speak of his own Trade, and of things which he knows. Both of them would gain by this mutual Conversation. He that speaks, has the pleasure to Instruct, and to make himself heard; he who hears, has the pleasure to understand something new, and the profit will thereby abide with him.

The Reading also of the Ancients, will help him to understand these same Matters of Fact; as I have observed for Oeconomicks. The Orations and Epistles of Cicero, are full of wonderful variety of Affairs; which the Scholar may be brought to observe, as he shall have occasion. If he is to live a private Life, particular business should be chiefly explained unto him; if he is design'd by his Birth, to great Imploys, he should be more kept to publick Matters. Titus Livius, and other Historians, will also teach him a great deal concerning them. Thus, the same Lesson might serve for several uses; for Grammar, for Rhetorick, for History, for Morality, for Oeconomicks, for Law. Sometimes one kind of Reflections should be made, sometimes another, as occasion shall serve; and it would be hard, if none of them should take effect. But, in all these Observations, Curiosity which continually Tempts, should be avoided, unless it be used as a Ragoust to Excite the [Page] Appetite of Knowing. For otherwise, it will be no great harm, not to understand some word in Plautus, or Varro, which denotes some Office of a Slave; to be ignorant of some formality of their publick Assemblies; provided, that it be remembred, that the Romans well understood their business, both private and publick, and that they were very diligent in it; and that all those great Men, whom we admire in their History, did not make themselves great (each of them according to his genius) but by this application. Thus this Study of Law, would not only make young Men capable of business, but contribute more than any other, to the rendring their Minds solid, and Forming their Judgments: Since it would consist only in making them know the Truth of those things, which are the most fit for Men to know.

Now, in my Opinion, this Solidity, and this Rectitude of judgment, is that which should chiefly be sought in Studies. There is but too much of the Sparkish humour in the World; but there never will be enough of good sense. Why should this Glittering Fiery Spirit be so much recommended to Scholars, which cannot be given to those, who have it not naturally; and which usually, doth more harm than good, to those who have it? Let us improve in good Sense and Judgment. All who are not Born Stupid, may arrive to this Rectitude of Mind, provided, that they be accustomed to apply themselves to it, and not to Precipitate their Judgments. And 'tis only by this, that Men succeed in Business, and in the whole Conduct of their Lives. The knowledge of Business, also, would contribute to the [Page] reclaiming young Men from vain Fooleries; and to the making them serious: For we become such, as our Thoughts are, with which we are taken up. This will accustom them to be diligent, to be careful, to love Rule and Justice, which a Man must needs love, if he knows it, before it comes to be his interest to oppose it. Now young Persons are not as yet sensible of interest; Avarice is the least of their Vices.

And to make them diligent and careful, it would be very desireable, that the Practick might be joyn'd to the Instructions; That the Father should enter his Son into the Counsels appertaining to his Houshold Affairs; that he would make him Discourse of whatever occurs; That he would commit to his Care some of the Less difficult of them; That he would put some part of his Estate into his Management, whereof he should give an account. Nothing would be more advantageous, than for a Person of a great Estate, to be thus Educated; to be so capable of Business, that he should have no Intendants, Agents and Sollicitors, but only to ease him, and might not altogether rely upon them; that he should himself Manage all Affairs in chief, leaving to his Servants, only the Execution of them in particular: In a word, that he should govern those under him, and not, as it too often happens, be governed by them. For, is it not evident, that the absolute Dependance wherein Stewards and Bayliffs hold their Masters, and that carelessness which ruins so many Families, proceeds from the ignorance of Persons of Quality, and their ill Education? I know very well that they cannot be excused from a great deal of Idleness, [Page] and Love of Pleasure: But it happens sometimes, that they take a distaste against Pleasure, and do shake off Idleness: Whereas when they are past a certain Age, there is no more time for Instruction. At first they entertain an aversion for business, because they do not understand the Terms, and have no Knowledge of the Maxims. They flatter themselves, that good sense is sufficient for the ordering their concerns; and every one thinks he is well enough provided therewith. But they do not consider, that Law is mixed with an abundance of Matters of Fact and Rules, Established by Men, which it is impossible to Divine: And when they come to see the necessity of being instructed, they are ashamed to confess their ignorance. Lastly, the long habit of applying themselves to nothing, and not being confined, makes them often over-look their most important Interests. This is what I understand by the Names of Grammar, Arithmetick, Oeconomicks and skill in Law; and these are the Studies which I account most necessary.

XIII THey, who by their Birth, are designed for great Imployments,Policy. have need of some Instructions, more extensive than meer private Persons require. Their skill in Law should comprehend the publick Right. Their Morality should extend to Policy. For, as for Common People, these Studies can only be reckoned amongst the number of Curiosities. It is hard to hinder Men from talking; but it is also difficult for Princes and Ministers of State to keep from Laughing, when they see Citizens and Artisans Dispute about the Interests of Potentates, and prescribe to them Rules for their Government. But as for Children, who it [Page] may be reasonably foreseen, will one day come to be preferr'd to high Places, it is of consequence, early to instill into them Right Maxims, least they should imbibe false, or act only at a venture. I would then have them know, in the first place, the State of the present Government of their Country; the different parts of which this Body is Compounded, the Names and Functions of the Officers which Govern it: The manner of rendering Justice, of Administring the Revenues, of Exercising the Policy thereof, and the like; as also the Way of consulting about Publick Affairs. I would have every one begin with the State of his own Country, as being most necessary, and most easie to know; and that, in the next place, he should consider the Condition of those Foreign Countries which are nearest, and to which he has most Relation. By shewing him how things are really and in truth: I would shew him how they ought to be; not, as yet, according to the Opinions of the Philosophers, and pure Reasoning; but, according to the Laws of the State it self, and its ancient Customs. This is that which I call Publick Right. The Rules according to which each State is Governed: The Rights of the Soveraign, and the Officers he makes use of: The Rights of States, and Soveraigns, in Respect of one another. This Study is more positive than Reasoning, and it contains much more History which may make it pleasant.

Policy consists more in Reasoning, and should Ascend as high as to search after Principles. It considers not only how France and Germany ought to be Governed, according to the particular Form of their Constitution, and the Laws which are [Page] there Established: But it inquires in general, what is Civil Society, what Form of Constitution is the best, what are the best Laws, and the best means to preserve Quiet and Concord amongst Men. These general considerations, are very useful to give unto the Mind, Elevation and Extention, provided, that Application of them be made to particular Examples, not those of Athens or Lacedaemon, but of the Moderns, which affect us more, and instruct us better. The Advice which to me seems of greatest Importance in this Matter, is, That a young Prince, or other Child of more Inferiour Rank, be early shewn the difference betwixt true and false Policy; that he be Taught to abhor that, which only proposes to make the Prince, or the Body of Men which Governs, Powerful, at the Expence of all the rest of the People; which makes the Vertue of the Soveraign to consist, in maintaining, and increasing his Grandeur, leaving Justice, Faith, and Humanity to private Persons. That he be instructed, not much to relie upon the Artifices, by which his Neighbours may be weakened, in stirring up Enemies against them, or Exciting Divisions amongst them; nor the skill how to deceive his Subjects in making them believe the State to be stronger than it is. For the avoiding all these Evils, the greatest part of modern Politicians should be laid aside; especially, Machiavel, and the English Hobs. Let us return to Plato and Aristotle, whose Politicks are founded upon the solid Principles of Morality and Vertue. Their end is, not to Exalt one Man, or any number of Men, above others, but to make Men live as happily, [Page] as 'tis possible, in Society; to procure to all private Persons safety, the peaceable possession of their Goods, Health of Body, Liberty of Mind, Rectitude of Heart, and Justice. To confer all these benefits upon a whole Society, these Philosophers believed it was just, that some should be at the pains of watching continually over it; that they might make provision for all its necessities, defend it from outward Attacks, and preserve Peace within. These, if I mistake not, are the Principles of true Policy.

But to see it in its Purity, we must go higher than Plato and Aristotle: It must be Learn'd from Moses, David, Solomon, the Prophets, and the Apostles; or rather God himself, whose Interpreters they were. They will tell us, that all Men are Brethren; That the first States were only great Families; that every one ought to love the Country where he was Born, and the Society in which God had plac'd him: That it is just, that one Man should give his Life for the publick Safety; and that it is God alone, who hath appointed some Men to govern others: That the Person of the Prince is Sacred: That he is plac'd over the People to Defend them, and to render Justice unto them: That he cannot perform his Duty, if God do not give him Wisdom: And a great many such like Maxims; whereof a whole Body of Policy, taken from the Holy Scripture, might be Composed. Perhaps I have said but too much upon a Subject, which few Scholars have need of, and few Masters are capable to Teach.

[Page] XIV BEsides, the Studies necessary to Men ingenuously Bred,Languages, Latin, &c. there are others which are profitable for them; but yet, such as may be altogether omitted. First of all, Latin; for I have not at all supposed, that the Studies I have hitherto spoken of, should depend thereon; and what I have said of the helps which may be drawn from ancient Authors, for Oeconomicks, and skill in Law, ought to be understood, in Respect of those only, who, over and besides, shall have learn'd Latin, or Greek, or else shall Read the Translations.

But though Latin be not necessary, yet it is very useful for Religion, for Business, and for Studies. Since the Roman Church has not thought it convenient to change the Language of her Prayers and her Offices, no more than the Greek, and other Oriental Churches, it is to be wish'd that all Christians understood this Language; and that all, who have the convenience of Learning it, should not neglect it. Add to this, the satisfaction there must needs be, in being able to Read the Writing of so many Latin Fathers, and of understanding that version of Scripture, the use of which is Authorized by the Church. For Business, the greatest part of the Terms, which are used in speaking about it, are Latin, and drawn from the Roman Law; of which it is impossible to talk well, in another Language, as may appear by the Law Books of the Modern Greeks. Lastly, for all Studies, Men are so accustomed to use this Language, that it is become the common Language of Learned Men, over all Europe; that the greatest part of Modern Authors [Page] have used it; and that it is beneficial for the understanding all the Ancients.

I have spoken of the way of Learning it; and have Advised, That more regard be had to Use, than Precepts. I shall here add, That the Genius of every Language ought carefully to be observ'd to the Scholar; and that he should be accustomed never to Render Latin but by good French; nor French but by good Latin. It ought to be demonstrated to him, that one word cannot always be render'd by another of the same Species; as a Verb for a Verb; a Noun for a Noun; nor always one Word by one Word; because one Latin word often expresses a whole Phrase of the other. Men have many more Thoughts then they have invented different Sounds, wherewithal to express them: So that there is no Language, where we shall not fall short in some places. It is not therefore to Translate exactly, only to turn the words, if the Construction of the Language, whence we Translate them be Barbarous. 'Tis true, this way of Translating is more sure, as to the fidelity of it, and it gives the Reader the Pleasure of seeing, in the Translation, the Genius of the Original Language. Such is the Famous Version of the 70 Interpreters. It represents the Original, word for word, and always renders the same Hebrew words, by the same Greek words. There can be no Translation done with more exactness, and Religious care. The Respect for the Holy Text made them fearful to alter the Sense thereof by the least change. But ordinarily to Translate well, the same thought, and (as much as may be) the same Figure, and the same Strength of Expression, should be render'd [Page] according to the natural Mode of another Language: and when the Scholar misses this, he should be brought to see the Fault of his Translation. For example, Complaining of an Ungrateful Person, would you say, I have received little thanks for my favour to him? You should rather say, He hath ill requited the Obligation which he had to me. The Latin has this particular, in respect of us, that, seeing our Language is derived from it, we believe that the words signifie the same that they do from whence they proceed, though often it is not so. Table comes from Tabula, which signifies a Planck: Chamber from Camera, which signifies a Roof: fortis signifies valiant: and Valens, Strong.

He should also be shewn, That 'tis an Error to think, that the Latin, or any Dead Language can be perfectly Learnt. We can know no more of it, than is Written, and we cannot understand all of it that is Written. How many Words are there in Cato, and in other Authors, who Treat of Rustick Affairs, which no Man now understands? How many sorts of Vulgar, and Trivial things are there, which never were Writ in Latin? Even in the Discourses, which we think we understand best, there are certain Elegancies which we cannot Relish;Gell. Lib. 1. c. 7. 13. c. 19. as those which Aulus Gellius observes, in some places of Cicero and Virgil. And if it be almost impossible to Learn, even the Living Languages (which are not Natural to us) in the utmost Perfection; What can be hoped, as to those which subsist onely in Books? But our Comfort is, that it would be useless to know them better. We have no need of Latin, but for understanding [Page] Books, or for making our selves understood by Strangers. As to Books, we can understand no more than is Written: and to make our selves understood by Strangers, we should Speak Latin much after the same rate that they do. Nevertheless, I would not Imitate the Germans and Polanders, who make no Scruple of using the baldest Latin, provided that they speak it easily. But yet I would more carefully avoid the Affectation of some Learned Men, who, striving to speak Latin very finely,Vid. Gell. l. 1. c. 10. are hard to be understood. I should rather chuse to speak worse, and be better understood. I would then Accommodate my Style to the capacity of the Generality of the Learned; without neglecting it so, that it should be Barbarous, or taking such pains about it, that it should be obscure. Above all, I would have the Character of Books observed; and not have the Jests, or Proverbs, which Plautus makes his Slaves speak, put into a Treatise of Divinity, or any other serious Matter; nor into a Familiar Letter, Poetical Phrases, and Lofty Figures, taken out of Cicero's Philippicks. These Advices are necessary, since the vanity of some of our Modern Learned Men has given occasion for them, in respect of all these Indecencies. They often also mix Greek Words in their Latin Writings; wherein, in my opinion, they do themselves no great honour; since this is silently to confess, that they know not how to express in Latin that which they say in Greek: for he cannot be said to know a Language well, who knows not therein how to express what he will; at least by a Circumlocution; besides, thus to interrupt the Discourse by Words, which make the Readers lose what follows, is to insult over [Page] them, if they know not Greek. But if I should be necessitated to insert a Greek, or an Hebrew, or any word of another Language into a Latin Discourse, I should always Write it in Latin Letters, that I might not puzle my Reader.

XIV THE Second of these Useful Studies, History. is History. But seeing it is difficult for one Man to Read all those we have, of all Times, and all Countries; and it is not convenient that many Persons should wholly imploy themselves in this sort of Reading, there is need of Choice and Order in this, as much, or more, than in any other Study. He who, as is usual, shall think it enough to Read, at a venture, the first Book of History which shall come to his hands, will be in danger of charging his Memory with a great many Fables, or of retaining nothing for want of Understanding that which he Reads, Some Principles therefore should be given to young Men, for discerning what Histories will be useful to them, and how they may Read them Profitably. But to doe this well, the Foundations of this Study should be laid from their Infancy. For though Novelty be a great Charm in History, yet nothing is more ungrateful, than to find nothing therein but what is New; to see therein nothing that you know, not so much as one Place, or one Person. The History of China is full of great Occurrencies, and rare Examples of Vertue; yet because we never have heard any thing of Jao, nor of Chimtamyou; and even the latest Geography of this great Country, is not at all familiar to us; This History (at the first especially) is very tedious to us. The Memory is continually in Labour. When [Page] we find a proper Name, we know not whether we have already seen it or no; or, we remember that we have seen it, but we have forgotten what it is; or take a Country for a Man, or a Man for a Woman; we see not the Interest which one had to Love or Hate another. In short, the Mind is opprest with so many Novelties, all at once▪ that it is in continual pain. On the contrary, when a Man who has studied but a little, Reads Herodotus, or Titus Livius, he meets every where with what he knows; the greatest Objects are familiar to him. He has, all his Life long, heard Men talk of Cyrus, of Croesus, of Rome and Carthage. But he sees a great many particulars which he had no knowledge of; and 'tis this knowledge which makes his Reading pleasant to him, because he knows whither to refer what he Learns, and because he labours not to understand or retain the Principal matters. The trouble is much more to them who have no Learning at all; accordingly they complain, for the most part, of their ill Memory. But they ought rather to complain of their ill Education; which makes the Greek or Roman History almost as troublesom to them, as that of the Chinese, or Musul-men is to those, who have gon through the more ordinary Studies. Yet there is here a great difference; for there are few among us who have not heard of Alexander, Caesar and Charlemaign; But who, except some few who are curious, knows any thing of Almamon, or Ginguiscan?

We cannot begin too soon to Teach Children the Principles of History. At the same time, when we Acquaint them with the Matters of Fact, which serve as a Foundation to the Instructions concerning [Page] Religion; we should also relate unto them, those which are the most considerable, surprising, pleasant, and easie to be remembred in Prophane History. Those rather than others should be chosen, which strike the Imagination. Romulus's Wolf; The Death of Lucretia; The Sacking of Rome by the Gauls; The Triumph of Pompey, or that of Paulus Aemylius; The Death of Caesar. And if they could have a Sight of Medals, Statues, or Pictures, the Images of them would be more lively, and be imprinted deeper in the Memory. This doubtless, is the greatest use of Painting and Engraving; and it was a great advantage to the Ancient Greeks, that they might Learn History even without Reading, only by walking about in their Cities. For wheresoever they turn'd their Eyes, they found either Imbossed Works, or Excellent Pictures in their Temples, in their Publick Halls, which Represented Battels, and other Famous Events; or the Statues of Illustrious Men, whose Countenances resembled the Originals, and whose Habit and Posture denoted what was the occasion of their Advancement. Even in the Countrey it self there were to be seen, Trophies, Tombs and Pyramids, which were as so many Monuments of History.

Great care also there should be to acquaint children with a great many proper Names of Men and Places; that they might soon be familiar to them, and excite their Curiosity. Especially I would mention those to them which make the greatest Figure in the History of the World, Sesostris, Ninus, Nabucodonosor, Cyrus, Hercules, Achilles, Homer, Lycurgus; and the Romans proportionably. But I would joyn thereto the Names of Modern [Page] History; which yet are usually much less spoken of to Children: William the Conquerour, Godfrey of Boüillon, Sancho the Great King of Navarre; and all the other who have been most Famous these Six hundred years. Neither would I altogether omit even the Orientals; I would have a Child to have heard some talk of the Cailiffs of Bagdad and Cairo; of the great Power of the Turks, and that of the Moguls: their Names would not appear to them so Barbarous afterwards, if they were accustomed to them betimes. They should also make use of Geographical Maps, for the Names of Places, which also they might learn according to the difference of all Times, and all Languages, as far as may be. In the beginning of these Instructions, I would not confine my self to any order of Dates, or Chronology, but follow the Curiosity of Children, as occasion should be given, to recount to them all these Names and Actions.

The Matter of History being thus prepared, I would begin to put it into order, as soon as my Scholar should be Ten or Twelve years old. I would then make him observe the Epochs, which are used in the reckoning of time. The Olympiades, the Foundation of Rome, Alexander, the Incarnation, the Mahometan Hegira. But I would not Embarass him with an Exact Chronology, nor oblige him to Retain the meer Simple Dates: for this requires a great Effort of Memory. I would also carefully abstain from speaking to him of the Julian Period; and I would not use even the years of the Creation of the World: for 'tis very Difficult, not to say Impossible, to fix them; and besides, they are not of great Use, [Page] since to the Times of the Foundation of Rome, and the Olympiades (which are the same almost) there scarce is any History but the Sacred: The Succession of which, I should be satisfied if he knew well, according to the ordinary Epochs, of the Flood, of Abraham, Moses and Solomon, without concerning himself much about the Total Sum of Years, which cannot, without much difficulty, be drawn into a Sum And unto those Persons, and Occurrencies which are most known to us, I would have him to refer that little of Prophane History, which there is in these times: Danaus and Cecrops to Moses, Cadmus to Joshua, Homer to the Prophet Elias; leaving the Care of Computing the years of the World to those, who have Leisure and Curiosity to Study Chronology more profoundly.

Moreover, I would often Repeat unto him certain General Observations, which render the Study of History more short, more easie, and more useful. You must know (would I say to him) that we have not the Histories of all Times, nor of all Countries. There have always been a great many ignorant Nations; and of those who have Written, there are very few whose Books we know. All the Histories of the Ancient Orientals, of the Egyptians, Syrians, Chaldeans and Persians, are perished; and the most Ancient which we have, except that of God's People, is the History of Herodotus: which was not Written till about Two thousand years after the Flood, and Twelve hundred after Moses. To the Time of JESƲS CHRIST we have scarce any Books but those of the Greeks and Romans, wherein are Recorded any Histories (which are certain, and [Page] worthy of Belief) more Ancient than the Foundation of Rome. For Five hundred years after JESƲS CHRIST, you have onely one History to follow, which is the Roman. But after the Ruin of the Western Empire, Spain, France, Italy and England Composed each of them their particular History: To which must be added those of Germany, Hungary, Poland, Sweedland and Denmark, proportionably according to the time when they began. Nevertheless all these Histories may be referr'd to that of France, because the Empire of Charlemaign Comprehended the Greatest part of these Countries; and in others, he was so Respected, that the People accounted it their honour to imitate the Manners of his Subjects: Whence it is, that the Levantines comprise all the Nations I have mentioned under the Name of Franks. This is the Succession of the History which is most known to us; except you will add thereunto the Byzantine History, which we have for Two hundred years. As for that of the Musulmen, which contains all that hath passed for a Thousand years in Egypt, Syria, Persia, Africa, and all the other Countries, where the Mahometan Religion is spread, we are ignorant of it to this day.

The Reason of this is not, as is commonly believed, because the Mahometans have Written nothing, or because their Books are lost: for there is as much of their History alone as would make a whole Library; but their Books are neither Printed, nor Translated, excepting two or three, which go about in the hands of the Curious. We know also, that the Chinese have a Long Succession of History, whereof we have [Page] had in Latin an Abridgment about Thirty years since. We know that the Indians have very Ancient Traditions, Written in a particular Language. We know something of the History of Mexico, and the Incaes, which yet doth not rise very high; And within these Two hundred years we have had an infinite number of Relations of several Voyages. This is all that we know of Histories. We see how little it is, in comparison with the whole Compass of the Earth, and all Successions of Ages; yet nevertheless, as little as it is, 'tis too much for one single Man: So that it is in this Study especially, we should chuse carefully, and limit our selves.

First we ought to know what to hold to, as to the beginnings of each History, that we may not give credit to Fables, which affect to advance too high. The surest Rule is, to look upon all that as Suspicious which precedes the time, when each Nation received the use of Letters. Besides, the Quality, and the Times of the Historians should be diligently observ'd. It may be said in general, that no Histories deserve credit, but of those who have Written of their own Times; or of those who have Collected out of such Historians; whose Books, by a Successive Tradition, may have been delivered down to us. But when there are Interruptions in an History, and large obscure Vacuities, all that went before ought to be suspected. I should content my self with this Order, and these General Rules for Universal History, and oblige my Scholar, to have a more special insight into the particular History of his own Country.

[Page] Furthermore, This Study should be very differently extended, or contracted, according to the Quality of Persons. A Man of indifferent condition needs but a very little History: He, who is likely to have some share in Publick Affairs, should know a great deal more thereof; and a Prince cannot know too much. The History of his own Country makes him see his own Affairs, and, as it were, the Titles of his House; and that of Foreign Countries nearest to him; teaches him the Concerns of his Neighbours, which are always mixed with his own. Nevertheless, since there are a great many other things to be known, and the capacity of a Man's Mind is limited; He ought chiefly to Study the History of his own Country, and House; and to have a more particular Knowledge of that, which is nearest to his own Time. I would have every Lord proportionably to know well the History of his own Family; and every private person that of his own Shire and Town, better than those of others.

The Book of Genesis is a perfect Model of the Choice which every one should make in the Study of History. Moses has therein Comprised all the things which it was useful for the Israelites to know; chiefly dilating upon those which are of greatest Importance: as the Creation, the Sin of the First Man, the Deluge, the History of the Patriarchs,Gen. 10. 1. unto whom God had made the Promises, which he was about to fulfil. He doth not omit to observe the Origin of all Nations; and to speak more or less of their History, as they had more or less Relation to the People for whom he Wrote. But if you would have an [Page] Abridgment only for the refreshing of your Memory, you have an Example thereof in the First Chapter of the Chronicles; where the Names alone plac'd successively, recalls all the History of Genesis. It is nevertheless to be wisht, though it is not absolutely necessary, that all who have leisure, do Read the Principal Histories of the Greeks and Romans. They are profitable both for Morality and Eloquence. For, bringing to the Reading of them that Corrective which I have Prescrib'd, the Examples of the great Actions, and good Conduct of the Ancients, may be very useful; And the manner after which the Historians Writ, may be of great advantage to us, both as to the Method, and to the Style, if we know how to imitate them. So that a Man should as well exercise himself in the Latin Tongue, by Reading the Historians as other Authors; since without Reading much he cannot Learn it.

XV AFter the History of the Manners and Actions of Men,Natural History. the most useful Study, in my opinion, is Natural History. I comprehend under this Name, all that Knowledge which is Positive, and founded upon that Experience, which respects the Construction of the Universe, and of all its parts: as far as is needful for one, who is not to be an Astronomer, Physician, or Naturalist by Profession. For no Man, surely, should be altogether ignorant of this World which we inhabit, of these Plants, and these Animals which nourish us; of that which we are our selves. I know very well, that the Knowledge of our Selves is the most necessary of all. But this is the Knowledge of the Soul, which I referr to [Page] Logick, and Morality. As for the Body, since we govern it much less by Knowledge, than by a blind Instinct, attended with Motions, which depend upon us, yet without our Knowledge of the Springs and Machines, which are the immediate Causes of them, the particular Knowledge of its Structure is scarce of any use to us, but for the admiring its Author; who is not less admirable in other Animals, and other parts of Nature. It's true, we should be affected more with that which we find in our selves. Moreover, the Knowledge of the Body is very useful for understanding the Passions, their Causes, and their Cures, which is a great part of Morality; and for discerning what is proper for the preservation of Health, from that which is destructive thereof; which is one of the Studies which I have plac'd amongst the most necessary.

This Natural History therefore should Comprise Cosmography, and Anatomy. By Cosmography, I understand the System of the World, the Disposition of the Stars, their Distances, their Magnitudes, their Motions; according to the late observations of the most exact Astronomers; depending upon them as skilful Persons, who deserve to be credited, without examining their Proofs. Herein also I comprehend the Meteors, not labouring to search out the Causes of them, but only to know the Matters of Fact: The Description of the Earth, not so much of its Surface, which relates to Geography (and is referr'd to the Moral History) as its Depth, and the different Bodies, which it contains. At first sight, it seems, as if this Knowledge was no more than pure Curiosity; but, in truth, it is [Page] very useful for raising the Mind, and inlarging it; for furnishing us with true Ideas of the Infinite Wisdom, and Almighty Power of God, of our own weakness, and the littleness of all Humane things. Under the Name of Anatomy I comprise that of Plants, as well as that of Animals, without lanching into Curiosities, which has no bounds. I would have my Scholar to know well the Animals of his own Country, the most famous of other Countries, and the Plants which are most used: That he should know how to distinguish the principal parts of a Plant, and an Animal; That he should see how these Living Bodies are nourished, and preserved; but particularly, That he should be acquainted with the Admirable Structure of those Springs, which make Animals to move: I mean that of them which is felt with the Finger, the Bones and the Muscles. This Study, if he have Leisure and a Genius, may be extended to the Knowledge of those Arts, wherein are employ'd the most Ingenuous Machines; or which produce the most considerable changes in Natural Bodies; as Chymistry, the Melting of Metals, making Glass, Tanning and Dying.

XVI INto the number of those Studies which are useful to all Students,Geometry. I also put Geometry: In truth, it doth not onely contain the Principles of several very useful Arts, as Mechanicks, Surveying, Trigonometry, Gnomonicks, Architecture wholly, (especially Fortification, of such great use at this day) but also it forms the Mind in general, and strengthens the Reason extreamly. It accustoms Men, not to content themselves with [Page] appearances; to seek after Solid Proofs; and not to stop, as long as there is the least ground for doubting: and by this means to discern Convincing and Demonstrative Reasons from meer Probabilities. It would nevertheless be dangerous, if not directed by such a Logick as I have reckoned amongst the number of necessary Studies. For 'tis this Logick, which lays down the Great Rules of Evidence, of Certainty and Demonstration: and bids us not believe, that none but sensible and imaginable things, as the objects of Geometry are, can be clearly known: That there are no certain Reasonings, but those concerning the Relations of Angles, and Lines, or the proportions of Numbers: That we ought, in all matters, to expect the same kind of Certainty. But when these Distinctions and General Rules are laid down by a good Logick, Geometry opens a great Field of Exercise for Defining, Dividing, and Reasoning.

XVII TOwards the end of the Young Man's Studies, when he is about the Age of Fourteen or Fifteen,Rhetorick. or later (as his Understanding and Leisure will permit) the more solid Rules of true Eloquence may be made known unto him. I do not propose this Study as necessary, because one may be a good Man, and also expert to such a degree, without being Eloquent; as also because Eloquence depends, at least as much upon Nature as Study. It must, nevertheless, be confest, that it is of great use; and that ordinarily it makes the most important and difficult Affairs to succeed well. For here by Eloquence or Rhetorick I do not understand, what is generally [Page] understood thereby, by abusing a word, which Pedants and Declamers have brought into disrepute. I do not, I say, understand that, which enables Men to make Ceremonious Harangues, and other such-like Studied Discourses, which tickle the Ear for the present, but usually do nothing but raise Disturbances. I understand hereby the Art of perswading effectually, whether a Man speaks in Private, or in Publick. I mean that, which makes one Advocate to carry more Causes than another; one Preacher, Humanly speaking, to Convert more Souls; one Magistrate to have a greater sway in the Debates of his Company; one Agent to make a more advantageous Treaty for his Prince; one Minister of State to Govern more in his Counsels than another. In a word, That which makes a Man become Master of other Men's Minds, by Speech. I know well, that they who succeed in the greatest Affairs, have more of natural Parts, and Experience, than Study; but I doubt not, but that Study would be very useful to them. They would have never the less of those fine natural accomplishments, and that great Experience: And yet, over and besides, they would have some more certain Rules, and the Examples of the greatest Men of Antiquity. A Prince, or Minister of State, who should be so well Educated, as to be, from his Youth, well acquainted with Cicero, Demosthenes, and Thucydides, would find great pleasure in Reading them over again when he comes to the Age of Maturity, and receive great benefit from them. But these Authors usually become useless, and are despised for want of fit Readers. They are Read to Children, who [Page] would not understand, even in French, such-like Discourses, for want of Experience in the World, and attention unto Matters of Moment. Or if they be Read by Men, they are the Learned by Profession, as Regents, Priests, and Religious, who are Sequestered from the World, and are fill'd with Ideas, quite different from those, which imploy'd the Thoughts of these Authours. Cicero and Demosthenes were Men brought up in the World, and in Business: They Rose by their Merit much above their Birth (which yet was honest, according to the Custom of their Nation) and they arrived to the greatest Power they could have in their Commonwealths. Cicero was Consul, that is, for the space of a Year, he was at the Head of an Empire, as large as Twelve such as any we now see in Europe. He Governed a Province, he Commanded Troops, he was equal in Dignity, to Caesar and Pompey, Kings Courted him. Yet because we have read these Authors at School, we often retain a very unbecoming Idea of them; because we know that they Pleaded Causes, we take them for such Advocates as Ours are;Sueton in Jul. 55. and do not consider that Caesar Pleaded also, and might have disputed Eloquence with Cicero himself. Besides, we see many who Study them all their Lives, without becoming thereby more fit for the World and Business; and we do not Reflect, that these Persons seek for nothing in them but Language, and Figures of Rhetorick, which they often imitate very wretchedly; they seek nothing less in them, than the way of managing great Affairs.

The more things the Scholar shall know, and the more his Reason shall be Form'd, the [Page] more capable he will be of this Study of Eloquence. For it only gives the Form to Discourses; good Sense, and Experience must furnish the Matter. I should therefore wait till the young Man should have Thoughts, and be able to say something of himself, before I would Teach him the Way and Manner of speaking. First, I would secure Morality, and give him to understand as soon as he should be capable; that Eloquence is a good accomplishment, being only the perfection of Speech: That, as Speech is given Us, only that we may speak the Truth, Eloquence is given to make this Truth esteemed, and to hinder it from being stifled by the ill Artifices of those who oppose it,Vid. Plat. Gorg. or the bad Disposition of them who hear it: That it is to abuse Eloquence, to make it serve Interests and Passions; though Cicero and the greatest part of Orators have made this use of it: That its regular use is to perswade Men to that which is truly good, and especially, that which may make them better;August. Doct. Christian. L. III. c. 2, 5, &c. Painting out to them, the horrour of Vice, and Beauty of Vertue in lively Colours; as the Prophets and the Fathers of the Church have done. This is what I call the Morality of Eloquence.

The Art consists in knowing how to Speak and Write well, upon all occasions of Life; not only in publick Actions, as those Harangues, which are made only to comply with some certain Formalities; but in the more ordinary Debates about Business, and in simple Conversations, in knowing how to give a relation of any Matter, to Write a Letter: All this is Matter of Eloquence, proportionably as the Subject requires it.

[Page] To shew him the Secret of it, I would Principally use Examples and Exercise. The Examples might be taken out of Cicero, or Demosthenes, according as the Scholar should be acquainted with these Languages. If he knew no Latin, the Translations of Cicero might be recommended to him, or some good Modern Book, as the Cardinal D' Ossat's Letters, which are full of solid Eloquence, by which he had Success in Business. These Examples would give substance and pleasure to the Precepts: For naked Precepts, given in general, would always be Dry and Barren; Doct. Christian. L. c. 3. and as St. Augustin says, one of good natural parts would acquire Eloquence, rather by hearing Eloquent Discourses, than by Studying Precepts of Eloquence. He will thus gain by all sorts of Reading: He will every where find Examples of that which he ought to follow, and avoid; and this Exercise would settle his Judgment: For he must be accustomed to Judge of what he Reads, to give a Reason, why he thinks it good or bad. These Reasons make up the whole Art of Rhetorick, Aristot. Rhetor. L. 1. initio. which has been Form'd upon Examples, by observing what did effectually perswade, and what was prejudicial to Perswasion, and making Rules thereupon; to the end, that they might not talk meerly at a venture, but by Rule and Discretion: Not only Reading, but Conversations, and the most common Discourses of Life, are good Lessons of Eloquence. These living and familiar Examples, might render it more solid and real, than Books, and all that which smells of the School can. It is therefore, adviseable, to learn a young Man, how to make advantage of it, and to Study all the Art of Discourse, [Page] after this natural way. Make him observe the Addresses, which the grossest sort of People use to make their Interests take effect; with what force the Passions make them speak, and what variety of Figures they furnish: How the Voice, the Gesture and all the outward Demeanour, is fitted to the motion of him who speaks. These Examples are stronger in them, who are exercised in Business, than in others; in the City, than in the Country; at the Court, than in the City; and Figures are more lively in Women, than in Men.

The other means of Teaching this Art, which is Exercise, should consist, not only in Writing, but in Speaking. I would have this Exercise always to be perform'd in French, how well soever the Scholar might know Latin. 'Tis sufficient that he be busied in Learning to speak well, without applying himself also to a Language which is not natural unto him. 'Tis to be fear'd, that he would force his Thoughts, for want of knowing how to express them true enough, or least he should lose some fine Period in Cicero: If he should treat of any ancient Subject, he probably, will Transcribe (without understanding them) the Phrases of those Authors he has Read: And if the Subject be Modern, he will be puzled to speak of it in Latin. For being accustomed to speak only to Greeks or Romans, he'll be altogether at a loss, when he must speak to Men, wearing Hats and Periwigs; and is to treat of the Interests of France and Germany, where there is neither Tribune to Plead before, nor Solemn Popular Assemblies, nor Consuls. Let him Write therefore, in his own Language; first of all, Narrations, Letters, and other easie Compositions. [Page] Afterwards, let him make some Elogy of a Great Man, some common place of Morality; but such as is solid, without Jargon, Galamafries, and False Thoughts: Let him express his real Thoughts seriously. Lastly, when he shall have made some Progress, let him Write whole Discourses; as Dissertations upon the Histories he shall have Read, and upon the Subjects he shall know the best; that he may, as far as he shall be able, bring together all the circumstantial Proofs of the Matter, avoiding wandering, and general Discourses. These Written Compositions do accustom Youth to attend, to fix their Thoughts, to chuse the Best, and put them into Order; to make Periods, and in them, to observe the Turn, and measure, which please the Ear: In a word, to speak exactly. The Exercise of speaking, will accustom them to hold on a continued Discourse, without being at a loss, without Hesitating, or Correcting themselves, to be bold and attentive. Now by this Exercise of Speaking, I do not understand so much that which is called Declaiming (which, at most, is useful, only to those who, in time, are to speak in publick) as those Discourses which are familiar, coherent and maintained by those, who speak well of Business, or relate an History well in Conversation. This is that which I call Rhetorick.

XIX BUt if your Scholar be one of an extraordinary Genius,Poetry. you may carry him on to Poetry, which is, in Truth, but a more sublime sort of Eloquence. I do not think, that this Art should be Taught to many; seeing it is better there should be no wretched Poets, than 'tis necessary [Page] there should be any Poets at all. For Versification ought not to be accounted Poetry, nor should we look upon Poetry only as a Diversion, judging of it according to Modern Examples. To see the true Character of it, we should go as high as Sophocles and Homer: In them we shall see Poetry very grave and pleasant both together, fit to form the Judgment for the Conduct of Life, and full of Instructions, very necessary to those for whom they were made; that is to say, of their Religion, and History of their Country. We may see the same thing in Pindar, and the other Greek Poets. The Latins have only imitated them: It is true, that Homer and Pindar, who so well understood this Art, have used it in fomenting Idolatry, and making themselves pass (by a wicked sort of imposture) for inspired Men and Prophets; not to speak of the imperfection of their Morality: So that to find true Poetry established upon a solid Foundation, wherein we may securely taste all the pleasure the Tongues of Men can give it, we must go to the Songs of Moses and David, and other true Prophets. 'Tis there we should take the true Idea of Poetry.

It consists in my Opinion, in giving to the most necessary Truths, a pleasant and affecting Relish, for the forming of Men's Lives, and rendering them happy; and in imploying for this noble end, all that is most forceable, lofty, and sparkling in the Mind of Man; all that is most Expressive and Elegant in Speech, all that is most Harmonious, and Passionate in the sound of the Voice. This therefore cannot be the sport of Children; it is miserably to abuse those Excellent Talents which God hath given us, to imploy them [Page] in wicked or useless Subjects. We should rather Labour to reconcile the lively imagination with good Sense, and with Vertue.

There will be no great need of giving many Rules of Poetry, to one, who already knows those of Eloquence: To such an one, scarce any thing more need to be given, but some exceptions; thereby observing how high Poetry may rise, and what it cuts off from ordinary Discourses. The most necessary thing, would be to shew the different Characters of the several pieces of Poetry: As what is an Ode, what an Hymn, an Elegy, an Eclogue, and so of others; describing them according to the Model of the Ancients, principally the Greeks; and shewing how we may imitate them. As for the Rules of Versifying, this is a business but of a few Lessons; Exercise alone will make it easie. I do not here speak of Latin Verses; if any of them be made, it should be, rather as an Exercise of Grammar, for knowing the quantity, and having choice of Words for Composing: And yet, I know not, whether this Profit would balance the Trouble, which the Scholar would find in Learning to make these Latin Verses. But they, who would pretend to Poetry should Exercise themselves in their own Language, and Write for their own Nation. To conclude, I will not say, that Poetry is an useless knowledge to all those who are not Born Poets, or do not intend to Exercise this Talent. 'Tis fit, that the greatest part of well-bred Men should be able to judge of Poetry, by true Principles; and to this purpose, that they should know the Characters of the several Compositions, and the Examples of the Ancients. But I [Page] cannot perswade my self to put this Study into the number of those which are the most useful, of which I have already spoken. I only place it in the Rank of laudable Curiosities, which I am now about to enumerate.

XX AS the first therefore of these Curiosities I reckon Poetry in Theory, Curious Studies. and the Reading of the ancient Poets. Not but that a Man, if he knows them well, may profit thereby, especially by the Greeks: But to read them with pleasure, a Man should so well know their Language, their Mythology and their Manners; [...] that the profit or the pleasure which would come thereby, seems to me not worth all this Toil: considering, that there are so many things besides, that are necessary to be known. To Poetry, I joyn Musick: I do not mean only the Exercise of Singing, and the Rules for Managing the Voice, but the Art and Principles of these Rules. With these also I joyn Painting, Designing, and all the Arts which depend thereon. I put also, amongst the number of Curious Studies, all those parts of Mathematicks, which go beyond the Elements of Arithmetick and Geometry. Herein I count Perspective, Opticks, Astronomy, the Theory of the Planets: Exactness in Chronology: The inquiry after Antiquities, as Medals and Inscriptions: The Reading of Travels: The Study of Languages: For, excepting Latin, the rest may be Rank'd amongst the Curiosities.

Not but that the Greek may be very useful to all, who desire to be well skill'd in Philology, principally to Clergy-men. The Italian, and the Spanish are so nearly Ally'd to the French; that, [Page] as little as our Genius lies towards Languages, we ought not to neglect them. As for other strange Languages, as the English and German; there is nothing but particular profit which can countervail the difficulty of Learning them. But the most dangerous Curiosity of this kind, is that of the Oriental Languages. It Flatters our Vanity, as being singular, and having something prodigious in it. Besides it denotes a profound Learning, because these Languages are not ordinarily Learn'd, but after those which are more common. But in Truth, its usefulness is not so great as to pay for the time and trouble which it costs. As whole Nations reap Advantage from the Courage and Curiosity of some few Travellers, who have discovered the most remote Countries; and from the industry of the Merchants who daily Trafick therein: So 'tis sufficient, that some few of the Curious, by their Translations and Extracts, should let us know the Books of the Arabians, Persians, and other Orientals. Curiosity goes much beyond the extent of the Memory, or even of Life it self; and amongst the Curious themselves, it is to be wish'd, that each of them would limit himself to one Language, that he might know it well; or, at most to two or three, which have a great Connexion betwixt one another; rather than to have an imperfect Knowledge of a great number of them.

I except the Hebrew Language, in respect to the Holy Scripture, which 'tis hard well to understand, without having some Tincture thereof: And I account it very advantageous to the Church, that there are always several Clergy-men, who understand it; if it was for no other Reason but to silence the Hereticks, who think to Fortifie [Page] themselves thereby, and to Labour in the Conversion of the Jews, in those Countries where they are. But, excepting the necessity of this Controversie, I would not oblige my self to Read many Rabbins. There is more to be lost than gotten by this Study. Let us not suffer our selves to be deceived by the Vanity, of knowing that, which all others are ignorant of; let us consider what use it is really of. If there should be any thing useful in the Rabbins, it would be the Matters of Fact, and Traditions of their ancient Customs of their Nation: But they are, for the most part so Modern, that 'tis very difficult to believe, that they have preserved these Traditions. There are scarce any of them older than Five Hundred Years; so that though the Talmud should have been Written but a Thousand Years ago, there would still be Five Hundred Years, wherein these Traditions must have been preserved without Writing: A thing which is scarce probable. The Time and the Style of their Books, seem to shew that they Writ only in Emulation of the Mahometans. Nevertheless, if any one have so much inclination for this kind of Study, as to give himself wholly up to it; I would have him to confine himself chiefly to the Talmud, where he will doubtless find their most ancient and profitable Traditions, for the knowledge of the Manners of the Jews; principally after their return out of Captivity, to their intire dispersion under the Romans. But this Labour is too painful, and unpleasant to invite many Men to undertake it.

Another Curious Study, which yet may be very useful, is the Theory of the different Trades [Page] and Manufactures. In this Rank also, I place the Knowledge of Plants, not only such as are useful, but of all that has been said of them, and likewise of Animals, and all natural History, proportionably: The Experiments of Chymistry, or of other Arts, whereby new Secrets have been discovered: The different Systems which the Philosophers have invented, for the Explaining the effects of Nature: That is to say, in a word, all Physicks, or natural Philosophy. I call all this Curiosity: It is better to be busied therein, than to be Idle, or devote ones self to Play: But a Man ought to be very cautious on the other Hand, that he doth not so deliver himself up to Curiosities, as to quit the Essential Duties of Life; as to neglect Business and more useful Studies, though less pleasant; as to deprive himself of Bodily Exercise, which preserves his Health, or of necessary Diversion for unbending the Mind, and putting it into a condition of applying it self to more useful things. It is this Passion of Curiosity, which doth most harm to Learned Men; though otherwise it often conduces to the carrying on certain pieces of Knowledge, very far. But for this end, 'tis sufficient, that some private Men suffer themselves to be Transported with this Passion.

XXI I Put a great deal of difference betwixt those Curiosities which are laudable and good in themselves,Ʋseless Studies. and those Studies which are bad, or altogether useless. I had rather a Man should do nothing, than seek after the Philosopher's Stone: I had rather he should be ignorant, than know the great, or the little Art of Raymund [Page]Lully; which makes a Man to know nothing truly, and yet to believe that he knows every thing, because he knows the Alphabets, and Tables, wherein, under certain Words, and Figures, are placed Notions, so general, which none can be ignorant of, even without Study; and which also lead to nothing. In this Rank likewise, I place every thing that deceives, under the Name of Philosophy: The Physicks which give a Man no knowledge of Nature: The Metaphysicks, which doth not at all conduce to the inlightening the Mind, and do not lay down the great and Fundamental Principles of the Sciences.

Judiciary Astrology is still more despicable than bad Philosophy, seeing it has less appearance of Reason: And it is much more dangerous, because its Design is to know what is to come; and engages Men, who give credit to it, to guide their Lives by deceitful Lights; notwithstanding the express Prohibitions of the Law of God,Deut. xviii. 11. which condemns, in general, all sorts of Divination, and particularly, the fear of the Signs of Heaven.Jer. x. 2. Nevertheless, there are but too many, who suffer themselves to be bewitch'd with it; and perhaps the Prohibition contributes thereunto: For they are not Men of the best Understanding, nor the Honestest, who amuse themselves therewith. 'Tis true, it is not Criminal, when 'tis restrain'd to the Prediction of the Changes of Weather, and all that depends upon the motion of Matter: But even in this, 'tis false, and impertinent; since it Reasons upon fanciful Principles, and which have no Foundation in Reason, or Experience; nor any Connexion [Page] with the Consequences drawn from them. Of this kind also, is Chiromancy, which foretells, I know not what, by the Lines within the Hand; and I do not understand, why as great Mysteries may not be discovered by those of the Foot; unless it be only because they cannot be so conveniently look'd upon.

These are the Reliques of ancient Superstitions; for all the Divination of the Heathens was of this Nature. They observed the divers Motions of the Flame ascending upon the Altar; which they called Pyromantie: They considered the Conformation and Situation of the Extrails of their Sacrifices; and this was the Art of their Aruspices: The Augurs observed the flying of Birds, their Singing, their manner of Eating: Other Deviners made their Predictions from Prodigies; whether they were really so in Nature; or whether they made those appearances to be esteemed as such, which had nothing in them extraordinary; for Superstition made Men fearful of every thing. If one had met a Black Dog, or found a Serpent, or if his Stockings were wrong put on, and a Thousand other Accidents, to which we should scarce believe they had any regard, if the Books of the Ancients did not shew the Truth of these things;Theophrast. Charact. Superst. Terent. Phorm. Act. IV. sc. 5. and if we did not still see some Reliques of them. There were some who Explained Dreams; others, who distinguished Lucky and Unlucky Days. And abundance of People Lived upon this Trade of Divining; there were an infinite number of Books about it; it was a very long and difficult Study. For since it was Founded only upon the Opinion of Men, and upon pretended Experiences; it could [Page] have nothing certain. And this Art of Divination was supported, as other parts of Idolatry, by the respect Men had for Antiquity; for it was very ancient in the World. The Romans and the Greeks had it from the Egyptians, Chaldeans, and other Orientals; and it was Authorized by Religion. Christianity had brought it altogether into contempt; but the Mahometans, and the Jews, have, with great diligence, Collected all that remained of it, both in Books, and in the Memories of Men. They are, at this Day, still much addicted to it, and the Indian Idolaters much more. Amongst Christian Nations, those give most Credit to these Impostures, who are the least improved in good Learning, for nothing is so proper to disabuse them herein, as the Study of natural Philosophy, and true Astronomy.

Amongst pernicious Studies we may further reckon all that which is called Magick, even that which is termed Natural; which is made to consist in Sympathies, and Relations, betwixt certain Numbers, and Figures, and natural Bodies; betwixt the Stars and Metals, or Plants, or the Parts of Human Bodies: In a word, in all the Rêveries of the Cabbala. I account it also unworthy of a Well-bred Man to learn the tricks of Leger-de-Main, or to perform all those Feats of Activity, which make Mountebanks so much admired. To do them well, a Man must be very much Exercised in them; and the Pleasure which may be taken in them, can never countervail the Time spent in Learning them. I should say the same of all Sedentary Games, which require so much Attention, that after having play'd a while, the Head is discomposed therewith: For those, methinks, [Page] are strange kind of Divertisements, which make those who use them, to stand in need of being diverted afterwards. The Glory of Playing well at Chess, is not, in my Opinion, worth the pains; which being well imployed, might acquire some solid knowledge, and if they, who have Parts and Leisure, would bestow upon some kind of Study, which they like, some of that great deal of time, which must be thrown away upon Games, to know them perfectly, they would receive more benefit, and probably, no less Pleasure also. The ancient Greeks and Romans, lived pleasantly, though they played much less, and allowed more time to Conversation, and Reading. But Custom has prevailed, and Men now Game for Interest, rather than Pleasure.

XXII HAving run through all the Studies, which we should apply our selves unto in the time of Youth,The order of Studies according to several Ages. before we be determined unto any Profession; I think it necessary to observe, in what Age I would have them placed; and how they may be carry'd on all the time, from the most tender Infancy, till Men enter into the World, and into Business. First, There should always be several Studies going on at the same time. I have signify'd this, in several passages of this Discourse, as when I say, that Morality, Logick, History, Oeconomicks, should begin as soon as a Child is capable to understand what is said to him; though according to the different Ages, very different Methods should be observed therein. The same proportionably I have spoken of Grammar, Arithmetick, Law, and of Rhetorick; and it should be understood of other Studies, and [Page] Bodily Exercises, which are to be performed at the same time. And if any one wonder hereat, I desire him to consider, that Children Act, at the same time, by Body and Soul, and by the divers faculties of the Soul, which are to be cultivated by these different Studies. They Exercise all at once, the Will, the Reason, the Memory, the Imagination. If their Studies be separated, 'tis to be feared, that their Manners may be Corrupted, whilst their Memory is improving; and that, whilst they are wholly busied in Learning a Language, their Reasoning may go astray. It will be too later to recover it again, when ill habits shall be formed. Besides, Variety, more especially in this Age, doth please: Children Study more willingly four different things in two hours, than one only in one hour. One Study is a Diversion to another, and the more different they are, the less fear there is of confounding them.

To come now to the distinction of Ages, and to lay down more distinctly, what hitherto I intended to say, I should desire, that an Infant should be taken care of, as soon as he begins to Understand and Speak, which I reckon is when he is about Three Years old. Till Six, I should permit him to divert himself, and freely to look about him, presenting, as much as possible, those Objects to him, which may be for Instruction; relating to him Histories, answering his Questions, and speaking before him (as seeming to have no Design) that which may be useful to him; yet so, that he might be able to understand it. I would not, at this Age, oblige him to say any Lesson, or get any thing by Heart, but the [Page] Creed, the Lord's Prayer, and some other Prayers. A Father, or a Mother, careful of their Duty, assisted by Discreet and Affectionate Servants, may give him these first Instructions.

At Six years he may have a Master, who may begin gently to require something of him more Regularly. He may Recount to him some History, especially such as relate to Religion: Teach him the Catechism, to fix in him the Doctrin (of which he Discourses to him more largely) and also to Write, and Read. At the same time, what he at first began to Instruct him in, must be continued with more Diligence than before; Rehearsing to him a great many Matters of Fact; Naming many Famous Persons; Letting them see Pictures, and Geographical Maps; and, occasionally, explaining to them that which relates to House-keeping, Husbandry, and Arts. In these first years great care should be taken to draw on Children by Pleasure.

At Nine or Ten years they may be kept in more awe, and more severely used, if there be need. This is also the time, wherein he should be Instructed in the more Troublesom Studies; as Grammar, Compositions in French, The Languages (according to that Profession which it may be reasonably foreseen the Child will take to) the Latin, Greek, German. It is good to begin them in this Age, from Eight or Nine to Twelve. This also is the time to Learn the most Simple Operations of Arithmetick, and Geometry, to Regulate History by Chronology and Geography.

At Twelve years old, it will be time to form the Judgment, and to guide Reason by Logick, accustoming the Youth to Define and Divide well, and to [Page] make Reflections upon his Thoughts. This is also the time to Teach him the Demonstrations of Geometry, and other parts of Mathematicks which he ought to know. Moreover, he should be brought to Read much, and to exercise his Judgment upon Authours: Then also, or sooner, if it may be, the Terms, and Principal Maxims of the Law should be begun to be Explained to him.

At Fifteen years, if you be not hastened, it will be soon enough to Teach him Rhetorick; though you may try the Genius of your Scholar before, by several little Compositions, by exercising him in Grammar, and causing him to Epitomize the Histories which he is most concern'd to know the best: They will certainly improve his Style. In these last years of Studies he should also Learn that more exactly, which, as yet, he has only rudely cut out; as Law, and Policy, if his condition require it: and Morality, which, if possible, he should throughly understand, even to the first Principles thereof. To this time also those Studies may be reserved, which have more of Curiosity in them, as Poetry, Physicks (or Natural Philosophy) Astronomy: that so more or less of them may be imparted to him, according to his Leisure and Inclination.

This seems to me to be the most convenient way of managing Studies according to different Ages. I am sensible, that 'tis impossible to prescribe any one, which agrees to all Children; and that there may be very great differences herein, from the differences of Minds, which advance more, or less; of Conditions, which afford more or less leisure, and require more, or less Study; Lastly of Health, and the occurrences of Life. Yet I thought it would not be altogether useless to mark out this rude Draught, according to which, very nearly, measures may be taken in this matter.

[Page] XXIII IT is further necessary to explain my self concerning the Studies of Persons of the other Sex,The Studies of Women. of which I have said something in several places. It will doubtless be accounted a great Paradox, to say, That they ought to Learn any thing but their Catechism, Sowing, and several little Matters; to Sing, Dance, and Dress themselves according to the Fashion; to make a Curt'sy well, and Speak Civilly: for this is all, wherein their Education is, ordinarily, thought to consist. 'Tis true, they have no need of the most parts of Knowledge, which, at present, go under the Name of Studies: neither Latin, nor Greek, nor Rhetorick, nor the College-Philosophy are proper for them: and, if some of the more Curious of them have Learnt them, they commonly drew nothing from them but Vanity; which render'd them odious to other Women, and despised by Men. Whence, as from certain Experience, it has been concluded, that Women were not capable of Studies: as if their Souls were of another kind, than those of Men; as if they had not, as well as we, a Reason to Direct, a Will to Govern, Passions to strive against, Health to Preserve, and Goods to take Care of; or, as if it was more easie for them, than us, to Discharge all these Duties, without Learning any thing. 'Tis true, that Women have usually less Attention, and less Patience for Reasoning Consequentially, less Courage▪ and Resolution than Men: and that the Constitution of their Bodies contributes something to this Disparity, though doubtless their Ill Education doth more. But, for a balance, they have more quickness of Mind, [Page] and Penetration; more Sweetness, and Modesty: and, if they be not design'd for such considerable Imployments as Men are, they have, upon this, and other Accounts also, much more leisure, which degenerates into a great Corruption of Manners, if it be not imploy'd in some Study. And we have particular Reason in France, to desire that Women should be Knowing, and Reasonable; and that is the Credit and Respect which they have amongst us. That which causes several very Polite Men, to Reason little, and Speak with little Coherence, is, because they turn their Studies into Raillery, and make profession of Ignorance: And this, because, being form'd in the Conversation of Women, they retain the Impressions thereof: Whereas, on the contrary, amongst the Ancients, with whom Learning and Reasoning were in honour, the Women were more Learned, and yet nevertheless not so much Regarded.

To see what Studies may be useful to Women, I think the surest way is to run over all those I have already Explained. First then, they ought not to be over-Ignorant in Religion, nor too knowing therein. Since they are ordinarily inclin'd to Devotion; if they be not well-Instructed, they may easily become Superstitious. It is therefore of great Importance for them early to understand Religion, to be as Solid, Great, and Serious as it really is in it self. But if they be Learned therein, 'tis to be feared, that they may become Dogmatical, and embrace new Opinions, when they shall find opportunity for it. It is enough therefore to Teach them the Common Doctrines, without entring into Theological [Page] Disputes; and to take the most pains in Instructing them in Morality; Inspiring into them those Vertues which most belong to them, as Sweetness, Modesty, Submission, Love of Retirement, and Humility; and those to which their Temper is most opposite; as Courage, Resolution, and Patience. For the Mind, they should soon be exercised in thinking Coherently, and Reasoning Solidly, upon the most ordinary Subjects which be of use to them; Teaching them what is most Essential in Logick, without Choaking them with Great Words, which may only fill them with Vanity. For the Body, there is scarce any Exercise proper for them, but Walking: But all the Precepts of Health which I have given, appertain unto them; and, indeed, they have the most need of them, since they are more subject to Indulge themselves in this matter, and to draw Respect from their Distempers and Weaknesses. The Health and Vigour of Women concern all the World; seeing they are Mothers of Boys as well as Girls. It would be well also for them to know the most easie Remedies of ordinary Distempers: for they are very fit to prepare them in Houses, and to take care of the Sick. Grammar, as to them, consists onely in Reading, and Writing, and Composing correctly in French a Letter, Memoir, or any other Piece suitable to them. Practical Arithmetick is sufficient for them; and it is no less necessary for them than Men; and also they have need of Oeconomicks, since they are design'd more to intend the Affairs within doors, at least more particularly: Accordingly they are careful enough to instruct themselves in Domestick Management. [Page] But, 'tis to be wisht, that, together with this Skill, was joyned a little more Reason and Reflection, for the Curing of two Evils; Littleness of Spirit, and Covetousness, so incident to the Managing Women; and on the other side, Affectation and Disdain in those who pretend to the Spirit of Wit. To this end, it would be very useful, to make them comprehend betimes, that the most Honourable Imployment of a Woman is, the care of all within Doors; provided that she do not value her self too much upon that, which onely tends to her Interest, and that she know how to put every thing into its proper place.

Tho' Matters without doors chiefly relate unto the Men, yet 'tis impossible but that often the Women must have part therein; and sometimes they find themselves altogether charged therewith; as when they become Widows. It is therefore further necessary to Teach them some Skill in Law; that is, so much as I have Recommended to all Persons of any Condition. They should understand the Common Terms of Business, and the Great Maxims; In a word, they should be capable to go to Council, and take Advice. And this Instruction is the more necessary in France, because Women are not under Guardianship; and may have Great Possessions, of which they are Absolute Mistrisses. They may omit all the other Studies: Latin, and other Languages, History, Mathematicks, Poetry, and all [other] Curiosities. They are not design'd for those Imployments which make these Studies either necessary, or useful to them; and several of them would only make them Instruments of Vanity. Nevertheless, [Page] 'tis better they should spend their vacant hours in them, than in Reading Romances, in Gaming, or speaking of their Petticoats, Gowns, and their Ribbons.

XXIV I Think I have sufficiently explain'd all the Studies which are to be Taught to Youth;Studies of Clergy-men. and all which belong to all sorts of Persons of both Sexes: at present I speak of those, which are particular to Men of divers Professions, referring all to the three Principal, the Church, the Sword, and the Gown.

A Clergy-man is design'd to Instruct others, concerning Religion, and to perswade them to Vertue. Therefore he should know three things; The Mysteries of Faith, Morality, and the Manner of Teaching them.

His Principal Study should be the Holy Scripture. Let him begin to Read it from his Infancy; and continue this Reading so constantly all his Life, that every Sacred Text may be extreamly familiar unto him; and that there may be no place which he cannot quickly recollect. Though he should Learn it all by heart, he would do no more than what was very common, in the first Ages of the Church, even in Lay-men.

This constant Reading of the Scripture will serve as a good Commentary, provided, that at first you shall onely seek after the litteral Sense (which will offer it self naturally to your mind) without stopping at Difficulties. You will always find therein clear Truths enough for your Edification, and that of others. After having Read all the Holy Scripture with attention, one Chapter after another, without skipping over any thing; [Page] when you shall come to Read it again, a great part of your difficulties will vanish. They will grow still less at a Third Reading; and the more you shall Read it, the more clear will it be to you; provided, that you shall Read it with Respect, and Submission, considering that it is God himself who speaks. The Historical Catechism may facilitate the Reading of Holy Scripture in Beginners; helping them to discern which are the most considerable passages, and ought to be most meditated upon. The Treatise concerning the Manners of the Israelites, is as a General Commentary, which removes several literal difficulties. As for the Spiritual Sense of Scripture it must be soberly sought after; chiefly relying upon that which is observed in Scripture it self: and afterwards that which we learn by Tradition, I mean, by the most uniform, and Ancient Traditions of the Fathers.

A Clergy-man ought to avoid the two Extremes, of Studying too much, and too little. There are several who think that they have nothing more to do after the Office, and the Mass, if they have no Benefice with Cure of Souls; and if they have, they believe they have done all that is required, by performing the most urgent Duties. But we ought not to be at rest, as long as there shall be Ignorant Persons to be Instructed, and Sinners to be Converted. They therefore who have no great Natural Parts, nor great conveniencies for Studying, who want Books, and Masters (as in the Country, and far distant Provinces) should make it their business to know the Essential and Common things: To Catechize; which is not such an easie Office, as several suppose, [Page] but the most important of all, seeing it is the Foundation of Religion: To make Publications of Holy-days, &c. and Familiar Exhortations, accommodated to the Capacity of the Auditours: To hear Confessions, and give Wholsom Advice. A Vertuous and Zealous Priest may do all this, without Reading any thing but the Holy Scripture, the Catechism, the Council, the Instructions of his Ritual, some Sermons of St. Augustin, or other Moral Book of some of the Fathers, which shall happen to fall into his hands. This is that which may be said to be necessary, in the matter of Ecclesiastical Studies.

They who are at leisure, and have Books, and other Conveniencies of Studying, ought to guard themselves against Curiosity. The best Preservative, in my Opinion, is, early to consider the full extent of our Profession, and all the Knowledge it requires. An Accomplish'd Clergy-man should be able to prove Religion to Libertines and Infidels; and consequently ought to be very well skill'd in Logick and Metaphysick, (such as I have represented them) that he may be able to Demonstrate, by Solid Reasons, that every Man of Good Sense, ought to submit himself to the Authority of the Catholick Church. He should also be capable to defend Religion against the Hereticks; and for this end to know the positive Proofs of our Belief, drawn from the Scripture, the Councils, or the Fathers. He should know Ecclesiastical History, the Canon-Law, not onely the Practical, Beneficial, and that which is curious in the ancient Canons, but also the true Rules of Ecclesiastical Discipline (upon which all that is Practical is founded) and how that which [Page] is not practised has been abolished. He should know Christian Morality in all its extent; not contenting himself only with the Decisions of Modern Casuists, concerning what is Sin, and what is not: But he should proceed further, and see how the Fathers have judged thereof, and also be acquainted with their Method of Teaching Vertue, and guiding Souls to Perfection. This is what we will find in Cassian, and the Monastick Rules. A great esteem ought to be had of these Works, which are the Product of so many Holy Experiences. Lastly, He should know the Ceremonies of the Publick Office, the Administration of the Sacraments; the Practice of all Ecclesiastical Functions: But this Study consists, not so much in Reading of Books, as in the observation of Living Tradition. When once he has the Great Principles of Scripture, and the Fathers, he will be much instructed by seeing the Labours of others, and by labouring himself together with them.

Seeing that a Clergyman is designed to instruct others, it is not enough for him to know all that I have mentioned: he must also know how to Speak, and Perswade. He therefore stands in need of that sort of Logick, and that solid Eloquence I have spoken of. For let us not deceive our selves, a Man without Gifts is not proper for the Ministry of the Church. A good Priest is not onely a Man who Prays unto God, and leads an Innocent Life; such an one, at most, is no more than a good Monk. He is a Priest to assist others; and, as he is not accounted a good Physician who doth not heal a great many Diseases, neither is he to be called a good Priest, who [Page] doth not Convert a great many Sinners. I do not say, that none ought to be made Priests, but such as have a florid Imagination, an happy Memory, a pleasant Voice, and such like qualities, which usually make Preachers Famous: but I should desire, that there were not any, who have not a Solid Judgment, and a right way of Reasoning; who should not know how to Instruct, both in Publick and in Private; with all the Sweetness and Authority which the difference of Subjects and Persons do require: In a word, who should not have some Ray of that Apostolick Eloquence, the perfect Model of which we have in St. Paul. A Clergy-man, unto whom so many Pieces of Knowledge are necessary, should not lose his time in Prophane Studies, or useless Curiosities. He should also use great choice in the Studies appertaining to his Profession: Let him not bestow too much time upon those Large Commentaries on Scripture, the sight of which alone, is enough to terrifie, by the Bigness and Multitude of the Volumes; and to make one despair of ever understanding the Text: Let him not amuse himself with useless Speculations, and the vain Wranglings of the School-men: Let him not suffer himself to be Transported too far with the humour of Criticizing upon matters of Fact, and Inquiring too Curiously into Ecclesiastical Antiquities: for there are all these Rocks to be avoided, even in the Studies which belong unto him. He ought always to remember, that the Christian Religion is not an Humane Art, or Science, wherein every one is permitted to seek, and invent: that his business is onely to Collect, and faithfully preserve the Tradition of the Church. [Page] He should Meditate Attentively upon those Rules which St. Paul gives to Timothy and Titus, 1 Tim. 1. 3. 6. 3—20. against Curious Questions;2 Tim. 2. 14. &c. that he may avoid Vain Disputes and referr all to Charity. Tit. 1. 9, 10, &c. 3, 9, 10. Thus he will fix his Mind on those Studies which are necessary, and which relate the most to Practice.

For a Clergy-man should not be a professedly Learned Man; who spends all his Life in his Closet, in Studying and Composing Books. He is to be a Man of Action, and, above all, of Prayer. Act. 6. 4. These are the two parts of the Apostolick Life, Prayer and Ministry of the Word. He should therefore, every day, spend a considerable time in Conversing with God; for the cleansing himself from those Spots which he has contracted by action, and intercourse with Men; for representing unto him, his own needs, and those of the whole Church. We ought to give unto our Neighbour all that assistance which we owe unto him, according to the Place we have in the Church, and the particular occasions which Charity shall present. Study is to be the business of our Youth, and, in the rest of our Lives, only our Rest and Diversion, usefully to fill up the Intervals of Action.

When you shall find your self Tired by Visiting the Sick, or the Poor; by the Administration of Sacraments, or Instruction; When you shall perceive you Voice weakened, your Breast heated, you'll find a great pleasure in Reading some Good Passage of the Fathers, or Ecclesiastical History; in Meditating calmly upon some place [Page] of Scripture, or in hearing the Conversation of a Learned and Pious Friend. These are the Divertisements proper for Clergy-men.

XXV WE now come to the Sword-men. These are the Men who ordinarily Study the least:The Studies of Sword-Men. and yet there are two Reasons of Studying, which are peculiar to them.

A Man, who is naturally brave, fierce, and inclin'd to courageous Actions; whose Birth or Imploy heightens his Courage;Plato. Rep. 11. who has his Arms in his hand, and Men under him, ready to obey, without asking a Reason: This Man is in a capacity of exercising all sorts of Violence; and if he be wicked, or only Passionate and Humoursome, he is insufferable to all the rest of Mankind. He is a Lyon let loose; he is an Armed Madman. It is therefore of great moment, that they, whose Inclination, and Profession, do put them into so dangerous a Condition, should have a great deal of Reason and Power over themselves; to the end that they may use their Courage and Strength only for the Publick Good, and against the Enemies of the State. It would be better that the House should not be Guarded at all, than that it should be kept by Dogs, who, without distinction, should fall upon those who belong to the House, as well as upon the Thieves.

The other Reason is, the great Idleness which usually attends a Soldiers Life. He knows not what to do, when in Garrison in Winter Quarters, in a place where he must stay any time, when his Wounds are under Cure, and oblige [Page] him to think of them for a while. Happy then is he, if he have a Book, and can take pleasure in Reading.

Further, I doubt not but that many more Soldiers would love Study, if they knew, or did consider, that Alexander and Caesar were very Learned; and that Ignorance joyned to Valour, never produced any other than Brutal Conquerours, and Destroyers of Mankind; as the Turks and Tartars.

Now the Studies which seem to me most proper for Sword-men, are these; Amongst the Tongues, the Latin; yet rather, for the conveniency of Travel, than for Reading. And, upon this account, they should be able to speak it, if not Elegantly, yet at least Fluently. With this Tongue a Man may Travel all over the North; it supplying the place of several others. Nevertheless 'tis very fit they should know the German Tongue; and the sooner they learn it, 'twill be the better. When they shall be once well acquainted with the Latin, they'll easily learn Italian and Spanish. Thus in what Country soever they may have been born, they will understand the Neighbouring-Languages, which are the most necessary. They should know a great many Histories: The Ancient, to see therein the Examples of Great Captains, Greek and Roman; to know as particularly as may be, that Military Discipline, and that Art of War, which made them so strong above other Men.

[Page] The Modern History will give them a Knowledge of the present State of Affairs, and their Original; the Right of the Prince whom they serve, and the Interests of other Soveraigns. Geography also is very necessary for them; and, as for the Countries, especially where they make War, they cannot know them too particularly, nor have a too exact Topography of them. As to the Mathematicks, they chiefly need Arithmetick, Geometry and Mechanicks: for knowing these well, they'll easily apprehend the practice of Fortifications; and all that either Books or Masters use to Teach concerning the Art of War.

But there is one Study which Sword-men seldom undertake, and which yet, to me, seems very necessary, at least to those who are in Command; and that is, the Policy and Law of War. I mean, that they should know the Jus belli, or Right of War, in all its extent: as, What are the lawful causes thereof; What Formalities ought to be observed for the beginning of it; How far Acts of Hostility should proceed; What Places and Persons are exempt therefrom; In a Word, all that which respects this part of Publick Right, the Execution of which is committed to them. They should be well-inform'd of the Edicts of their Prince, and the particular Regulations for the Subsistence and Discipline of the Troops; and, above all, they should know the Rules of those severe Judgments which must be executed against Desertion, and other Military Crimes.

[Page] The rest of the Art of War, which is the most Essential part of it, cannot be Learn'd by Books, or Lectures; for it depends upon the Exercise of Body, upon Conversation with Persons, Experienced in the Trade; and upon the actual Service of him, who would be Instructed therein. But if he be well Educated, if he be early accustomed to seek after what is real and solid in all things; to make Reflection upon every thing he sees; and put useful Questions to all sorts of People; he'll know more of it in Two Campaigns, than others in Ten. War is a more serious Mystery than young Men, who ingage in it, do represent it to themselves; who, very often seek nothing else thereby, but Libertinism and Pleasure. To conclude, The better Born he is, who is Instructed therein, the more extensive ought his Knowledge to be. He who is likely to be no more than a simple Officer, or to Command only particular Parties, should be much better acquainted with little particularities, and much less with general things; than he, who probably, will one day, Govern Provinces, or Command Armies. And this Rule is common to all Professions. The higher a Man is brought up, the more Objects his Sight takes in at a time, to see their Order in general; but he is less concern'd to know every Object exactly, than another Man who is near it, and sees but one such at a time.

XXVI THE Men of the Gown, have truly, more need of Learning,The Studies of the Men of the Robe. than the Sword-Men; but yet they ought not to burthen themselves with it [Page] over much. They are design'd for Business, and are to Study, only to make themselves capable thereof. They are therefore to avoid that Studious Spirit (opposite to the Spirit of Business) which only hunts after the Pleasure of knowing, or the Glory of being reputed Learned. They are to inquire after the middle, betwixt the Scholastical Knowledge of the Law-Doctors, and the gross ignorance of the meer Practitioners. For these are (as I may say) two Nations altogether different. The Doctors ordinarily are concern'd to know how to supply Antinomies and Solutions for the Reception of an Officer, or for any other Dispute: To understand the Laws of the Code and the Digest, which are most remarkable for their difficulty, or else to give a new Explication of them: To restore some Passage: To Explain a difficult Word: To discover in some Author of Humanity, some piece of Antiquity, or Law: To reduce the Law into Order, by new Divisions: To find out some singular Method. In the mean time, they do not apply themselves enough to the Custom of France: Cujas. It has been observed that Cujacias himself was very ignorant in Business. On the other side, the Practitioners know nothing, but the Retail of that which they Practise; without Ascending higher than Twenty or Thirty Years, they may have spent in Business; and without looking further than the Jurisdiction under which they Practise; without knowing the Original, or Reason of any thing. They only say, this is done, and this is not done; not knowing again that which has changed its Name. They understand, neither how to put [Page] things together, to divide, nor place them in Order. In a word, they Work like Artisans, who for their Art, have nothing to alledge, but the Example of their Master. To this ignorance of Practitioners, we owe the Style of the Law-Proceedings in Matters of Bargain and Sale, of Royal Letters, of the Edicts themselves, and Customs which are for the most part Digested with so little Method and Perspicuity. But the greatest Evil which comes from thence, is the Wrangling and Confusion in Business. The Study therefore of Lawyers, has for its end, the furnishing them with the great Principles of the most ordinary Matters of Business; and inlightening their Minds, that they may treat of these Matters (naturally so entangled and obscure) with Order and Distinctness.

So that the Gentlemen of the Robe have great need of Logick, that they may know how to divide, and define well; not according to Mathematical Exactness, but so far as may be useful to the better carrying on of Business. They have need of Arithmetick, Oeconomicks, and a great knowledge of all the particulars of Life, of the Management of Country Affairs, of Trade, of the Bank, and all the ways of subsisting, and growing Rich. For most Business is decided, rather by way of Fact than Right. And upon this account, they should be early accustomed to be Diligent, Patient, and Laborious But, above all, they should have the Knowledge of Civil Law. And this Knowledge [Page] contains both the general Principles of natural Equity, which are chiefly to be sought for, in the Books of the Roman Law; and the positive Rules of our particular Law, which they will find in the Edicts, and in the Customs. Nevertheless, there are a great number of Maxims, which they cannot Learn but by Use. Let them, by all means, apply themselves to the Reading of the Texts, whether of the Roman or our French Law; seeing the Texts only are the solid Proofs in Matters Contested. But let them not neglect the Reading of Commentaries, in Questions which they have Leisure to Study to the bottom: There they will often find good Hints, provided they shall know how to use them with Judgment. Since the Knowledge of Law is the most proper to their Profession, they ought not to neglect any part of it, no, not so much as to be ignorant of (if possible) any particularity of Law-Proceedings. 'Twould be well also for them to know History, so far, as it relates to the Law: That is, they should take notice of the different Laws and Maxims, which have obtained in our Country in different Times. They ought to go further, if they be Judges, and preferr'd to great Places. It would well become them to Ascend to the very Fountains of the Law, and Examine the Reasons thereof by the Principles of true Morality, and Policy. In a word, though they are only obliged to Execute the Laws; yet 'tis adviseable that they should be capable to be Legislatours. Lastly, Eloquence is very useful, not only to Advocates, but to [Page] Judges, and all those who are to speak of Business: I mean that solid Eloquence, of which I have so often spoken.—These are the Studies which I Esteem most necessary and useful, to all Men in general, and to those of each Profession in Particular.

FINIS.

BOOKS Printed for, and Sold by Richard Sare, and Jo. Hindmarsh.

[Page]

FAbles of Aesop, and other Eminent Mythologists, with Morals and Reflections. By Sir Roger L' Estrange, in Folio.

The Genuine Epistles of St. Barnabas, St. Ignatius, St. Clement, St. Polycarp, the Shepherd of Hermas, and the Martyrdom of St. Ignatius, and St. Polycarp, Translated from the Greek: By W. Wake, D. D. in Octavo.

Seneca's Morals, by way of Abstract, in Octavo.

Erasmus Colloquies, in Octavo.

Tullies Offices, English, in Twelves.

Bona's Guide to Eternity. The Four last. By Sir Roger L' Estrange.

[Page] Compleat Sets consisting of Eight Volomes of Letters, Writ by a Turkish Spye, who lived Forty Five Years undiscovered at Paris, giving an Impartial Account to the Divan at Constantinople, of the most Remarkable Transactions of Europe, during the said Time, in Twelves.

Humane Prudence, or the Art, by which a Man may raise Himself and Fortune to Grandeur, the Sixth Edition, in Twelves.

Moral Maxims, and Reflections in Four Parts; Written in French by the Duke of Rochefoucault, now made English, in Twelves.

Epictetus his Morals, with Simplicius his Comment, made English from the Greek, by George Stanhope, late Fellow of Kings College in Cambridge.

The Parsons Councellor, or the Law of Tythes, the Fifth Edition, very much Enlarged: By Sir Simon Degge, in Octavo.

Of the Art both of Writing and Judging of History, with Reflections upon Ancient as well as Modern Historians: By the Learned and Ingenious Eather Le Moyue.

The Moral History of Frugality: By Sir George Mackenzie, in Octavo.

Reasons, and Essay: By Sir George Mackenzie.

[Page] [...], or the Doctrine of a God and Providence, Vindicated and Asserted; By Thomas Gregory M. A. Late of Wadham College in Oxford, and now Lecturer of Fulham near London, in Octavo.

FINIS.

Information about this book

Title statement

The history, choice, and method of studies by Monsieur Fleury ...Traité du choix et de la méthode des études. English

Fleury, Claude, 1640-1723.

Edition statement

1695

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Text Creation Partnership,

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2007-10 (EEBO-TCP Phase 1).

ID [DLPS]

A39820

ID [STC]

Wing F1364

ID [STC]

ESTC R18281

ID [EEBO-CITATION]

12111067

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ocm 12111067

ID [VID]

54201

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(EEBO-TCP ; phase 1, no. A39820)

Transcribed from: (Early English Books Online ; image set 54201)

Images scanned from microfilm: (Early English books, 1641-1700 ; 68:5)

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— The history, choice, and method of studies by Monsieur Fleury ..., Traité du choix et de la méthode des études. English, Fleury, Claude, 1640-1723..

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[18], 188 p.

Printed for S. Keble [and 3 others],. London :: 1695.. (Translation of: Traité du choix et de la méthode des études.) (Reproduction of original in University of Michigan Libraries.)

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