ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY 1 . The alphabet <2Form Name Value>2 <1A a a>1 French a in <2avoir>2 B <1b be>1 b <1C c ce>1 <2j in jam>2 C+ <1c+ c+e>1 ch in <2church>2 <1D d de>1 d E <1e e>1 French e= in <2e=tre>2 F f <1fe>1 f <1G g ge>1 <2g in gate>2 or in <2angular>2 G* g* <1yumus+ak ge>1 lengthens preceding vowel <1H h he>1 <2hin have>2 <1i i>1 a in <2serial>2 IZ <1i% i%>1 French i in si J j <1je>1 French j <1K k ke>1 c in <2cat>2 or in <2cure>2 L <1l le>1 <2l in list or in wool>2 M m <1me>1 m N n ne n <1O* o* o*>1 German o* P p <1pe>1 p <1S s se>1 <2s in sit>2 S+ s+ <1s+e>1 sh in shape <1T t te>1 t U* u* <1u*>1 German u V <1v ve>1 v <1Y y ye>1 y in yet <1Yumus+ak ge>1 ("soft g') cannot begin a word. Note that the capital form of the dotted <1i%>1 is also dotted. The letter <1k>1 is often called <1ka>1 instead of <1ke;>1 less often, <1h>1 is called <1ha.>1 2. The apostrophe. In addition to these twenty-nine letters, two orthographic signs are used in the writing of Turkish. The apostrophe ('), known as <1kesme i%s+areti%,>1 is used: <2(a)>2 To mark the glottal stop in Arabic borrowings. (b) To separate proper nouns, or words specially emphasized, from grammatical endings : <1Atatu*rk'ten>1 "from Atatu*rk'; An- <1kara'da>1 "in Ankara'; <1veci%zemi%z, halka hi%zmet'ti%r>1 "our slogan is ""service to the people'' '. It is thus regularly used before the case- suffixes of the third-person pronoun <1o>1 when this is written with a capital letter as a mark of respect, the normal practice when writing of Atatu*rk and other great men (though not usually <1of>1 Allah): <1O'nun>1 "His'; <1O'na>1 "to Him'. <2(c)>2 To distinguish between homonyms : <1karin>1 "stomach', <1kar 'in>1 "of snow', <1kari'n>1 "your wife'; <1halk oyunu>1 "folk-dance', <1halk>1 <1oyu'nu>1 "referendum' (acc.). It occurs in some surnames com- pounded of two words: <1O'kan>1 "that blood', which might other- wise be read as <1ok-an>1 "arrow-intellect'; <1IZs+'er>1 "work-man', which without the apostrophe could be mistaken for the aorist participle of <1i%s+emek>1 "to urinate'. <2(d)>2 To mark the omission of a letter, as in <1n'olacak>1 for <1ne>1 <1olacak>1 "what will happen ?' <13.>1 The circumflex accent <1("),>1 known as <1du*zeItme i%s+areti%,>1 is used primarily to indicate the palatalizing of a preceding <1g, k,>1 or <11>1 and secondarily to mark a long vowel in Arabic borrowings, especially where ambiguity might otherwise arise: <1nar>1 ~ Persian <2na**r>2 "pomegranate' but <1na=r>1 ~ Arabic <2na**r>2 "hell-fire'; <1adi%l>1 "justice' b ut <1a=di%l>1 "just'; <1tari%hi%>1 "history' (acc.) but <1tari%hi=>1 "historical'. This rule is neglected in masculine nsmes ending in the Arabic adjectival suffix -<2i**,>2 because the final vowel is nowadays pronounced short: <1Bedri%, Rahmi%, Ruhi%.>1 The original vowel length and conse- quently the spelling with the circumflex are retained in pen-names of classical authors : <1Nef'i=, Fuzuli=.>1 <14.>1 Consonants: general observations. Native words do not, as a rule, begin with <1c, f,>1 j, <11, m, n, r,>1 or <1z.>1 The only notable excep - tions, apart from onomatopoeic words, are the verbs <1caymak>1 "to swerve' and <1cos+mak>1 "to overflow' the interrogative particle <1mi%>1 and <1ne>1 "what?' See also XIV, 46.j occurs only in foreign words and is often replaced by <1c>1 in popular speech. A vowel is often inserted before <1I, r,>1 and <1n>1 when they occur initially in foreign words: <1i%li%mon>1 for <1li%mon>1 "lemon', <1i%rahmet>1 or <1irahmet>1 for <1rahmet>1 "divine mercy, rain', <1i%nefes>1 for <1nefes>1 "breath' (especially used of breathing on someone for magical purposes). Some such pronunciations have become part of the written language : <1orospu>1 "harlot' ~ Persian <2ru**spi**,>2 <1oruc+>1 "fasting' ~ Persian <2roza.>2 The consonants <1b, c,>1 and <1g>1 do not occur finally in native words. 5. <1b, p.>1 The voiced labialis pronounced as in English, but <1p>1 is less heavily aspirated than English p. 6. <1c+.>1 <2In>2 rapid speech the first of two adjacent <1c+'s>1 is often heard as <1t: kac+ c+ocuk>1 "how many children?' pronounced as if written <1kat c+ocuk.>1 7. <1d, t, n.>1 In English these letters are pronounced with the tip of the tongue touching the gums above the top teeth. In Turkish they are true dentals, the tongue touching the top teeth. Modern <1n>1 may represent an older n, e.g. in <1yeni%>1 "new' and <1sonra>1 "after'. The <1n>1 of the latter word is frequently dropped <2in>2 speech and sometimes in writing. 8. <1f, v.>1 The pronunciation is lighter than that of the corresponding English consonants, particularly in the case of intervocalic <1v,>1 which <2is>2 heard as a weak w: <1tavuk>1 "hen' is pronounced tawuk and popularly misspelt <1tauk.>1 The personal and local name <1Mustafa>1 <1Bey>1 is generally pronounced Musta**bey or Mista**bey. 9. <1g, k.>1 In conjunction with any of the back vowels <1a,i, o,>1 and <1u,>1 these are pronounced as <2in gate>2 and <2kale>2 respectively: <1kizgin>1 "excited', <1karga>1 "crow'. With the front vowels <1e,>1 i%, <1o*,>1 and <1u*>1 the' are palatalized like English g in <2angular>2 and c in <2cure>2 respectively: <1gerc+ek>1 "true' pronounced gyercheky; <1kesi%k>1 "cut' pronounced kyesiky; <1ko*s+k>1 "palace' pronounced kyo*shky. The palatalization of the initial <1k>1 is responsible for the i in the English form of this last example, <2kiosk.>2 In some Arabic and Persian borrowings, however, <1g>1 and <1k>1 are also palatalized in conjunction with <1a>1 and <1u.>1 It is in such cases that the circumflex is used: <1ga=vur>1 "infidel' pronounced gyawur (hence the i in the old-established English spelling <2giaour;>2 cf. <2Kiazim,>2 the usual English transcription of the name <1Ka=zim);>1 <1mahku=m>1 "condemned', <1ka=bus>1 "nightmare', pronounced mah- kyum, kya**bu**s. The circumflex in these words is solely to indicate palatalization and has <2nothing>2 to do with vowel length. Some inconsistency arises from the fact that <1k>1 may stand for both the Arabo-Persian and (respectively k and q in English transliteration). The second of these letters represents a k articu- lated at the uvula, the nearest English counterpart being the sound of c <2in cough.>2 Further, initial <1g>1 may represent Persian <2g>2 or Arabic <2gh.>2 In the combinations <1ga>1 Õ <2gha**>2 and <1ka>1 Õ <2qa**,>2 the circum flex cannot be used to show that the vowel is long because it would be taken rather as showing--falsely--that the <1g>1 or <1k>1 is palatalized. To avoid ambiguity in such cases, the length of the <1a>1 is shown by writing it twice: <1kati%l>1 "murder' but <1kaati%l>1 "murderer'. This device is regularly employed only in <1kaati%l>1 but may be met with also in <1gaamiz>1 "obscure', <1gaasip>1 "usurper', <1kaabiz>1 "astringent', <1kaabi%le>1 "midwife', <1kaadi%r>1 "mighty', and <1kaani%>1 "convinced', all of which are more usually spelt with a single <1a.>1 Another complication arises from the fact that it is no more natural for Turks than for English-speakers to pronounce a back consonant with a front vowel; e.g. if one tries to pronounce <2king>2 with the initial consonant of <2cough>2 the resulting sound is as much un-Turkish as it is un-English. Consequently Arabic <2qi>2 is tran- scribed as <1ki,>1 while <2qi**>2 (written qiy in Arabic letters) ought to be transcribed as <1kiy.>1 In fact, however, although Arabic <2qi**mat->2 "value' appears as <1kiymet,>1 in other Arabic borrowings in which q is followed by long <2i,>2 such as <2@aqi**qat->2 "truth' and <2ta@qi**r>2 "co n- tempt', the convention is to use dotted i%: <1haki%kat, tahki%r.>1 The phonetic spelling <1hakiykat,>1 occasionally seen in the early years of the new alphabet, is no longer in general use. In most Anatolian dialects initial <1k>1 is pronounced as g, medial and final <1k>1 as the velar fricative kh, the sound heard in German <2ach.]>2 So <1korkma>1 "do not fear' may be heard as gorkhma, <1c+ok>1 "much' as chokh. In standard Turkish the <1g>1 of <1gali%ba>1 "pre- sumably' <2is>2 often pronounced as <1k.>1 <110. g*. Yumus+ak ge>1 is a concession to the traditional spelling of Turkish in thc Arabo-Persian alphabet. It represcnts two separate letters of that alphabet, <2g>2 and <2gh.>2 The latter represents the voiced velar fricative, the gargling sound of the Parisian or Tynesider's r, the "Northumbrian burr'. Arabic initial <2gh>2 becomes <1g:>1 <2gha**zi**>2 "warrior for the Faith' å <1gazi%>1 ; <2gha**fil>2 "heedles s' å <1gafi%l.>1 Medial or final <2gh>2 becomes <1g*:>1 <2maghfu**r>2 "forgiven' å <1mag*fur;>1 <2tabli**gh>2 "communication' å <1tebli%g*.>1 This <1g*,>1 whether in borrowings or <2in>2 native words, though audible as a "Northumbrian burr' of varying intensity in dialect, serves in standard Turkish to lengthen the preceding vowel, a following vowel being swallowed up. Thus <1gi%deceg*i%m>1 "I shall go' is pronounced as gideje**m; <1alacag*iz>1 "we shall take' as alaja**z; <1ag*i%r>1 "heavy' as a**r; <1ag*iz>1 "mouth' as a**z; <1ag*a>1 "master, landowner' as a**. Note particularly <1ag*abey>1 "elder brother', pronounced a**bi** ; <1Bog*azi%c+i%>1 "Bosphorus' pronounced Boazichi or Ba**zichi. Between <1o>1 and <1a>1 or <1o>1 and u,it may be heard as a weak v or w: <1sog*an>1 "onion', <1sog*uk>1 "cold'. The verbs <1kog*mak>1 "to chase away', <1og*mak>1 "to rub', <1og*alamak>1 "to crumble', are pro- nounced and sometimes spelled <1kovmak, ovmak, ovalamak>1 (also <1uvaIamak).>1 The same phenomenon occurs after <1o*>1 in: <1o*g*mek>1 "to praise', <1do*g*mek>1 "to beat', <1so*g*mek>1 "to curse', <1go*g*ermek>1 'to become blue', <1o*g*u*n>1 'portion, <1o*g*u*r>1 'accustomed' also spelled <1o*vmek, do*vmek, so*vmek, go*vermek, o*vu*n,>1 <1o*vu*r.>1 Otherwise, <1g*>1 in conjunction with front vowels is heard as a weak y: <1o*g*le>1 "noon', <1deg*er>1 "worth'. In two common Persian borrowings, <1di%g*er>1 "other' and <1eg*er>1 "if', the original hard g is sometimes heard instead of y, but never <2in>2 <1meg*er>1 "apparently'. <1deg*i%l>1 "not' is pronounced deyil, deil, or, rather preciously, di**l. Intervocalic <1k>1 regularly becomes <1g*: ayak>1 "foot'--<1im>1 "my' å <1ayag*im>1 "my foot'. <111. h.>1 In conjunction with any of the narrow vowels <1i, i%, u, u*,>1 particularly when it ends a syllable, <1h>1 is sometimes pronounced more heavily than otherwise, like the Arabic pharyngal unvoiced fricative <2@>2 : <1mih>1 "nail', <1ihlamur>1 "lime-tree', <1hiyar>1 "cucumber ', <1i%hti%yar>1 "aged', <1ruh>1 "soul'. This is not due, as some Arabists suppose, to a memory of the spelling of such words in the Arabo-Persian alphabet; it is a popular and not a learned pro- nunciation. The <1h>1 in the common masculine name <1Mehmet>1 is silent in standard Turkish, there being a compensatory lengthening of the first vowel. The spelling and pronunciation <1Muhammed>1 are reserved for the name of the Prophet, while the intermediate stage <1Mehemmed>1 is used in scholarly works for sultans of the name. In some regional dialects the <1h>1 is pronounced in <1Mehmet>1 but is silent in <1Ahmet,>1 with a compensatory lengthening of the first vowel. The <1h>1 of the name <1Ethem>1 is also liable to be lost in pronunciation. The final <1h>1 of <1sahi%h>1 "correct' is dropped in writing as well as speech when it is used as an adverb meaning "really'; in speech the first <1h>1 is sometimes dropped too. In slipshod speech intervocalic <1h>1 is sometimes dropped together with its preceding vowel, so <1muhafaza>1 "protection' may be heard as ma**faza. <1Allah>1 <1as+kina>1 "for the love of God ]' is pronounced as one word without the <1ah.>1 The expletive <1Allahini seversen>1 "if you love your God, for Heaven's sake' is even further contracted, to alla**sen. The <1h>1 of <1hanim>1 "lady' regularly disappears, together with the preceding vowel, when following a name ending in <1e>1 or <1a: Ulvi%ye hanim.>1 <1Fatma hanim>1 are pronounced ulviya**nim, fatma**nim. So too in Persian borrowings compounded with <2kha**ne>2 "house': <1postahane>1 "post office', <1hastahane>1 "hospital', <1eczahane>1 "chemist's shop' are nowadays spelt and pronounced <1postane, hastane, eczane,>1 all with long <1a>1 in the middle syllable. English-speaking students must take care not to mispronounce the letter-combinations <1ph, sh,>1 and <1th:>1 e.g. <1ph>1 in <1ku*tu*phane>1 "library' is pronounced as in <2uphill;>2 <1sh>1 in <1IZshak>1 "Isaac' as in <2mishap;>2 <1th>1 in <1methetmek>1 "to praise' as in <2nuthatch.>2 12. <11.>1 As in English, this letter represents two totally different sounds, the "clear I' of <2list>2 and the "dark I' of <2wool.>2 Clear <1I>1 is formed towards the front of the mouth and is naturally produced in conjunction with the front vowels, while dark I, formed in the hollow of the palate, comes naturally with back vowels. Thus we find clear I in <1yel>1 "wind' and <1ko*le>1 "slave', dark I in <1yil>1 "year' a nd <1yoI>1 "way'. In foreign borrowings, however, a complication arises, such as we have met in considering <1g>1 and <1k.>1 In Arabic, I is clear except in the name of God, <2Alla**h.>2 In French it is always clear. In borrowings from these languages, <1I>1 should be pronounced clear even when in conjunction with back vowels and, as with <1g>1 and <1k,>1 the circumflex is used as a reminder of this. Thus the <11>1 of <1la=zim>1 "necessary' and <1pla=n>1 "plan' is pronounced as in <2list>2 not as in <2lad,>2 a faint y after it. The y-sound is not so marked as in the English pronunciation of <2lurid,>2 but is quite audible; in Turkish spelling, the English and American pronunciations of this word would be shown as lu=rid and lurid respectively. It cannot be overemphasized that the primary function of the circumflex is to indicate palataliza- tion and not vowel length ; e.g. in <1mu*tala=a>1 "observation' the first and not the second <1a>1 is long. The latest impression of YIK recommends that the circumflex should be written over an <1a>1 following an <1I>1 in Arabic and Persian borrowings but not in western borrowings, and then only when the vowel was long in Arabic or Persian; thus <1mu*talaa>1 and <1plan,>1 but <1la=zim>1 "necessary', <1ala=yi%s+>1 "showiness'. 13. <1r.>1 Turkish <1r>1 is an alveolar, produced by the vibration of the tip of the tongue against the gums just above the top teeth. In the Rumelian dialects it is trilled, a practice to avoid. Finally it may be heard as a fricative, accompanied by a heavy aspiration, not unlike the sound of Welsh <2rh;>2 this pronunciation is most com- monly observable in <1var>1 "there is'. <114. y.>1 Following a front vowel and preceding a consonant, <1y>1 is barely audible but lengthens the preceding vowel: <1teyze>1 "maternal aunt', <1o*yle>1 "thus'. <115.>1 The glottal stop. This is not native to Turkish but occurs in Arabic borrowings. It is the sound which replaces the t in the Cockney and Glasgow pronunciations of, for example, <2Saturday>2 and which occurs in standard English between a final and an initial vowel; the glottal stop is what makes the difference in E aih io uo]iuala1 aill dlqeLunsa1S -<1nwnilol>1 -??e <1"wnilol>1 Õ ,paas <2wh~nj>2 -<1iJiilaz>1 -o?e <1"iiilaz>1 Õ ,uosiod, <2dhaz>2 ue]s1aS -irliS -?? e -' "ihlS Õ ,hlaod <2dlhs>2 ]i1lles -??e <1"jlles>1 Õ auil <2Tlas>2 <1]liiuls>1 -o?e pronunciation between <2siesta>2 and see <2Esther.>2 In Turkish it may be primary, standing for an original Arabic glottal stop <2(hamza),>2 or secondary, standing for <2"ayn.>2 The latter is a voiced pharyngal gulp; to produce it, students of Arabic are sometimes told to sing as far down the scale as they can and then one note lower. It is as difficult for Turks as for other non-Arabs. The glottal stop, both primary and secondary, is preserved in spelling : (a) To avoid ambiguity: <1teli%n>1 "of the wire' (gen. of <1tel)>1 but <1tel'i%n>1 "denunciation' (Arabic <2tal"i**n)>2 ; <1kura>1 "villages' (Arabic < 2qura**)>2 but <1kur'a>1 "conscription by lot' (Arabic <2qur'a).>2 (b) In high style, out of respect for the traditional Arabic spelling particularly of religious terms: <1s+er'i=>1 "pertaining to the sacred law' <2(shar"i**),>2 <1Kur'an>1 "the Koran' <2(Qur'a**n).>2 It is preserved in pronunciation but not in writing when intervocalic, as in <1mu*dafaa>1 "defence' <2(muda**fa"a),>2 <1teessu*f>1 "regre t' <2(ta'assuf).>2 Otherwise, the modern practice is to omit the apostrophe in writing and to neglect the glottal stop in speaking: <1sanat>1 "art' <2($an"at-),>2 <1memur>1 "official' <2(ma'mu**r),>2 <1mesele>1 "problem' <2( mas'alat-).>2 If the glottal stop is heard it is because the speaker is elderly, pedantic, or speaking slowly and deliberately. 16. Doubled consonants. These are not pronounced separately, but their enunciation is spread over a longer time than that of a single consonant: <1bati>1 "west' but <1batti>1 "it sank'; <1eIi%>1 "his hand' but <1elli%>1 "fifty'; <1gi%tti% mi%>1 "did he go?' but <1gi%tti%m mi%>1 "did I go?' The final consonant of the accented syllable of interjections is sometimes doubled: <1yazik>1 or <1yazzik>1 "a pity ]', <1bravo>1 or <1bravvo>1 "well done]' Similarly <1o saat>1 "straight away', the <1o>1 being ac- cented, is regularly pronounced with a doubled s, though not so spelt. Doubled final consonants in Arabic borrowings are simplified into a single consonant, except when the addition of a suffix consisting of or beginning with a vowel makes the doubled con- sonant pronounceable: <2@aqq>2 "right' å <1hak,>1 acc. <1hakki;>1 <2@add>2 "limit' å <1had,>1 acc. <1haddi%;>1 <2kull>2 "totality' å <1ku*l,>1 acc. <1ku*ll u*.>1 <2"afw>2 "pardon' å <1af,>1 acc. <1affi,>1 with the original <2w>2 assimilated t o the <2f>2. The doubled <2s>2 is lost in <2tama**ss>2 "contact' å <1temas,>1 acc. usually <1temasi,>1 pedantically <1temasi%.>1 17. Consonant-clusters and epenthetic vowels. Two consonants never occur together at the beginning of native words, if we except the colloquial <1brakmak>1 for <1birakmak>1 "to leave'. Within a word, it is rare to find more than two consonants adjoining. When consonant-clusters occur in foreign borrowings they are simplified by the addition of a vowel (a) before, or <2(b)>2 within an initial cluster, or <2(c)>2 within a final cluster : (a) French <2station>2 å <1istasyon;>1 <2statistique>2 å <1i%stati%sti%k;>1 <2splendide>2 å <1i%spi%la=ndi%t>1 (name of an apartment-building in Istanbul). Italian <2scala>2 å <1i%skele>1 "quay'; <2sgombro>2 å <1uskumru>1 "mackerel'; <2spirito>2 å <1i%spi%rto>1 "alcohol'. English <2screw>2 å <1uskur;> 1 <2steam>2 å <1i%sti%m>1 or <1i%sli%m.>1 (b) German <2Schlepp>2 å <1s+i%lep>1 "cargo-boat'; <2Groschen>2 å <1kurus+>1 "piastre'. English <2train>2 å <1ti%ren.>1 French <2sport>2 å <1sipor;>1 <2club> 2 å <1kulu*p;>1 <2classeur>2 å <1kila=so*r>1 "file'. The tendency among the educated is towards dispensing with such epenthetic vowels in initial clusters. The time-honoured <1kurus+>1 and <1s+i%lep>1 have no alternative forms, but <1tren>1 is used side by side with <1ti%ren, klu*p>1 with <1kulu*p, kla=so*r>1 with <1kila=so*r.>1 (c) Numerous borrowed nouns end in two consonants, which Turks have difficulty <2in>2 pronouncing unless the first is <11>1 or <1r>1 or unless a vowel is suffixed: Arabic <2ism>2 "name' å <1i%si%m>1 acc <1i%smi%.>1 <2"adl>2 "justice' å <1adi%l,>1 acc. <1adli%;>1 <2qism>2 "part' å <1kisim,>1 acc . <1kismi;>1 <2"aql>2 "intelligence' å <1akil,>1 acc. <1akli;>1 <2matn>2 "text' å <1meti%n,>1 acc. <1metni%;>1 <2"umr>2 "life' å <1o*mu*r,>1 acc. <1o*mru*;>1 <2fikr>2 "thought' å <1fi%ki%r,>1 acc. <1fi%kri%.>1 Persian <2shahr>2 "city' å <1s+ehi%r,>1 acc. <1s+ehri%.>1 Some borrowings of this shape, however, retain the epenthetic vowel even when a vowel is suffixed: Arabic <2$inf>2 "class' å <1sinif,>1 acc. <1sinifi;>1 <2sa&r>2 "line' å <1satir,>1 acc. <1satiri;>1 <2shi"r>2 "poetry ' å <1s+i%i%r,>1 acc. <1s+i%i%ri%.>1 Persian <2zahr>2 "poison' å <1zehi%r,>1 acc. <1zehi%ri%;>1 < 2tukhm>2 "seed' å <1tohum,>1 acc. <1tohumu.>1 Presumably the retention of the vowel was originally a vulgarism. There are signs that the number of such words is on the increase; particularly frequent in news- papers is <1s+ehi%re>1 instead of <1s+ehre>1 for the dative of <1s+ehi%r.>1 Conversely, some native words ending in consonant-vowel- consonant drop the original vowel when a vowel is suffixed : <1og*ul>1 "son', acc. <1og*lu>1 ; <1beyi%n>1 "brain', acc. <1beyni%.>1 18. Foreign diphthongs. The Arabic ai diphthong, written <2ay>2, is treated in Turkish as consisting of vowel-consonant. It may appear as <1ay>1 or <1ey;>1 in either event an epenthetic vowel appears before a following consonant unless that consonant is followed by a vowel: <2khayr>2 "good' å <1hayir,>1 acc. <1hayri;>1 <2iusayn>2 (masculine name) å <1Hu*seyi%n,>1 acc. <1Hu*seyni%;>1 <2meyl>2 "tendency' å <1meyi%l,>1 acc. <1meyli%.>1 Exception: the Arabic dual ending -<2ayn>2 å -<1eyn,>1 with no epenthetic vowel. The Arabic au diphthong, written <2aw>2, similarly appears as <1av>1 or <1ev,>1 the former generally taking an epenthetic vowel: <2qawm>2 "people' å <1kavi%m;>1 <2qawl>2 "word' å <1kavi%l>1 "agreement'; <2qaws>2 "bow' å <1kavi%s;>1 @aw| "pool' å <1havuz;>1 the accusatives being <1kavmi%, kavli%, kavsi%,>1 but <1havuzu.>1 Two English sporting terms, <2foul>2 and <2round,>2 appear as <1favl>1 and <1ravnt,>1 with no epenthetic vowel, the <1v>1 being pronounced as a semivowel. The combination <1ev->1consonant generally has no epenthetic vowel: <2mawt>2 "death' å <1mevt;>1 <2sawq>2 "driving' å <1sevk;>1 <2shawq>2 "desire' å <1s+evk;>1 <2dhawq >2 "taste' å <1zevk.>1 Exceptions: jawr "tyranny' å <1cevi%r,>1 acc. <1cevri%;>1 jawz "walnut' å <1cevi%z,>1 acc. <1cevi%zi%;>1 <2naw">2 "sort' å <1nevi%>1 (for <1nevi%>1 '), acc. <1nev 'i%.>1 19. Alternation of consonants. <1k/g*.>1 Final postvocalic <1k>1 in poly- syllabic substantives becomes <1g*>1 when a vowel is added: <1ayak>1 "foot', acc. <1ayag*i; ekmek>1 "bread', acc. <1ekmeg*i%>1 ; <1sokak>1 "street' (Õ Arabic <2zuqa**q),>2 acc. <1sokag*i; elektri%k>1 "electricity', acc. <1elektri%g*i%; trafi%k>1 "traffic, traffic-police', acc. <1trafi%g*i%.>1 A fe w monosyllables exhibit the same phenomenon: <1c+ok>1 "much', acc. <1c+og*u; go*k>1 "sky', acc. <1go*g*u*>1 as well as <1go*ku*.>1 Most, however, follow the pattern of <1ko*k>1 "root', acc. <1ko*ku*,>1 and <1dok>1 "dock, ware- house' (English through French), acc. <1doku.>1 <1g/k.>1 Final postconsonantal <2g>2 in foreign borrowings (cf. # 4, end) becomes <1k>1 but reappears if a vowel is added: Persian <2rang>2 "colour' å <1renk,>1 acc. <1rengi%;>1 <2a**hang>2 "harmony' å <1ahenk,>1 acc. <1ahengi%.>1 In borrowings from wcstern languages the <2g>2 is usually retained in writing but pronounced as <1k>1 except by the learned: <1kli%ri%ng>1 "clearing' (a financial term), <1mi%ti%ng>1 "political meeting'. <1g/g*.>1 Final postvocalic <1g,>1 vulgarly pronounced <1k,>1 changes to <1g*> 1 before an added vowel: <1katalog>1 "catalogue', acc. <1katalog*u;>1 <1jeolog>1 "geologist', acc. <1jeolog*u>1 or <1jeolog'u,>1 depending on the extent to which the user of the word regards it as a naturalized part of his vocabulary. In the latter example, as in the next, the apostrophe does not mark a glottal stop but preserves the original <1g>1 from the usual intervocalic change to g*. <1li%g>1 "football league', acc. <1li%gi%>1 or <1li%g'i%;>1 the colloquial form, however, is <1li%k,>1 acc. <1li% ki%.>1 <1b/p, c/c+, d/t.>1 An original <1b, c>1 (i.e. Arabic or Persian <2j>2), or <1 d>1 becomes <1p, c+,>1 or <1t>1 at the end of most polysyllabic borrowings and some monosyllabic, but reappears before a vowel: Arabic <2kita**b>2 "book' å <1ki%tap,>1 acc. <1ki%tabi;>1 <2i@tiya**j>2 "need' å <1i%hti%yac+,>1 ac c. <1i%hti%yaci;>1 Persian <2ta**j>2 "crown' å <1tac+,>1 acc. <1taci;>1 <2da**ma**d >2 "son-in- law' å <1damat,>1 acc. <1damadi;>1 French <2serenade>2 å <1serenat,>1 acc. <1serenadi.>1 Final <1p, c+,>1 and <1t>1 are voiced before vowels into <1b, c,>1 and <1d,>1 regularly in polysyllables, occasionally in monosyllables: <1di%p>1 "bottom', acc. <1di%bi%>1 ; <1ag*ac+>1 "tree', acc. <1ag*aci;>1 Arabic <2shari** &>2 "tape' å <1s+eri%t,>1 acc. <1s+eri%di%>1 ; French <2groupe>2 å <1grup,>1 acc. <1grubu>1 ; <2principe>2 "principle' å <1prensi%p,>1 acc. <1prensi%bi%>1 (the accusatives <1grupu,>1 <1prensi%pi%>1 are pedantic). Care must be taken not to confuse <1at>1 "horse', acc. <1ati,>1 with <1ad>1 "name', acc. <1adi,>1 or <1ot>1 "grass', acc. <1otu,>1 with the archaic <1od>1 "fire', acc. <1odu.>1 A few verb-stems change final <1t>1 to <1d>1 when a vowel is added, e.g. <1et->1 "to do', aorist <1eder; gi%t->1 "to go', aorist <1gi%der; gu*t->1 " to pasture', aorist <1gu*der.>1 Final <1p>1 and <1t>1 may arise from a doubled final <2b>2 and <2d>2 in Arabic borrowings. When a vowel is added, the original voiced double consonant reappears: <2mu@ibb>2 "friend' å <1muhi%p,>1 acc. <1muhi%bbi%;>1 <2radd>2 "rejection' å <1ret,>1 acc. <1reddi%.>1 There is no current example of the change from <2jj>2 to <1c+;>1 <2@ajj>2 "pilgrimage' becomes <1hac,>1 acc. <1hacci,>1 thus avoiding confusion with <1hac+>1 "crucifix', acc. <1hac+i>1 (Õ Armenian <2khach).>2 The original voiced consonant is similarly preserved in <1had>1 "limit' (# 16, last paragraph), which is thus distinguished from <1hat>1 "line', acc. <1hatti>1 (Õ Arabic <2kha&&).>2 The normal unvoicing occurs, however, <2in>2 <1serhat>1 "frontier' (Õ Persian <2sar>2 "head, chief'-Arabic <2@add>2 "limit'), acc, <1serhaddi%.>1 In foreign words which have become part of popular speech the original voiced consonant does not reappear before a vowel: Arabic <2@abb>2 "pill' å <1hap,>1 acc. <1hapi;>1 French <2tube>2 å <1tu*p,>1 acc . <1tu*pu*. set>1 "parapet' (Õ Arabic <2sadd)>2 has alternative learned and popular forms: acc. <1seddi%>1 and <1seti%>1 respectively. There was a short-lived fashion in the nineteen-fifties for con- sistently spelling (though not pronouncing) with <1b, c,>1 and <1d>1 the absolute forms of all nouns subject to the alternations <1b/p, c/c+,>1 <1d/t>1 : <1ki%tab, muhi%b, i%hti%yac, tac, s+eri%d, red,>1 etc. This fashion is refiected in the second edition of <2OTD >2 (1957) and the third edition of <2TS>2 (1959), but not in the fifth edition of <2IZmla= Kilavuzu>2 (1959) or <2YIK>2 (1965), which print <1ki%tap, muhi%p, i%hti%yac+, tac+,>1 <1s+eri%t, ret,>1 etc. Survivals of the practice may be regarded as idiosyncratic. 20. Consonant assimilation in suffixes. When a suffix beginning with <1c, d,>1 or <1g>1 is added to a word ending in one of the unvoiced consonants <1c+, f, h, k, p, s, s+, t,>1 the initial consonant of the suffix is unvoiced to <1c+, t,>1 or <1k.>1 The suffix -<1ci%>1 denotes occupation: <1es ki%>1 "old', <1eski%-ci%>1 "old-clothes dealer', but <1eIektri%k-c+i%>1 "electrician', The suffix of the locative case is -<1de: IZzmi%r'de>1 "in Izmir' but <1Pari%s'te>1 <2"in>2 Paris'. The locative case of <1i%s+>1 "work' is sometimes spelled <1i%s+de>1 to avoid confusion with <1i%s+te>1 "behold'; similarly the locative of <1u*s>1 "base' (naval, etc.) is spelt <1u*sde>1 to avoid confusion with the dative case <1u*ste>1 of <1u*st>1 "top'. The adjectival suffix -<1gan:> 1 <1atil-gan>1 "reckless' but <1unut-kan>1 "forgetful'. Those writers who follow the fashion mentioned at the end of # 19, i.e. who do not, in writing, recognize the unvoicing of final <1b, c,>1 and <1d,>1 do not unvoice the initial voiced consonant of suffixes either ; e.g. <1ki%tapc+i>1 "bookseller' they write as <1ki%tabci>1 and <1sevi%nc+te>1 "in joy' as <1sevi%ncde.>1 21 . Vowels : general observations. Turkish vowels are normally short but may be long in three situations; see # 3o. The difference between short and long vowels is of quantity not quality: the positions of the speech organs is the same; the change is in the length of time during which the breath flows. That is why long <1a>1 may be written <1aa;>1 see # 9, third paragraph and, # 3o (c). Vowels are classified according to three criteria: <2(a)>2 "Front' or "back', according to whether it is the front or back of the tongue which interrupts the flow of breath. <2(b)>2 "Open' or "close', according to the amount of space left between tongue and palate ; alternative terms are "high' and "low'. <2(c)>2 "Rounded' or "unrounded', according to the position of the lips. The eight vowels of standard Turkish are tabulated thus: <2Unrounded Rounded>2 <2Open Close Open Close>2 Back <1a i o u Front <1e i= o* u* 22. <1a.>1 A back, open, unrounded vowel, like the a of French <2avoir>2 or northern English <2man.>2 Short, <1baba>1 "father'; long, <1dag*a>1 "to the mountain'. There is also a front sound of <1a,>1 verging on that of <1e,>1 which can be heard in careful speakers' pronunciation of some Arabic borrowings and in the Istanbul word <1anne>1 "mother' (elsewhere <1ana).>1 Short, <1di%kkat>1 "attention' ; long, <1cahi%I>1 "ignorant'. <123.>1 A back, close, unrounded vowel. It is not unlike the sound of a in <2serial,>2 but a closer approximation can be achieved by spreading the lips as if to say <2easy>2 but saying <2cushion>2 instead; the result will be the Turkish <1kis+in>1 "in winter'. Short, <1dis+>1 "exterior'; long, <1yaptig*im>1 "which I did'. Americans will recognize in it the sound of the first vowel of <2Missouri>2 as pronounced by a native of that state. <124. o.>1 A back, open, rounded vowel, like French o in <2note:>2 <1c+ok>1 "much', <1yok>1 "non-existent'. Long, as in <1dog*du>1 "he was born', it is much like the vowel of English <2daw>2 without the final u-glide. A word of warning is necessary here. Some English-speakers, aware that Turkish <1o>1 is not the same as English o in <2hot,>2 go to the other extreme and pronounce <1c+ok>1 and <1yok>1 exactly like <2choke>2 and <2yoke,>2 thus providing their Turkish friends with a good deal of amusement. Turkish <1o>1 is in fact closer to the vowel of <2hot>2 than to that of <2choke.>2 25 A back, close, rounded vowel between the vowels of English <2put>2 and <2pool.>2 Short, <1burun>1 "nose'; long, <1ug*ur>1 "luck'. 26. <1e.>1 A front, open, unrounded vowel, like French e in <2e=tre.>2 Short, <1sever>1 "he loves'; long, <1tesi%r>1 "effect'. It also has a closer pronunciation, verging on the sound of <1i%,>1 which is sometimes heard especially in the first syllables of <1vermek>1 "to give' and <1gece>1 "night'. These two sounds of <1e>1 are not separate phonemes in standard Turkish. In dialect, however, <1el>1 "hand' and <1el>1 "people', homophones in the standard language, are pronounced differently, with open and close <1e>1 respectively. 27. <1i%.>1 A front, close, unrounded vowel, as in French <2si,>2 closer than in English <2pin.>2 Short, <1di%s+>1 "tooth'; long, <1i%g*ne>1 "needle'. <128. 0*.>1 A front, open, rounded vowel, as in German; the French eu in <2peur.>2 Short, <1go*rmek>1 "to see'; long, <1o*g*renmek>1 "to learn'. <129. u*.>1 A front, close, rounded vowel, as in German; the French u in <2mur.>2 Short, <1u*zu*m>1 "grapes'; long, <1du*g*me>1 "button'. <130.>1 Vowel length. The three situations in which long vowels occur are: (a) In foreign borrowings: <2gha**zi**>2 (A) "warrior for the Faith' å <1gazi%>1 (pronounced ga**zi); <2bara**bar>2 (P) "together' å <1beraber>1 (long a). Many originally long vowels, however, are shortened : <2kaba**b>2 (A) "roast' å <1kebap>1 ; <2baqqa**l>2 "greengrocer' å <1bakkal>1 "grocer'. This tendency is still in progress, as may be seen in so recent a borrowing as <2jeep>2 å <1ci%p,>1 with short <1i%.>1 A long vowel in Arabic borrowings may represent an original short vowel-<2hamza>2 or short vowel-<2"ayn: ta'thi**r>2 "effect' å <1tesi%r>1 (e long); <2ma"lu**m>2 "known' å <1malu=m>1 (both vowels long). A large number of Arabic borrowings retain an original long vowel in the last syllable when a vowel is added, but shorten it otherwise ; <1tesi%r>1 is one such, acc. <1tesi%ri%>1 pronounced te**si**ri. Oth ers in common use include <1hayat>1 'life', acc. <1hayati; zaman>1 "time', acc. <1zamani; mal>1 "property', acc. <1mali% ; cevap>1 "answer', acc. <1cevabi,>1 all the accusatives with <1a>1 long. All such words are indicated in the <20TD.>2 Rarely one sees an idiosyncratic use of <1i%y>1 to denote long <1i%,>1 par- ticularly in the pietistic spelling <1i%yman>1 for <1i%man>1 "faith'. Yakup Kadri Karaosmanog*lu, one of Turkey's greatest writers, habitually spells, for example, <1i%la=n>1 "notice' and <1i%ti%bar>1 "regard' as <1i%yla=n> 1 and <1i%yti%bar;>1 he also uses the spelling <1kiy>1 for the Arabic <2qi**>2 (see # 9, penultimate paragraph). The spelling <1li%ynet>1 for Arabic <2li**nat->2 "looseness of the bowels', however, is conventional. (b) Any vowel followed by <1g*->1consonant (except when <1g*>1 is interchangeable with <1v;>1 see # lo), any front vowel followed by y-consonant, or any back vowel followed by <1g*>1 is pronounced long: <1deg*di%>1 "he touched'; <1yag*mur>1 "rain'; <1meyva>1 "fruit'; <1dag*>1 "mountain'; <1c+ig*>1 "avalanche'. (c) When it is desired to emphasize a word, one vowel may be dwelled on, i.e. lengthened. This lengthening may be shown in writing by repeating the vowel-letter, often to an extent that would surprise an English printer: <1asla>1 "never', <1aslaaa>1 "never ]'; <1c+ok>1 "much', <1c+oook>1 "much too much'; <1c+oktan>1 "for a long time' <1c+oktaaan>1 "for ages and ages'; <1fakat>1 "but', <1fakaaaaaat>1 <2"but'.>2 <1vay anam,>1 literally "oh, my mother', an expression of distress, may be spelled <1vay anaam.>1 Doubled vowels originally separated in Arabic by <2hamza>2 or <2"ayn,>2 as well as doubled vowels arising from compounding words, are pronounced separately : <1s+a=s+aa>1 "glitter' Õ <2sha"sha'a>2 (A) ; <1karaag*ac +>1 "elm' Õ <1kara>1 "black'-<1ag*ac+>1 "tree'. <131.>1 Vowel harmony. The principle of vowel harmony, which permeates Turkish word-formation and suffixation, is due to the natural human tendency towards economy of muscular effort. It is expressed in three rules: <2(a)>2 If the first vowel of a word is a back vowel, any subsequent vowel is also a back vowel; if the first is a front vowel, any subse- quent vowel is also a front vowel. <2(b)>2 If the first vowel is unrounded, so too are subsequent vowels. <1(c)>1 If the first vowel is rounded, subsequent vowels are either rounded and close or unrounded and open. The first rule is based on the phenomenon of palatal assimila- tion: that part of the tongue which interrupts the breath-flow over the palate in the production of the first vowel of a word remains in use for the production of the subsequent vowels of the word. The second and third rules are based on labial assimilation: if the lips are rounded for the first vowel they may stay rounded for subsequent vowels, whereas if they are uurounded for the first vowel the speaker does not make the effort to round them subse- quently. There is a partial exception to the second rule: the special case of words whose first vowel is <1a>1 followed by <1b, m, p,>1 or <1v,>1 as the lip-position for the production of these labial con- sonants is not far removed from the rounded position necessary for the production of <1u.>1 The practical effect of these rules may be set out thus: <1a>1 may be followed by <1a>1 or <1i.>1 It may also be followed by <1u,>1 if <1b, m, p,>1 or <1v>1 intervenes. <1i>1 may be followed by <1a>1 or <1i>1 <1o>1 ,, ,, ,, <1,,u,,a>1 <1u>1 ,, ,, ,, <1,,u,,a>1 <1e>1 ,, ,, ,, <1,,e,,i%>1 <1i%>1 ,, ,, ,, <1,,e,,i%>1 <1o*>1 ,, ,, ,, <1,,u*,,e>1 <1u*>1 ,, ,, ,, <1,,u*,,e>1 If the vowel of the first syllable is, say, <1e,>1 that of the s be <1e>1 or <1i%,>1 so, for example, <1gelen>1 and <1geli%n>1 are possible words but gelan and gelo*n are not. To find the possible third vowels of a word beginning <1geli%n,>1 we look at <1i%>1 in the first column and see that it can be followed by <1e>1 or <1i%;>1 thus <1geli%ne>1 and <1gelini>1 are ossible but gelino* and gelini are not. It will observed that, as a rule, <1o>1 and <1o*>1 occur only in first syllables. Vowel harmony is a process of progressive assimi vowel affecting the second, and so on. There are some instances of regressive assimilation; for example, in <1o bir>1 "the other' the <1o>1 is fronted to 0* by regressive assimilation to the <1i%,>1 which it in turn rounds to u* giving the form <1o*bu*r.>1 See also <1bu gu*n>1 å <1bu*gu*n>1 in #32 <2(b)>2 and <1i%mparator, menecer, madalya, apolet,>1 and <1u*tu*v>1 in #33. 32. Exceptions to the rules of vowel harmony. These are of four classes : <1(a)>1 Native words, simple. The following words contain both back and front vowels: <1dahi%>1 "also', <1ela=>1 "light brown', <1elma>1 "apple', <1hangi%>1 "which ?', <1hani%>1 "where?', <1haydi%>1 "come on ]', <1i%nanmak>1 "to believe', <1kardes+>1 "brother' (see IV, 9), <1katmer>1 "the state of being folded', <1s+i%s+man>1 "fat'. Note also <1anne>1 (# 22). <1(bl>1 Compound words, e.g. <1bu>1 "this'-<1gu*n>1 "day' å <1bugu*n>1 "today', sometimes heard as <1bu*gu*n>1 and even <1bu*g*u*n ; bas+>1 "head'- <1mu*fetti%s+>1 (A) "inspector' å <1bas+mu*fetti%s+>1 "chief inspector'. <1(c)>1 Invariable suffixes : -<1das+, -yor, -ken, -leyi%n, -i%mtrak, -ki%,>1 and -<1gi%l. -ki%>1 and the rare suffixed form of <1i%c+i%n>1 "for' sometimes exhibit an exceptional variation <1i%/u*,>1 appearing as -<1ki%>1 and -<1c+ln>1 after unrounded vowels, -<1ku*>1 and -<1c+u*n>1 after rounded vowels. <1(d)>1 Foreign words, e.g. <1beyan>1 (A) "declaration', <1ferman>1 (P) "command', <1mi%krop>1 (French) "microbe', <1feri%bot>1 (English) "car- or train-ferry', <1pi%skopos>1 (Greek) "bishop' 33. Vowel harmony in foreign borrowings. The effect of vowel harmony extends to non-Turkish words too, bringing as many vowels as possible of a foreign borrowing into one class, or pressing a foreign borrowing whose vowels happen to be all of one class still further into Turkish form. Thus Serbo-Croat <2imperator>2 "emperor' å <1i%mparator.>1 English <2manager,>2 in the special sense of manager of a football team, appears as <1menecer,>1 while a "penalty' <2in>2 football is <1penalti.>1 Italian <2medaglia>2 "medal' å <1madalya.>1 French <2epaulette>2 å <1apolet>1 ; <2etuve>2 "sterilizer' å <1etu* v>1 å <1u*tu*v.>1 Arabic <2mumkin>2 "possible' å <1mu*mki%n>1 å <1mu*mku*n>1 ; <2mudi* *r>2 "administrator' å <1mu*di%r>1 å <1mu*du*r;>1 <2mufti**>2 "jurisconsult' å <1mu*fti%>1 å <1mu*ftu*;>1 <2qib&i**>2 "Copt' å <1kipti%>1 å <1kipti>1 "gipsy'. 34. Vowel harmony of suffixes. Apart from the exceptions noted in # 32 <2(c),>2 all suffixes are subject to the rules of vowel harmony, . the quality of the last syllable of the word determining the quality <1of>1 the vowel of the suffix. Some suffixes are twofold, their vowel appearing as <1e>1 after front-vowel words, as <1a>1 after back-vowel words. Others are fourfold, their vowel being <1i%>1 or <1u*>1 after un- rounded and rounded front vowels respectively, <1i>1 or <1u>1 after unrounded and rounded back vowels respectively. The suffix of the dative case, for example, is twofold: -<1e>1 with front-vowel words, -a with back-vowel words. 'The suffix of the genitive is fourfold: -<1in>1 after <1e>1 or <1i, -u*n>1 after <1o*>1 or <1u*, -in after <1a >1 or <1i, -un>1 after <1o>1 or <1u.>1 As for words with more than one suffix, the two tables below show the possiblc vowels (a) of a twofold suffix after a fourfold suffix, and (b) vice versa. It will be seen that these tables contain no new information but are based entirely on # 31- (a) <2Last vowel Vowel of first Vowel of second>2 <2of word suffix: fourfold suffix: twofold>2 <1e>1 or <1i%>1 <1i%>1 <1e>1 <1o*>1 or <1u*>1 <1u*>1 <1a>1 or <1i>1 <1i>1 <1a>1 <1o>1 or <1u>1 <1u>1 If the vowel of the second suffix is also fourfold it will be as shown for the first suffix. (b) <2Last vowel Vowel of first Vowel of second>2 <2of word suffix: twofold suffix: fourfold>2 <1e,i%,o*,u*>1 <1e>1 <1i%>1 <1a,i,o,u>1 <1a>1 <1i>1 If the vowel of the second suffix is also twofold it will be as shown for the first suffix. The tables also hold good for suffixes of two syllables; e.g. reference to table <1(a)>1 shows that the suffix -<1ince>1 will appear as -<1unca>1 after a word whose last vowel is <1u,>1 while reference to (b) shows that -<1esi%>1 will appear as -<1asi>1 after a word whose last vowel is i. The convention followed in this book is to refer to suffixes <2in>2 their <1e>1 or <1i%>1 forms; thus we shall speak of the plural suffix, which is -<1ler>1 after front vowels and -<1lar>1 after back vowels, as -<1ler.>1 Similarly the genitive suffix will be referred to as -<1i%n,>1 which must be read as short for "the appropriate close vowel-<1n,>1 i.e.<1-in,-u*n,>1 -<1in,>1 or -<1un,>1 according to the nature of the preceding vowel'. Some grammars indicate whether a suffix undergoes the twofold or the fourfold mutation by the use of indices; e.g. the plural suffix may be shown as -<1ler>1 the genitive suffix as -<1i%n,>1 but there is no need for this once the principle has been grasped. The consonant-alternations described in # 20 add to the protean nature of the Turkish suffix. The suffix conventionally referred to as -<1ci%,>1 for example, has eight possible forms, illustrated in these eight words : <1kahveci%>1 "coffee-maker', <1tu*tu*ncu*>1 "tobacconist', <1kapici>1 "janitor', <1sporcu>1 "sportsman', <1bekc+i%>1 "watchman', <1su*tc+u* >1 "milkman', <1telgrafc+i>1 "telegraphist', <1topc+u>1 "artilleryman'. <135.>1 Vowel harmony of suffixes with foreign borrowings. Some foreign words with a back vowel in the last syllable nevertheless take front-vowel suffixes. These may be grouped as follows : (a) Arabic or French words ending in <2I>2 (# 12): <1mahsul>1 "pro- duce', acc. <1mahsuIu*; rol>1 "role', acc. <1rolu*.>1 The fact that <1gol>1 "goal' is similarly treated--acc. golu*--shows that it is borrowed from French and not directly from English. (b) Arabic words ending in k: <1i%drak>1 "perception', acc. <1i%draki%>1; <1i%s+ti%rak>1 "participation', acc. <1i%s+ti%raki%.>1 But Arabic words ending in q take back-vowel suffixes: <2sharq>2 "east' å <1s+ark,>1 acc. <1s+arki;>1 see the penultimate paragraph of this section. (c) Arabic words ending in <2t>2 or -<2at->2 (p. 8, footnote): <1di%kkat>1 "attention', acc. <1di%kkati%>1 ; <1saat>1 "hour, clock', acc. <1saati%.> 1 But Arabic feminine plurals in -<2a**t>2 take back-vowel suffixes : <1ri%yazi%yat>1 "mathematics', acc. <1ri%yazi%yati>1 ; <1ruhi%yat>1 "psychology', acc. <1ruhi%yati.>1 So too do words ending in <1t>1 derived from the unvoicing of Arabic final <2d: iqtii**a**d>2 "economy' å <1i%kti%sat,>1 acc. <1i%kti%sadi; >1 <2maq$ad>2 "purpose' å <1maksat,>1 acc. <1maksadi.>1 (d) Arabic monosyllables with an <2a>2 followed by two consonants, the second of which is a front consonant: <2@arb>2 "war' å <1harp,>1 acc. <1harbi%;>1 <2@arf>2 "letter of the alphabet' å <1harf,>1 acc. <1harfi%;>1 <2gharb>2 "west' å <1garp,>1 acc. <1garbi%.>1 When the two consonants in such words represent a sound-combination unpronounceable by Turks, the epenthetic vowel is a front vowel, because of the final front consonant; cf. <1kavi%l, kavi%m,>1 and <1kavi%s>1 <2in>2 # 18, and note also: <2waqt>2 "time' å <1vakit,>1 <2qabr>2 "tomb' å <1kabi%r,>1 <2ba@th>2 "dis- cussion, topic' å <1bahi%s>1 ; accusatives <1vakti%, kabri%, bahsi%.>1 (e) The Persian <1ya=r>1 "friend, beloved' (confined to poetry) has front-vowel suffixes : acc. <1ya=ri%,>1 gen. <1ya=ri%n,>1 dat. <1ya=re,>1 and <1ya=ri%m>1 "my friend'. The explanation that this is to avoid con- fusion with the native words <1yara>1 "wound', <1yari, yarim>1 "half', and <1yarin>1 "tomorrow' is too facile; it could never have happened if <1ya=r>1 had not ended in a front consonant. and <1yarin>1 "tomorrow' is too facile; it could never have happened if <1ya=r>1 had not ended in a front consonant. Some such foreign words, however, have become completely naturalized, because they conform to Turkish phonetic patterns, and they therefore take back-vowel suffixes: <1sanat>1 "art' (# 15) could perfectly well be a native word, like <1kanat>1 "wing', whereas <1saat,>1 with its double <1a,>1 could not. Similarly <1kanal>1 (French <2canale)>2 looks as Turkish as <1kartal>1 "eagle' and its accusative i%s <1kanali.>1 So too <1asil>1 "origin' (Arabic <2a$l),>2 acc. <1asIi.>1 Partly b y analogy with this word, partly through its frequent use as a musical term, <2fa$l>2 (A) "division' å <1fasil,>1 acc. <1fasli,>1 although it s initial <1f>1 marks it as non-Turkish. Likewise <1rahat>1 "ease, comfort', though marked as non-Turkish by its initial <1r,>1 belongs to the back-vowel class because of its everyday use. Arabic words ending in <2q>2 , even if they have a front vowel in the last syllable, take back-vowel suffixes: <2shawq>2 "desire' å <1s+evk,>1 acc. <1s+evki;>1 <2sawq>2 "drive' å <1sevk,>1 acc. <1sevki;>1 <2fawq>2 "top' å < 1fevk,>1 acc. <1fevki.>1 There is a tendency to eliminate more and more of these exceptional vowel harmonies. Some elderly people still give <1sanat>1, or rather <1san'at,>1 front-vowel suffixes; for a young person to do so would be regarded as affectation, and it is a fairly safe pre- diction that <1rolu*, i%draki%, harbi%,>1 and so on will one day yield to <1rolu, i%draki, harbi,>1 first in vulgar speech, then -in educated speech, and finally in writing. 36. Alternation of vowels. If a suffix beginning with <1y>1 is added to a verb-stem ending in <1e>1 or <1a,>1 the <1y>1 narrows the <1e>1 or <1a>1 into <1i%>1 or <1i>1 respectively, unless <2(a)>2 the vowel after the <1y>1 is <1i%>1 or i, when the <1e>1 or <1a>1 remains unchanged, e.g. <2in>2 <1konus+ma-yiverdi%,>1 or <1(b>1 both the vowel before the <1e>1 or <1a>1 and the vowel after the <1y>1 are rounded, when the <1e>1 or <1a>1 becomes <1u*>1 or <1u.>1 Thus <1bekle-yecek>1 å <1bekli%yecek ; anla-yacak>1 å <1anliyacak ; tu*re-yor>1 å <1tu*ru*yor;>1 <1kolla-yor>1 å <1kolluyor.>1 Some writers disregard these changes, writing <1bekleyecek, anlayacak, tu*reyor, kollayor.>1 <2Yeni>2 <2IZmla= Kilavuzu>2 recommends disregarding them except before -<1yor.>1 37. Accentuation: general observations. There is little unanimity about accentuation among writers on Turkish grammar. As <1one>1 listens to Turkish being spoken one notices that some syllables are more marked than others. The problem is to identify the way they are marked; is it by stress or a change in musical pitch? In the present work "accent' means a rise in the pitch of the voice. But apart from the nature of the accent, there is some disagree- ment, even among native authorities, about which syllable in a given word is accented. The reason why such disageement is possible is, firstly, that word-accent in Turkish is not so powerful as in English, where the accented syllable often swamps the unaccented ("Extr'ord'n'ry]') or as in Russian, grammers of which have to give rules for the pronunciation of unaccented syIlables. Secondly, group-accent and sentence-accent (i.e. intona- tion) both override word-accent so completely that some authori- ties have denied the existence of word-accent altogether. An English parallel will make this clearer. If one were asked to mark where the word-accent comes in <2machine,>2 one would naturally put it on the second syllable: <2machine.>2 But if the word is used as the second element of a compound noun its accent is lost and the group-accent prevails: <2sewing-machine.>2 If a manufacturer of sewing-machines tells his wife that he has bought one for her, her reply may well be an incredulous "You've <2bought>2 a sewing- machine?' with both word- and group-accent lost and the sentence-accent on "bought' prevailing. <138.>1 Word-accent. With the exceptions stated below, Turkish words are oxytone, i.e. accented on the last syllable; when an oxytone word is extended by suffixes the accent is on the last syllable of the word thus formed: <1c+ocu*k>1 "child', <1c+ocukla*r>1 "children', <1c+ocuklarimi%z>1 "our children' <1uklarimizi*n of our children'; <1oda=*>1 "room', <1odada=*>1 "in the room', <1odadaki%=*>1 "that whi ch is in the room', <1odadaki%le=*r>1 "those who are in the room', <1odada->1 <1kilerde=*n>1 "from those who are <2in>2 the room'. Non-oxytones keep the accent on the original syllable: <1te=*yze>1 "aunt', <1te=*yzeni%z>1 ", our aunt', <1te=*yzeni%ze>1 "to your aunt'; <1A=*ankara'da>1 "in Ankara'. <139.>1 Exceptions : <2(a)>2 Place-names are not oxytone : <1Ana=*oIu>1 "Anatolia', <1IZsta=*nbul.>1 Most are accented on their first syllable: <1Pa=*ri%s, Zo=*nguldak.>1 This rule is particularly to be noted with regard to place-names which are spelt the same as common nouns: <1misir>1 "maize', <1Mi=*:sir>1 "Egypt'; <1si%rkeci=*>1 "vinegar-seller', <1Si=*rkeci%,>1 a distric t of Istanbul; <1bebe=*k>1 "doll, baby', <1Be=*bek,>1 a village on the Bosphorus ; <1karama=*n>1 "fat-tailed sheep', <1Ka=*raman,>1 a city of southern Anatolia; <1ordu=*>1 "army', <1O=*rdu,>1 a city on the Black Sea. Polysyllabic place-names of <2non->2Turkish origin generally retain their original accentuation : <1Ingi%lte=*re>1 "England', <1lspa=*nya>1 "Spai n', <1Anta=*lya, Mala=*tya.>1 There is, however, a tendency for the accent to go back to the beginning of the place-name; residents of Malatya, for example, generally accent the name of their city on the first syllable. <2(b)>2 Foreign nouns usually retain their original accentuation: <1loka=*nta>1 "restaurant' (Italian <2locanda);>2 <1o=*lta>1 "fishing-line' <1ra=*dyo>1 "radio, wireless'; <1ta=*ksi%>1 "taxi'; <1ko=*kteyl>1 "cocktail, cocktail-party' ; <1gaze=*te>1 "newspaper' (Italian <2gazzetta).>2 <1(c)>1 A number of nouns denoting relatives and living creatures: <1a=*nne>1 "mother', <1a=*bla>1 "elder sister', <1go*ru*=*mce>1 "husband's siste r', <1ye=*nge>1 "brother's wife', <1ha=*la>1 "paternal aunt', <1te=*yze>1 "maternal aunt', <1a=*mca>1 "paternal uncle', <1c+eki%=*drge>1 "grass-hopper', <1kari%nca> 1 "ant', <1koka=*rca>1 "pole-cat'. <1(d)>1 Adverbs are usually accented on the first syllable: <1s+i%=*i%>1 "now', <1so=*nra>1 "after', <1e=*vvla=>1 "firstly', <1a=*nsiz>1 or <1a=*nsizin>1 "suddenly', <1a=*ncak>1 "only'. This applies also to adverbs formed from nouns with the addition of a case-suffix : <1gerc+ekte=*n>1 "from the truth' but <1ge=*rc+ekten>1 "truly'. In several adverbs the suffix of the old instru- mental case appears: <1ki%s+in>1 "in winter', <1ya=*zin>1 "in summer' (the genitives, "of winter, of summer', are spelt identically but are accented on the last syllable). The nouns of place (XII, 12) are accented on the first syllable: <1bu=*ra>1 "this place', <1o=*ra>1 "that place', <1bu=*rada>1 "here', <1o=raya>1 "thither'. So are nouns used adverbially without suffixes: <1ni%hay*t>1 "end' but <1ni%=*hayet>1 "finally'; <1c+oklu=*k>1 "multitude' but <1c+o=*kluk>1 "often'; <1arti=*k>1 "residue' but <1a=*+rtik>1 "h ence- forth'. So too are some, but not all, adjectives used as adverbs: <1yalni=*z>1 "alone' but <1ya=*Iniz>1 "only'; <1sahi%=*h>1 "correct' but <1sa=*h i%>1 "really' (#>1 11). On the other hand, <1i%yi%>1 "good', <1fena>1 "bad', and <1c+abuk>1 "quick' remain oxytone even when used to mean "well, badly, quickly'. The third-person singular of the aorist of <1olmak>1 "to become', <1olur,>1 means not only "becomes' but also "all right, O.K.'. In this sense it may be accented on the first syllable as an adverb. <2(e)>2 In compound words the accent usually falls on the end of the first element: <1c+ipla=*k>1 "naked' <1c+iri=*lc+iplak "stark naked' ; <1bas +>1 "head' - <1baka=*n>1 "minister' å <1ba=*s+bakan>1 "prime minister'; <1bir>1 "a' - <1taki=*m>1 "set' å <1bi%=*rtakim "several' 2(f)>2 Diminutives in -<1ci%k>1 are accented on the first syllable: 1Nu=*fcik>1 "tiny', <1*e=vci%k>1 "little house'. <1(g)>1 Polysyllabic suffixes, except -<1leyi%n>1 and -<1cesi%ne>1 (# 40) are accented on the first syllable : <1gi%d-i%=*nce>1 "having gone'; <1yap-a=*rak>1 "by doing' So too are interjections and vocatives: <1ha=*ydi%>1 "come on]' <1a=*feri%n>1 "bravo ]' <1garso=*n>1 "waiter' but <1ga=*rson>1 "waiter ]' <140.>1 Enclitic suffixes. The following suffixes are enclitic; i.e. they themselves are never accented but throw the accent on to the preceding syllable : <1(a)>1 -<1le>1 "with': <1memnuni%ye=*tle>1 "with pleasure'; <1onu=*nla>1 "with him'. <1(b)>1 -<1ken>1 "while': <1yaza=*rken>1 "while writing'. <1(c)>1 The adverbial suffix -<1ce>1 and its extension -<1cesi%ne: i%yi%=*ce>1 "well', <1hayva=*ncasina>1 "bestialli'. <2(d)>2 The adverbial suffix -<1leyi%n>1 (compounded with the instru- mental -<1i%n)>1 : <1gece=*leyi%n>1 "by night', <1aks+a=*mleyi%n>1 "at evening'. <2(e)>2 The negative suffix -<1me: gel>1 "come', <1ge=*lme>1 "do not come'; <1anladi%=*>1 "he understood', <1anla=*madi>1 "he did not understand'. <2(f)>2 The suffix -<1yor>1 of the present tense: <1geli%=*yor>1 "he is coming'. <2(g)>2 The suffixed forms of the verb "to be'; see # 41 (a). <2(h)>2 The vowel of the Persian izafet; see Il, 26. Part of the controversy about Turkish accentuation is over the question whether these suffixes are properly described as enclitic or atonal, i.e. without accent. The former seems correct, as we see if we take a non-oxytone such as <1bas+bakan>1 (# 39 (e)) and add -<1le: ba=*s+baka=*nla,>1 with the accent before -<1la>1 at least as noticeable as that on <1bas+.>1 Those who take the opposing view adduce, e.g., <1sa=*dece>1 "simply' from <1sade=*>1 "simple' and <1a=*yrica>1 "separately' fro m <1ayri=*>1 "separate', in which the syllables immediately before the suffix are not accented; these words, however, simply have the accentuation normal in adverbs. 41. Enclitic words. The following words are enclitic: <2(a)>2 Those parts of the verb "to be' which are not formed from the stem <1ol->1 ; they are enclitic both when independent words and when suffixed: <1arkadas+i=*m i%di%>1 or <1arkadas+i=*mdi>1 "he was my friend'; <1evIi%=* i%se>1 or <1evli%=*yse>1 "if she is married'; <1ki%=*mse>1 "p erson' (V, 24) ; <1memnu=*num>1 "I am glad'. <2(b)>2 he interrogative particle <1mi%.>1 The rise in pitch before this particle is most noticeable, predominating over the word-accent : <1anla=*madi>1 "he did not understand' but <1anIamadi% mi% ?>1 "did he not understand ?' When the present tense, however, is followed by this particle it retains the accent on the penultimate: <1geli%=*yor>1 "he is coming'; <1geli%=*yor mu?>1 "is he coming?' <2(c)>1 The postpositions: <1si%zi%=*n gi%bi%>1 "like you'; <1beni%=*m i%c+i%n>1 "for me'. <2(d)>1 The conjunction <1ki%: di%yorla=*r ki% o=*lmiyacak>1 "they are saying that it will not happen' (note also the accent before the negative suffix in the last word). <2(e)>2 The adverb <1de- bi%=*z de>1 "we too' If more than one of these words come together, the accent is on the word preceding them : <1bi%=*z de mi% gi%deli%m ?>1 "shall we go too ?' <142.>1 Group-accent. The two most obvious features of this are: <2(a)>2 That in izafet-groups (lI, 17) the accent is normally on the first element, on the syllable which carries the accent when the word is spoken in isolation: <1Tu*=*rkiye Cumhuri%yeti%>1 "Republic of Turkey'; <1yem*k odasi>1 "dining-room'. <2(b)>2 Demonstratives are accented when they qualify nouns: <1bu=*>1 <1c+ocuk>1 "this child' but <1c+ocu=*k bu>1 "it's only a child' (V, 5). 43. Intonation. Sentence-accent or intonation is partly emotional, depending on the feelings and emphasis which the speaker wishes to convey, and partly syntactical and automatic. The general rule is that a rise in pitch denotes that the thought is not yet complete, whereas a fall in pitch marks its end. Thus the subject is uttered with a rising intonation, the predicate with a falling. The protasi of a conditional sentence likewise has a rising intonation, the apodosis a falling. Questions and exclamations have a rising in- tonation. THE NOUN 1. Gender. Turkish is devoid of grammatical gender, nor does the sex of persons affect the forms of words. The third-person pronoun <1o>1 does duty for "he', "she', and "it'; <1geli%r>1 means "he/she/it comes'. There are totally distinct names for the male and female of most by the use of <1di%s+i%>1 "female' or <1erkek>1 "male': <1di%s+i% kedi>1 "f cat'; <1erkek ayi>1 "male bear'. With nouns which may denote persons of either sex, femininity may be shown by using <1kiz>1 "girl' or <1kadin>1 "woman' in apposition: <1kiz talebe>1 "girl student'; <1kadin garson>1 "waitress', <1kadin>1 ' <1kahraman>1 "heroine'; <1kardes+>1 "brother' or "sister', <1kizkardes+>1 (written as one word) "sister'. Advantage is also taken of the facilities possessed by French and Arabic for showing gender: "actress' is <1aktri%s;>1 "female dancer' is <1rakkase>1 (A) or <1danso*z;>1 "female clerk' is <1ka=ti%be>1 (A). The Serbo-Croat feminine suffix -<2ica>2 appears in three old borrowings : <1kirali%c+e>1 "queen', <1i%mparatori%c+e>1 "empress', <1c+aric+e>1 "tsarina' (Õ <2kraljica, imperatorica, carica).>2 Modelled on these is the neologism <1tanric+a>1 "goddess', from the name of the old Turkish sky-god <1Tanri.>1 The word <1hanim>1 "lady', originally "wife of a Kha**n <1(han)',>1 is held by some to contain an ancient Turkish feminine ending; cf. the Eastern Turkish <1begu*m>1 "begum', originally "wife of a Beg or Bey', though the evidence is slight. The ending is more prob- ably the possessive suffix of the first-person singular. 2. Number: the Turkish plural. The plural is formed by adding -<1ler>1 to the singular: <1talebeler>1 "students', <1kizlar>1 "girls'. The "singular' form of the noun, however, is numerically neutral (hence its use after numbers), denoting a category or an individual member of that category: <1poli%s>1 "the police' or "the policeman', <1bi%r poli%s>1 "a policeman', <1poli%sler>1 "the policemen'; <1s+i%i%r yazar>1 "he writes poetry', <1bi%r s+i%i%r yazar>1 "he writes a poem', <1s+i%i%rler yazar>1 "he writes poems'; <1casusluk>1 "espionage', <1bi%r casusluk>1 "a case of espionage'; <1kahramanlik>1 "heroism', <1kahramanliklar>1 "deeds of heroism'; <1i%yi%li%k>1 "goodness', <1i%yi%li%kler>1 "benefactions'. Thus <1padi%s+ahin bi%ri%,>1 lit. "one of sultan', means "one of the category ""sultan'', a certain sultan' and may well begin a fairy-tale. But <1padi%s+ahlarin bi%ri%>1 means one out of all the historical individuals who have held the title, "one of the Sultans'. A singular verb is commonly used with an inanimate plural subject, the plural verb being used for individuals. The use of a plural verb with a singular subject, second or third person, is a mark of respect. See further XVI, 1 and 3 <2(b).>2 Personal names may be used in the plural Iike our "the Joneses' to refer to a family; in Turkish the plural may be of a given name as well as of a surname: <1Mehmetler>1 "Mehmet and his family'; cf. # 15, end, and IV, 10. The plural <1erenler>1 of the present participle of <1ermek>1 "to attain', i.e. those who attain spiritual enlightenment, was used as a form of address among dervishes, even when speaking to a single person. Numerals are usually followed by a singular noun: <1kirk harami%>1 "forty thieves', <1u*c+ si%la=hs+or>1 "three musketeers', <1on i%ki% ada>1 "twel ve islands'. The use of a plural noun after a numeral shows that the persons or things in question form a particularly well-known and distinct entity: <1kirk harami%ler>1 "The Forty Thieves', <1u*c+ si%la=h->1 <1s+orlar>1 "The Three Musketeers', <1on i%ki% adalar>1 "the Dodecanese'. The plural suffix may be added directly to the numeral: "fourteen' is <1on do*rt>1 and the fourteen officers dropped from the Committee of National Unity in November 1960 were referred to in the press and in conversation as <1ondo*rtler>1 "The Fourteen'. So <1kirklar>1 "The Forty ÕSaintså'. <13.>1 Arabic plurals. Arabic has two types of plural. (a) The external or sound plural masculine is made by adding -<2u**n>2 for the nominative, -<2i**n>2 for the accusative and genitive. Turkish borrowed only the latter form, using it as a nominative (as in colloquial Arabic): <1memur>1 "official', pl. <1memuri%n;>1 this ending is obsolete <2in>2 Turkish, except that this particular example is occasionally used. The external or sound plural feminine is formed by addng -<2a**t.>2 Arabic uses it as Greek and Latin use the neuter plural; the modern Turkish vocabulary still retains a number of words such as <1vari%dat>1 "revenues', <1mu*la=hazat>1 "observations', <1i%kti%sadi%yat>1 "economics', <1has+arat>1 "vermin'. There are two jocular formations with this suffix added to Turkish words: <1gi%di%s+at>1 "goings-on' Õ <1gi%di%s+>1 "manner of going'; <1sac+mavi%yat>1 "stuff and nonsense' Õ <1sac+ma>1 "nonsense'. As <1sac+ma>1 ends with a vowel, the latter forma- tion is analogous to that of, e.g., <1ku*revi%yat>1 "spherical trigonometry' Õ <1ku*re>1 "sphere'. Both <1gi%di%s+at>1 and <1sac+mavi%yat>1 have something of the quasi-learned flavour of English <2shambolical Õ shambles.>2 <2(b)>2 The internal or broken plural is made not by suffixation but by wresting the singular out of shape: <2waqf,>2 pl- awqa**f>2 "pious foundation' ; <2sul&a**n>2 pl. <2sala**&i**n,>2 "sultan' - <2"a**lim,>2 pl. <2 "ulama**'>2 "scholar' Many broken plurals survive in Turkish, most being treated as Turkish singulars: <2&alaba>2 "students', pl. of <2&a**lib,>2 appears as <1talebe>1 "student'; <2"amala>2 "workmen', pl. of <2"a**mil,>2 as <1amele>1 "wo rk- man'; <2khadama>2 "servants', pl. of <2kha**dim,>2 as <1hademe>1 "man- servant'; <2tujja**r>2 "merchants', pl. of <2ta**jir,>2 as <1tu*ccar>1 "merchant '. The reason is that the Arabic broken plural, unlike the sound plural but just like the Turkish singular, can denote a class (in Arabic it can be construed with a singular verb) and therefore it fitted naturally into place in Turkish as a singular. The Arabic sound plural, on the other hand, denotes a number of individuals and was therefore felt by the Turks to be a true plural, not requiring the Turkish plural suffix. Some Arabic broken plurals are used in Turkish with a sense different from that of their singulars: <2juz'>2 "part' and its plural <2ajza>2 appear respectively as <1cu*z>1 "fascicle' and <1ecza>1 "The unbound fascicles of a book' or "chemicals, drugs'; <2shay'>2 "thing' and its plural <2ashya**'>2 appear as <1s+ey>1 "thing' and <1es+ya>1 "luggage, belonging s', the latter usually with the plural suffix, <1es+yalar.>1 <14.>1 Other plurals. In Ottoman, the Persian plural suffix -<2a**n>2 was frequently attached to Arabic singulars: <1mebusan>1 "Deputies to the Ottoman Parliament' Õ Arabic <2mab"u**th->2Persian -<2a**n.>2 Still in occasional use is <1zabi%tan>1 "officers' Õ Arabic <2|a**bi&->2Persian -<2a**n.>2 <1domates>1 "tomatoes' and <1patates>1 "potatoes' are both direct borrowings from modern Greek and both are treated as Turkish singulars. One quasi-Mongoloid plural, <1erat,>1 a product of the language- reform movement, has replaced, in official parlance, the Ottoman <1efrat>1 "private soldiers and N.C.O.s' Õ Arabic <2afra**d.>2 It is ap- parently a cross between <1efrat>1 and the Turkish <1er>1 "man'. 5. The Arabic dual. Arabic has a dual number, indicated by -<2a**n>2 in the nominative, -<2ayn>2 in the accusative and genitive: <2&araf>2 "side'; <2&arafa**n, &arafayn>2 "two sides'. As with the sound plural masculine, only the accusative-genitive form was taken into Otto- man; it survives in three obsolescent words: <1tarafeyn>1 "the two parties', and <1vali%deyn>1 and <1ebeveyn,>1 both meaning "the two parents'. 6. The cases. There are six. The simplest form of a noun, with no suffixes, is termed the absolute case; it is used not only for the nominative and vocative but also for the indefinite accusative. The term accusative will be applied to what should strictly be called the defined accusative. The other cases are: the genitive denoting possession; the dative denoting the indirect object and the end of motion ; the locative denoting place where ; the ablative denoting point of departure. Their commonest functions are illustrated below; for a more detailed examination see ## 9-14 and XVI, 5, 6, <2absolute>2 <1ev satildi>1 the house has been sold <1bi%r ev ariyoruz>1 we are seeking a house <2accusative>2 <1evi% aIdik>1 we have bought the-house <2genitive>2 <1evi%n bahc+esi%>1 the garden of-the-house <2dative>2 <1eve geldi%m>1 I came to-the-house <2locative>2 <1evde kaldi>1 he has stayed in-the-house <2ablative>2 <1evden uzak>1 far from-the-house As will be seen from these examples, the suffix of the accusative is -<1i%,>1 genitive -<1i%n,>1 dative -<1e,>1 locative -<1de,>1 and ablative -<1 den.>1 The first two are subject to the fourfold, the others to the twofold harmony. The case-suffixes follow the -<1Ier>1 of the plural. To prevent those suffixes which consist in or begin with a vowel from being lost when added to a word ending with a vowel, a separator or "buffer-letter'is used <1n>1 for the genitive, <1y>1 for the accusative and dative. The sole exception is <1su>1 "water', which in the ancient language was <1suw>1 and now has <1y>1 before the suffix of the genitive as well as of the accusative and dative. Another relic of the original final w is the v in the verb <1suvarmak>1 "to water an animal'. Examples will now be given to illustrate the changes wrought by vowel harmony and the other alternations described in Chapter I. <2(a)>2 Front-vowel class, consonant-stems ; <1eI>1 "hand', <1ko*y>1 "village' : <2Singular>2 <2abs.>2 <1el ko*y>1 <2acc.>2 <1eli% ko*yu*>1 <2gen.>2 <1eli%n ko*yu*n>1 <2dat.>2 <1ele ko*ye>1 <2loc.>2 <1eIde ko*yde>1 <2abl.>2 <1elden ko*yden>1 <2Plural>2 <2abs.>2 <1eIler ko*yler>1 <2acc.>2 <1elleri% ko*yleri%>1 <2gen.>2 <1ellerin ko*yleri%n>1 <2dat.>2 <1ellere ko*ylere>1 <2loc.>2 <1ellerde ko*ylerde>1 <2abl.>2 <1elIerden ko*ylerden>1 Reference to the tables in I, 31 or 34 will show that suffixes after <1i%>1 have the same forms as after <1e,>1 so that the declension of <1el> 1 serves as a model for consonant-stems whose last or only vowel is <1i%,>1 such as <1deni%z>1 "sea', <1di%s+>1 "tooth'. Similarly, the declensio n of <1ko*y>1 serves as a model for consonant-stems whose last or only vowel is <1u*,>1 such as <1tu*tu*n>1 "tobacco', <1gu*n>1 "day'. <2(b)>2 Front-vowel class, vowel-stems ; <1gece>1 "night' <1o*lc+u*>1 "measure' : <2Singular>2 <2abs.>2 <1gece o*lc+u* <2acc.>2 <1geceyi% o*lc+u*yu*>1 <2gen.>2 <1geceni%n o*lc+u*nu*n>1 <2dat.>2 <1geceye o*lc+u*ye>1 <2loc.>2 <1gecede o*lc+u*de>1 <2abl.>2 <1geceden o*lc+u*den>1 <2Plural>2 <2abs.>2 <1geceler o*lc+u*ler>1 <2acc.>2 <1geceleri% o*lc+u*leri%>1 <2gen.>2 <1geceIeri%n o*lc+u*nu*n>1 <2dat.>2 <1gecelere o*lc+u*lere>1 <2loc.>2 <1geceIerde o*lc+u*lerde>1 <2abl.>2 <1gecelerdcn o*lc+u*lerden>1 Like <1gece>1 are declined vowel-stems in <1i%,>1 such as <1gemi%>1 "ship', <1sergi%>1 "exhibition'. Like <1o*lc+u*>1 are declined vowel-stems in <1o*,>1 of which the only examples in common use are two French borrow- ings: <1mo*syo*>1 "Monsieur' and <1banli%yo*>1 "suburbs'. <2(c)>2 Back-vowel class, consonant-stems ; <1aks+am>1 "evening', <1son>1 "end' : <2Singular>2 <2abs.>2 <1aks+am son>1 <2acc.>2 <1aks+ami sonu>1 <2gen.>2 <1aks+amin sonun>1 <2dat.>2 <1aks+ama sona>1 <2loc.>2 <1aks+amda sonda>1 <2abl.>2 <1aks+amdan sondan>1 <2Plural>2 <2abs.>2 <1aks+amlar sonlar>1 <2acc.>2 <1aks+amlari sonlari>1 <2gen.>2 <1aks+amIarin sonlarin>1 <2dat.>2 <1aks+amlara sonIara>1 <2loc.>2 <1aks+amlarda sonlarda>1 <2abl.>2 <1aks+amlardan sonlardan>1 Like <1aks+am>1 are declined consonant-stems whose last or only vowel is <1i: kadin>1 "woman', <1c+ig*>1 "avalanche'. Like <1son>1 are decline d consonant-stems whose last or only vowel is <1u: sabun>1 "soap', <1kus+>1 "bird'. <2(d)>2 Back-vowel class, vowel-stems; <1tarla>1 "field' <1korku>1 "fear' <2Singular>2 <2abs.>2 <1tarla korku>1 <2acc.>2 <1tarlayi korkuyu>1 <2gfen>2 <1tarlanin korkunun>1 <2dat.>2 <1tarlaya korkuya>1 <2I>2 <1tId kkd>1 <2loc.>2 <1tarlada korkuda>1 <2abl.>2 <1tarladan korkudan>1 <2Plural>2 <2abs.>2 <1tarlalar korkular>1 <2acc.>2 <1tarlaIari korkulari>1 etc., as type (c). Like <1tarIa>1 are declined vowel-stems in <1i: kapi>1 "door', <1dari>1 "millet'. Like <1korku>1 are declined vowel-stems in <1o: palto>1 "over- coat', <1kadro>1 "staff, cadre'. <2(e)>2 Nouns exhibiting alternation of consonants; <1kitap>1 "book', <1ag*ac+>1 "tree', <1damat>1 "son-<2in->2law', <1renk>1 "colour', <1ekmek>1 "bre ad' (I,19): <1b/p c/c+ d/t g/k k/g*>1 <2Singular>2 <2abs.>2 <1ki%tap ag*ac+ damat renk ekmek>1 <2acc.>2 <1ki%tabi ag*aci damadi rengi% ekmeg*i%>1 <2gen.>2 <1ki%tabin ag*acin damadin rengi%n ekmeg*i%n>1 <2dat.>2 <1ki%taba ag*aca damada renge ekmeg*e>1 <2loc.>2 <1kitapta ag*ac+ta damatta renkte ekmekte>1 <2abl.>2 <1kitaptan ag*ac+tan damattan renkten ekmekten>1 <2plural>2 <2abs.>2 <1kitaplar ag*ac+lar damatlar renkler ekmekler>1 <2acc.>2 <1kitaplari ag*ac+lari damatlari renkleri ekmekleri>1 <2etc. etc. etc. etc. etc. <2(f)>1 Foreign borrowings with exceptional vowel-harmony; <1hal>1 "case', <1rol>1 "role', <1saat>1 "hour', <1harp>1 "war' (I, 35): <2Singular>2 <2abs.>2 <1hal rol saat har>1 <2acc.>2 <1hali% rolu* saati% harbi%>1 <2gen.>2 <1hali%n rolu*n saati%n harbi%n>1 <2dat.>2 <1hale role saate harbe>1 <2loc.>2 <1halde rolde saatte harpte>1 <2abl.>2 <1halden roIden saatten harpten>1 <2Plural>2 <2abs.>2 <1haller roi%ler saatler harpler>1 <2acc.>2 <1halleri% rolleri% saatleri% harpleri%>1 etc. etc. etc. etc. <1(g)>1 Nouns which add or drop a vowel in the last syllable; <1i%si%m>1 "name' (I, 17 <2(c)),>2 <1ag*iz>1 "mouth', <1koyun>1 "bosom', <1og*ul>1 "son', <1alin>1 "forehead' (I, 17, end) : <2Si%ngular>2 <2abs.>2 <1i%si%m ag*iz koyun og*ul alin>1 <2acc.>2 <1i%smi% ag*zi koynu og*lu alni>1 <2gen.>2 <1i%smi%n ag*zin koynun og*ulun alnin>1 <2dat.>2 <1i%sme ag*za koyna og*ula alina>1 <2loc.>2 <1i%si%mde ag*izda koyunda og*ulda alinda>1 <2abl.>2 <1i%si%mden ag*izdan koyundan og*uldan alindan>1 <2Plural>2 <2abs.>2 <1i%si%mler ag*izlar koyunlar og*ullar alinlar>1 <2acc.>2 <1i%si%mleri% ag*izlari koyunlari og*ullari alinlam>1 etc. etc. etc. etc. etc. Most native nouns of this sort are names of parts of the body. Of the examples, <1ag*iz>1 and <1koyun>1 are typical, whereas <1og*ul>1 and <1alin>1 retain the vowel of the second syllable in the dative, as does <1burun>1 "nose'; <1og*ul>1 retains it in the genitive too. As well as "son', <1og*ul>1 can mean "swarm of bees'; as well as "bosom', <1koyun>1 can also mean "sheep'. In these latter senses, both retain the <1u>1 in all cases. There is yet another word <1koyun,>1 the geditive of <1koy>1 "bay'. <2(h)>2 Nouns originally ending in "ayn (I, 15) are increasingly treated as vowel-stems except by the learned. Examples: <1mevzu>1 "topic, subject' Õ Arabic <2maw|u**";>2 <1cami%>1 "mosque' Õ Arabic <2ia**mi".>2 <2Learned Popular Learned popular>2 <2Singular>2 <2abs.>2 <1mevzu cami%>1 <2acc.>2 <1mevzuu mevzuyu cami%i% cami%yi%>1 <2gen.>2 <1mevzuun mevzunun cami%i%n cami%ni%n>1 <2dat.>2 <1mevzua mezvuya cami%e cami%ye <2loc.>2 <1mevzuda cami%de>1 <2abl.>2 <1mevzudan cami%den>1 <2Plural>2 <2abs.>2 <1mevzular cami%ler>1 <2acc.>2 <1mevzulari cami%leri%>1 etc. etc. <1(i)>1 Nouns originally ending in a doubled final consonant (I, 16, 19); <1hak>1 "right', <1muhi%p>1 "friend', <1hat>1 "line', <1serhat>1 "frontier' . Note that the dative and locative of <1hat>1 are identical in shape; <1hatta>1 can represent <1hatt-a>1 or <1hat-ta.>1 <2Singular>2 <2abs.>2 <1hak muhi%p hat serhat>1 <2acc.>2 <1hakki muhibbi% hatti serhaddi%>1 <2gen.>2 <1hakki%n muhi%bbi%n hatti%n serhaddi%n>1 <2dat.>2 <1hakka muhi%bbe hatta serhadde>1 <2loc.>2 <1hakta muhi%pte hatta serhatte>1 <2abl.>2 <1haktan muhi%pten hattan serhatten>1 <2Plural>2 <2abs.>2 <1haklar muhi%pler hatlar serhatler>1 <2acc.>2 <1hakari% muhi%pleri% hatlari% serhatleri%>1 etc. etc. etc. etc. <2(k)>2 Nouns combining the characteristics of types <2(f)>2 and <2(g);>2 in this type are included <2nouns>2 which in Arabic have medial or final <2"ayn> 2 or medial <2hamza.>2 Examples: <1vaki%t>1 "time' Õ Arabic <2waqt,>2 <1nevi%>1 "sort' Õ Arabic <2naw",>2 <1yei%s>1 "despair' Õ Arabic <2ya' s,>2 <2kair>2 "profundity' Õ Arabic <2qa'r>2 (I, 17 (c), 18). <2Singular>2 <2abs.>2 <1vaki%t nevi% yei%s kair>1 <2acc.>2 <1vakti% nev'i% ye'si% ka'ri>1 <2gen>2 <1vakti%n nev'i%n ye'sin ka'rin>1 <2dat.>2 <1vakte nev'e ye'se ka'ra>1 <2loc.>2 <1vaki%tte nevi%de yei%ste kairda>1 <2abl.>2 <1vaki%tten nevi%den yei%sten kairdan>1 <2Plural->2 <2abs.>2 <1vaki%tler nevi%ler yei%sler kairlar>1 <2acc.>2 <1vaki%ileri% nevi%Ieri% yei%sleri% kairlari>1 etc. etc. etc. etc. To this type belong <1s+eri%>1 "Muslim religious law', acc. <1s+er'i%; defi%>1 "repulsion', acc. <1def'i%; refi%>1 "elevation', acc. <1ref'i%; bei%s>1 "harm' , acc. <1be 'si%.>1 There are two nouns <2in>2 use which in the original Arabic have <2hamza>2 as their final consonant : <1s+ey>1 "thing' Õ <2shay';>2 <1cu*z>1 "par t' Õ <2juz'.>2 These are declined as type (a), except that <1cu*z>1 is usually spelled with an apostrophe before vowel endings: acc. <1cu*z'u*>1 gen. <1cu*z'u*n,>1 dat. <1cu*z'e.>1 7. Summary of case-endings. The letters <2in>2 brackets appear after vowel-stems. The table is valid except for <2nouns>2 of type (f) and for <1su>1 "water', which declines: sing. <1su, suyu, suyun, suya,>1 <1suda, sudan>1 ; pl. <1sular,>1 etc. <2Last vowel of>2 <2abs.sing.>2<1e>1 or <1i%>1 <1o*>1 or <1u*>1 <1a>1 or <1i>1 <1o>1 or <1u>1 <2Singular>2 <2acc->2 -<1(y)i%>1 -<1(y)u*>1 -<1(y)i>1 -<1(y)u>1 <2gffi->2 -<1(n)i%n>1 -<1(n)u*n>1 -<1(n)in>1 -<1(n)un>1 <2dat.>2 -(y)e -<1(y)a>1 <2loc.>2 -<1de/te>1 -<1da/ta>1 <2abl.>2 -<1den/ten>1 -<1dan/tan>1 <2Plural>2 <2acc.>2 -<1leri%>1 -<1lari>1 <2gen.>2 -<1leri%n>1 -<1larin>1 <2dat.>2 -<1lere>1 -<1lara>1 <2loc.>2 -<1lerde>1 -<1larda>1 <2abl.>2 -<1lerden>1 -<1lardan>1 8. Uses of the cases. A case-ending is attached only to the final element in a nominal group; in this respect the Turkish case- endings behave like English prepositions and not like the case- endings of inflected languages such as Latin: "good citizens', <1i%yi%>1 <2bon-orum civ-ium.>2 <1do*rt kere dokuz>1 "four times nine'; <1do*rt kere>1 <1dokuz-un kare ko*ku*>1 "the square root of four times nine'. 9. The absolute form. This has five functions: <2(a)>2 Nominative, as subject of a sentence or as complement of a verb meaning "to be, to become' or the like: <1kapi ac+ildi>1 "the door was opened'; <1ben Bas+bakan oImiyacag*im>1 "I shall not become Prime Minister'. See also # 10, end. <2(b)>2 Vocative : <1Ahmet] Taksi%]>1 <2(c)>2 Indefinite accusative, <2i.e.>2 as the undefined object of a verb: <1gazete c+ikarmak zor bi%r i%s+>1 "to publish newspapers is a hard job'; <1bi%let satiyorlar>1 "they are selling tickets'; <1si%gara i%c+mez>1 "he does not smoke cigarettes'; <1o*ku*z aldi>1 "he bought oxen'; <1bi%r>1 <1o*ku*z aldi>1 "he bought an ox'. one grammatical ending serves two or more parallel words : <1sihhat>1 ve <1afi%yet-te>1 "in health and well-being'. One can put the case- ending on both words--<1si%hhat-te ve afi%yet-te>1--just as one can repeat the preposition in English--"in health and in well-being'-- but this is less usual. <2(e)>2 Many adverbs of time are originally, nouns in the absolute form, e.g. <1bugu*n>1 "today'. <110.>1 Thc accusative case. It marks the definite object of a verb, i.e. an object defined: <1bi%r i%s+>1 "to publish this newspaper is a hard job'. <2(b)>2 By a personal pronoun, suffixed or independent: <1ev-i%mi%z-i%>1 or <1bi%zi%m evi% ki%raladi>1 "he has rented our house'. (c) By its nature, e.g. as a place-name, a personal name or title, a personal or demonstrative pronoun: <1Adana'yi gezdi%k>1 "we , toured Adana'; <1Hasan'i hemen tanidim>1 "I recognized Hasan immediately'; <1Profeso*r-u* sela=mladi>1 "he greeted the Professor'; <1si%z->1i% <1i%lgi%lendi%rmez>1 "it does not concern you'; <1bu-nu ni%c+i%n- yaptin>1 "why have you done this ?' <2(d)>2 By having been mentioned previously,i.e.in situations where English uses the definite article: <1o*ku*z-u* aldi>1 "he bought the ox'; <1ki%tab-i okumadim>1 "I have not read the book'. <2(e)>2 By being otherwise adequately defined, e.g. by a participle, The use of <1bi%r,>1 the "indefinite article', in such circumstances does not necessarily make the object indefinite ; see XVI, 4. A descriptive adjective is not in itself sufficient to make an object definite; compare <1bi%r mavi% kumas+ i%sti%yor>1 "she wants a blue material' with <1mavi% kumas+-i sec+ti%>1 "she chose the blue material'. The second object of a factitive verb, i.e. a complementary object, remains in the absolute form: <1onu Vali% tayi%n etti%ler>1 "they appointed him Governor'; <1IZstanbul'u IZstanbul yapan budur>1 "what makes Istanbul Istanbul is this'; <1seni% arkadas+ sanirdim>1 "I used to think you a friend'. 11. The genitive case. The genitive suffix shows that the sub- stantive to which it is attached stands in a possessive or qualifying relationship to another substantive ; see # 17. The substantive in the genitive case can also stand predicatively : <1ha=ki%mi%yet millet-i%n-di%r>1 "sovereignty belongs to (""is of'') the nation'; <1bu*tu*n suc+ si%z-i%n>1 "all the guilt is yours' ("is of-you')- Certain postpositions, originally nouns, are construed with the genitive of personal pronouns; see VII, 3. <112.>1 The dative case. This expresses: <2(a)>2 The indirect object of a verb: <1mektubu Ali%'ye go*sterdi%m>1 "I showed the letter to Ali'; <1hi%zmetc+i%-ye bi%r palto vereceg*i%z>1 "we are going to give the servant a coat'. It may translate the English "for' as in <1hi%zmetc+i%-ye bi%r palto alacag*iz>1 "we are going to buy a coat for the servant'. <2(b)>2 Place whither: <1Tu*rki%ye'ye do*ndu*ler>1 "they returned to T'urkey'; <1yer-e du*s+tu*>1 "it fell to the ground'; <1s+i%s+eyi% masa-ya koydu>1 "he put the bottle on the table'; <1borc-a batmiyalim>1 "let us not plunge into debt'; <1sandalye-ye oturdum>1 "I seated myself on the chair' (but the locative is used in <1sandalye-de oturu- yordum>1 "I was sitting on the chair'); <1bi%r orman-a gi%zlendi%ler>1 "they hid in a forest'. <2(c)>2 Purpose: <1kiz, c+i%c+ek dermeg*-e c+ikiyor>1 "the girl is going out to pick flowers'; <1talebe, i%mti%han-a hazirlaniyor>1 "the student is preparing for the examination'. <2(d)>2 Price: <1bunu kac+-a aldin ?>1 "for how much did you buy this ?'; <1go*z-e go*z, di%s+-e di%s+>1 "eye for eye, tooth for tooth'. Turkish idiom requires a dative with a number of verbs whose English equivalents take a direct object,' among the commonest being: <1bas+lamak>1 "to begin', <1deg*mek>1 and <1dokunmak>1 "to touch', <1benzemek>1 "to resemble', <1devam etmek>1 "to continue' <1ermek>1 and <1varmak>1 "to reach', <1gi%rmek>1 "to enter', <1yardim etmek>1 "to help'. For postpositions with the dative, i.e. postpositions modifying or narrowing down the meaning of the dative see VII,4. 13. The locative case. This expresses location, which may be: <2(a)>2 In place: <1ti%yatro-da>1 "at the theatre'; <1su-da>1 "in the water'; <1yer-de>1 "on the ground'; <1ben-de para yok>1 "I have no money on me'; <1radyo-da bi%r vazo var>1 "there <2is>2 a vase on the wireless'. <2(b)>2 In time: <1Ramazan-da>1 "in Ramadan' (the month of fasting) ; <1bes+ eylu=l-de>1 "on 5 September'. <2(c)>2 In an abstract: <1radyo-da bi%r konus+ma var>1 "there is a talk on the wireless'; <1i%hti%yarIik-ta>1 <2"in>2 old age'; <1sihhat-te>1 "in health '; <1gi%tmek-te>1 "in Õthe act ofå going'. The locative is used with ex- pressions denoting shape, size, colour, and age, where English idiom varies between "of' and "in': <1yumurta s+ekli%n-de bi%r tas+>1 "a stone in the shape of an egg'; <1on metre uzunlug*un-da bi%r i%p>1 "a cord of (lit.""in'') ten metres' length'; <1kahve rengi%n-de bi%r s+apka>1 "a hat of coffee-colour'; <1yirmi% yas+inda>1 "twenty years old' ("in the age of twenty'); <1bu fi%ki%r-de deg*i%li%m>1 "I am not of this opinion'. 14. The ablative case. This case expresses point of departure: <2(a)>2 Place from which: <1s+ehi%r-den ayrildi>1 "he departed from the city'; <1rag*bet-ten du*s+tu*>1 "it fell from esteem, ceased to be in vogue'; <1bu gi%di%s+ onu yeri%n-den edecek>1 "this behaviour will cost him his job' ("will make him Õawayå from his position'). <2(b)>2 lace through which: <1pencere-den gi%rdi%>1 "he entered by the window'; <1hangi% yoI-dan gi%di%li%r?>1 "by which road does one go?'; <1si%zi% teIefon-dan ariyorlar>1 "you are wanted on the telephone' ("they are seeking you through the telephone'); <1haber radyo-dan yayildi>1 'the news was broadcast' ("was spread through the radio'); <1hirsizi kolun-dan tuttum "1>1 caught the thief by his arm'; <1ki%tabi bi%r yeri%n-den daha ac+tim>1 "I opened the book at another page' ("through one place more'). In such uses as <1o kiz kafa-dan sakattir>1 "that girl is weak in the head' and <1i%hti%yar bo*brekleri%n-den rahatsizdir>1 "the old man has kidney- trouble' ("is ill through his kidneys'), the ablative is to be explained as like that in the two previous examples, i.e. as indicating the point through which someonc or something is affected, rather than as causal. <2(c)>2 The causal use is very frequent : <1muvaffakiyet-ten sarhos+>1 "drunk from success'; <1ac+lik-tan bi%tki%n>1 "exhausted from hunger'; <1ne-den?>1 "why ?' ("from what ?'); <1on-dan>1 "for that reason' ("from that'). Hence the use of the ablative with verbs such as <1korkmak>1 "to fear', <1s+u*pheIenmek>1 "to suspect', <1nefret etmek>1 "to loathe'. <1hos+lanmak>1 "to like'; what in English would be the object of the emotion is in Turkish its source. <2(d)>2 The second member of a comparison is put in the ablative: <1Tu*rki%ye Lu*bnan'dan bu*yu*ktu*r>1 "Turkey is bigger than Lebanon', i.e. Turkey is big if we take Lebanon as our point of reference. <2(e)>2 The ablative denotes the material from which something is made: <1naylon-dan yapilmis+ bi%r balik ag*i>1 "a fishing-net made of nylon'; <1so*z gu*mu*s+-ten, su*ku=t altin-dan>1 "speech is silver, silence is gold'; <1ates+-ten go*mlek>1 "shirt of fire' (a proverbial expression; of. "shirt of Nessus') <2(f)>2 The partitive use: <1koms+ular-dan bi%ri%>1 "one of the neigh- bours'; <1u*yeler-den bi%rkac+i>1 "several of the members'. Under this heading belongs <1hafi%f-ten almak>1 "to take lightly', lit. "to take from the light', i.e. to take as belonging to the light. <2(g)>2 The ablative expresses price, but not synonymously with the dative: <1bu elmalari kac+-tan aldin?>1 "at what price did you buy these apples?' i.e. at what price each or per kilo. With the substitution of the dative <1kac+-a>1 the meaning would be "what was the total amount you paid for these apples ?' For postpositions with the ablative see VII, 5. 15. Personal suffixes. The suffixed personal pronouns, indicating possession, are : <2After After>2 <2consonants vowels>2 <2Singular>2 1 -<1i%m>1 -<1m>1 1 -<1im>1 -<1m>1 2 -<1i%n>1 -<1n>1 <2Plural>2 1 -<1i%mi%z>1 -<1mi%z>1 1 -<1i%mi%z>1 -<1ni%z>1 2 -<1ini%z>1 -<1ni%z>1 3 -<1leri%>1 Thus a singular noun with the third-person plural suffix, e.g. <1el-<1leri%, c+ocuk-lari,>1 is identical in form with the plural of the noun with the third-person singular suffix <1(eller-i%, c+ocuklar-i)>1 and with the accusative plural. Consonant stems with the third- singular suffix have the same form as the accusative singular while with the second-singular suffix they have the same form as the genitive. Consonant-stems : <1el aks+am ko*y c+ouck>1 hand evening village child my <1elim aks+amin ko*yu*m c+ocug*um>1 your(sing.) <1elin aks+amin ko*yu*n c+ocug*um>1 his, her,its <1eli aks+ami ko*yu* c+ocug*u>1 our <1eli%mi%z aks+amimiz ko*yu*mu*z c+ocug*umuz>1 your (pl.) <1eli%ni%z aks+aminiz ko*yu*nu*z c+ocug*unuz>1 their <1elleri% aks+amlari ko*yIeri% c+ocuklari>1 Vowel-stems : <1anne kapi o*lc+u* korku>1 mother door measure fear my <1annem kapim o*lc+u*m korkum>1 your(sing.) <1annen kapin o*lc+u*n korkun>1 his, her,its <1annesi% kapisi o*lc+u*su* korkusu>1 our <1annemi%z kapimiz o*lc+u*mu*z korkumuz>1 your (pl.) <1anneni%z kapiniz o*lc+u*nu*z korkunuz>1 their <1anneleri% kapilari o*lc+u*leri% korkulari>1 Two anomalies: <1su>1 "water' is treated as a consonant-stem (cf. # 7), while <1ag*abey>1 "elder brother' (pronounced a**bi**, with the accent on the a**) behaves like a vowel-stem, though in the spelling this is acknowledged only with the suffix of the third-person singular: <2Pronounced>2 my <1suyum ag*abeyi%m>1 a**bim your (sing.) <1suyun ag*abeyi%n>1 a**bin his, her, its <1suyu ag*abeysi%>1 a**bi**si our <1suyumuz ag*abeyi%mi%z>1 a**bi**miz your (pl.) <1suyunuz ag*abeyi%ni%z>1 a**bi**niz their <1sulari ag*abeyleri%>1 a**bi**leri The personal suffixes follow the suffix of the plural, except that two -<1lers>1 never occur together, so that -<1i%>1 and not -<1leri%>1 is used f or the third-person plural suffix after plural nouns : <1eller c+ocuklar>1 hands children my <1elleri%m c+ocuklarim>1 your (sing.) <1elleri%n c+ocuklarin>1 his, her, its <1elleri% c+ocuklari>1 our <1elIeri%mi%z c+ocuklarimiz>1 your (pl.) <1elleri%ni%z c+ocuklariniz>1 their <1elleri% c+ocuklari>1 Thus <1c+ocuklari>1 can mean "his/her children', "their children', or "their child', as well as "the children' (acc.), while <1c+ocuklarin>1 can mean "your children' or "of the children'. In the colloquial, <1kardes+i%mler>1 means "my brother and <2his>2 family', <1teyzemler>1 "my aunt and her family' (cf. # 2, third para- graph), whereas <1kardes+leri%m>1 is "my brothers' and <1teyzeleri%m>1 "my aunts'. 16. Personal suffixes followed by case-suffixes. An <1n>1 appears between the suffix of the third person and any case-suffix, the result, with the singular of consonant-stems and all plurals, being identical in shape with the second-singular suffix plus the case- suffix. Thus the locative of <1el-i%>1 "his hand' is <1el-i%-n-de>1 and of <1el-i%n>1 "your hand' <1el-i%n-de,>1 while the dative of <1eller-i%>1 "his hand s' is <1eller-i%-n-e>1 and of <1eller-i%n>1 "your hands' <1eller-i%n-e.>1 This ambiguity does not arise with the singular of vowel-stems: "from his mother' is <1anne-si-n-den>1 but "from your mother' is <1anne-n- den>1 ; "at his door' is <1kapi-si-n-da>1 but "at your door' is <1kapi-n-da.>1 As late as the eighteenth century, the third-person suffix with the suffix of the accusative could be -<1in>1 as well as -<1i%ni%.>1 Some examples are given of the declension of nouns with the third-person suffix. There is no need to set out the declensions with the other personal suffixes, since, for example, <1elleri%mi%z>1 "our hands', <1ko*yu*nu*z>1 "your village', <1c+ocuklarim>1 "my children' decline exactly like unsuffixed consonant-stems. Cf. the declen- sions of <1el, ko*y,>1 and <1aks+am>1 respectively in # 6 (a) and (c). <1el-i% anne-si% ko*y-u*>1 his hand his mother his village <2acc.>2 <1eli%ni% annesi%ni% ko*yu*nu*>1 <2gen.>2 <1eIi%ni%n annesi%ni%n ko*yu*nu*n>1 <2dat.>2 <1eli%ne annesi%ne ko*yu*ne>1 <2loc.>2 <1eli%nde annesi%nde ko*yu*nde>1 <2abl.>2 <1eli%nden annesi%nden ko*yu*nden>1 <1ad-i kari-si c+ocug*-u>1 his name his wife his child <2acc.>2 <1adini karisini c+ocug*unu>1 <2gen.>2 <1adinin karisinin c+ocug*unun>1 <2dat.>2 <1adina karisina c+ocug*una>1 <2loc.>2 <1adinda karisinda c+ocug*unda>1 <2abl.>2 <1adindan karisindan c+ocug*undan>1 The principle of suspended affixation (# 9 <2(d))>2 must be borne in mind: <1tebri%k ve tes+ekku*rleri%mi% sunarim>1 "I offer my con- gratulations and thanks', the -<1ler-i%m-i%>1 applying to both nouns. The suffix of the first-person singular added to <1gu*zel>1 "beautiful' and <1can>1 "soul' makes <1gu*zeli%m>1 and <1canim,>1 used as adjectives of endearment even with nouns with suffixes of other persons: <1gu*zeli%m pi%yano-su>1 "her lovely piano'; <1canim Tu*rkc+emi%z>1 "our beloved Turkish'. 17. The izafet group. The commonest function of the suffix of the third person is to link one noun to another in a relationship most conveniently described by the Turkish term <1i%zafet>1 "annexa- tion'.>1 In English one noun may qualify another in two ways. In the first, the qualifying noun is put into the genitive: Land's End, St. Antony's College, soldiers of the Queen. In the second, no grammatical mechanism but simple juxtaposition is involved: Lane End, Oxford University, Palace guard. The two types of izafet correspond fairly closely to these two English patterns, with the difference that in both Turkish types the qualified noun takes the third-person suffix. The classical Turkish grammarians recognize a third type of izafet in which neither noun has a suffix, namely, when the first is a noun of material: <1altin bi%lezi%k>1 "gold bracelet', <1demi%r perde>1 "iron curtain'. If we are concerned only with the facts of modern Turkish, however, it is more practical to regard names of materials as being indifferently used as nouns or adjectives, as in English. Leaving the "izafet of material' aside, therefore, the two types of izafet are the definite or possessive and the indefinite. The definite izafet is employed when the first element is a definite person or thing to which or within which the second belongs. The first noun has the genitive suffix, the second has the suffix of the third person: <1uzman-in rapor-u>1 "the expert's report' ("of-the-expert his-report'), <1hafta-nin gu*nler-i%>1 "the days of the week', <1uzman-in kendi%-si%>1 "the expert himself' ("of-the- expert his-self'), <1lstanbul'un kendi%-si%>1 "Istanbul itself'. The indefinite izafet is used when the relationship between the two elements is merely qualificatory and not so intimate or possessive as that indicated by the definite izafet. The second noun has the suffix of the third person, but the first noun remains in the absolute form. As a working rule, an indefinite izafet group can be turned into intelligible (though not necessarily normal) English by the use of a hyphen: <1Ankara s+ehr-i%>1 "Ankara-city'; <1sec+i%m kuruI-u>1 "election-committee'; <1Tu*rki%ye Cumhuri%yet-i%>1 "the Turkey-Republic'. The distinction between the two types is seen in the following pairs of examples: <1U*ni%versi%te-ni%n profeso*rler-i%>1 "the professors of the University'; <1u*ni%versite profeso*rler-i%>1 "university pro- fessors'. <1Orhan'in i%sm-i%>1 "Orhan's name'; <1Orhan i%sm-i%>1 "the name ""Orhan'''. <1ki%mse-ni%n cevab-i>1 "nobody's answer'; <1ki%mse>1 cevab-<1i>1 "the answer ""nobody'''. <1Sultan Ahmed'i%n tu*rbe-si%>1 "Sultan Ahmet's tomb'; <1Sultan Ahmet cami%-i%>1 "the Sultan Ahmet Mosque'. <1Atatu*rk'u*n ev-i%>1 "Atatu*rk's house'; <1Atatu*rk>1 <1Bulvar-i>1 "the Atatu*rk Boulevard'. <1c+oban-in kiz-i>1 "the shepherd's daughter'; <1c+oban kiz-i>1 "the shepherd-girl'. Suspended affixation operates in izafet too: <1halk-in aci ve sevi%nc+leri%>1 "the sorrows and joys of the people', i.e. <1aci-lar-i ve sevinc+-ler-i%.>1 A special use of the indefinite izafet with proper names is seen in <1Beki%r c+apkin-i>1 "that rascal of a Bekir'; <1Nuri% serseri%-si%>1 "that vagabond of a Nuri'; <1Ethem hirsiz-i>1 "that thief of an Ethem'. The qualifier may be indefinite in expressions denoting family relationships such as <1Bedri% es+-i% Fatma>1 "Bedri's wife Fatima'; <1Hasan kiz-i Sevi%m>1 "Hasan's daughter Sevim'; <1Ismai%l og*lu>1 <1Mehmet>1 "Ismail's son Mehmet' Hence a common type of sur- name ending in -<1og*lu;>1 cf. our <2Johnson>2 rather than <2John's son.>2 Conversely, villagers use personal names without the third-person suffix after the father's name or family name in the genitive: <1Ahmed'i%n Mustafa>1 "Ahmet's <2son>2 Mustafa'; <1Ari%fler-in Abbas>1 the Arifs' son Abbas'; <1Kara Ahmetler-i%n Leyla=>1 "the Black Ahmets' daughter Leyla' In the last two examples, the "family name' is the father's name with the plural suffix. When an adjective, a demonstrative, or an adverb comes between the two elements of an izafet group, the first element must be in the genitive; cf. the English "committee meeting' but "the committee's next meeting'. <1IZstanbul cami%ler-i%>1 "the Istanbul mosques' but <1IZstanbul'un tari%hi= cami%ler-i%>1 "the historic mosques of Istanbul'; <1mahkeme karar-i>1 "court decision' but <1mahkeme-ni%n bu karar-i>1 "this decision of the court'; <1su>1 <1donma-si>1 "freezing of water' but <1suy-un bi%rdenbi%re donma-si>1 "the water's suddenly freezing'. This rule does not apply when the intervening adjective is part of a compound noun such as <1bu*yu*kelc+i%>1 "ambassador' (lit. "great envoy') : <1Tu*rki%ye Bu*yu*kel->1 <1c+i%si%>1 "the Ambassador of Turkey'. Compare, however, <1Tu*rki%ye>1 '- <1ni%n bu*yu*k s+ehi%rler-i%>1 "the great cities of Turkey'. the first, the qualifying noun is put into the genitive: Land's End, St. Antony's College, soldiers of the Queen. In the second, no grammatical mechanism but simple juxtaposition is involved: Lane End, Oxford University, Palace guard. The two types of izafet correspond fairly closely to these two English patterns, with the difference that in both Turkish types the qualified noun takes the third-person suffix. The classical Turkish grammarians recognize a third type of izafet in which neither noun has a suffix, namely, when the first is a noun of material: <1altin bi%lezi%k>1 "gold bracelet', <1demi%r perde>1 "iron curtain'. If we are concerned only with the facts of modern Turkish, however, it is more practical to regard names of materials as being indifferently used as nouns or adjectives, as in English. Leaving the 'izafet of material' aside, therefore, the two types of izafet are the definite or possessive and the indefinite. The definite izafet is employed when the first element is a definite person or thing to which or within which the second belongs. The first noun has the genitive suffix, the second has the suffix of the third person: <1uzman-in rapor-u>1 "the expert's report' ('of-thc-expert his-report'), <1hafta-nin gu*nler-i%>1 "the days of the week', <1uzman-in kendi%-si%>1 "the expert himself' ("of-the- expert his-self'), <1IZstanbul'un kendi%-si%>1 "Istanbul itself'. The indefinite izafet is used when the relationship between the two elements is merely qualificatory and not so intimate or possessive as that indicated by the definite izafet. The second noun has the suffix of the third person, but the first noun remains in the absolute form. As a working rule, an indefinite izafet group can be turned into intelligible (though not necessarily normal) English by the use of a hyphen: <1Ankara s+ehr-i%>1 "Ankara-city'; <1sec+i%m kurul-u>1 "election-committee'; <1Tu*rki%ye Cumhuri%yet-i%>1 "the Turkey-Republic'. The distinction between the two types is seen in the following pairs of examples : <1U*ni%versi%te-ni%n profeso*rler-i%>1 "the professors of the University'; <1u*ni%versi%te profeso*rler-i%>1 "university pro- fessors'. <1Orhan'in i%sm-i%>1 "Orhan's name'; <1Orhan i%sm-i%>1 "the name ""Orhan'''. <1ki%mse-ni%n cevab-i>1 "nobody's answer'; <1ki%mse>1 <1cevab-i>1 "the answer ""nobody'''. <1Sultan Ahmed'i%n tu*rbe-si%>1 "Sultan Ahmet's tomb'; <1Sultan Ahmet cami%->1i% "the Sultan Ahmet Mosque'. <1Atatu*rk'u*n ev-i%>1 "Atatu* k' h '. <1Atatu*rk>1 <1Bulvar-i>1 "the Atatu*rk Boulevard'. <1c+oban-in kiz-i>1 "the shepherd's daughter'; <1c+oban kiz-i>1 "the shepherd-girl'. Suspended affixation operates in izafet too: <1halk-in aci ve sevi%nc+leri%>1 "the sorrows and joys of the people', i.e. <1aci-lar-i ve sevi%nc+-ler-i%.>1 A special use of the indefinite izafet with proper names is seen in <1Beki%r c+apkin-i>1 "that rascal of a Bekir'; <1Nuri% serseri%-si%>1 "that vagabond of a Nuri'; <1Ethem hirsiz-i>1 "that thief of an Ethem'. The qualifier may be indefinite in expressions denoting family relationships such as <1Bedri% es+-i% Fatma>1 "Bedri's wife Fatima'- <1Hasan kiz-i Sevi%m>1 "Hasan's daughter Sevim'; <1Ismai%l og*lu>1 <1Mehmet>1 "Ismail's son Mehmet'. Hence a common type of sur- name ending in -<1og*lu;>1 cf. our <2Johnson>2 rather than <2John's son.>2 Conversely, villagers use personal names without the third-person suffix after the father's name or family name in the genitive: <1Ahmed'i%n Mustafa>1 "Ahmet's son Mustafa'; <1Ari%fler-i%n Abbas>1 "the Arifs' son Abbas'; <1Kara Ahmetler-in Leyla=>1 "the Black Ahmets' daughter Leyla'. In the last two examples, the "famil' name' is the father's name with the plural suffix. When an adjective, a demonstrative, or an adverb comes between the two elements of an izafet group, the first element must be in the genitive; cf. the English "committee meeting' but "the committee's next meeting'. <1IZstanbul cami%ler->1i% "the Istanbul mosques' but <1IZstanbul'un tari%hi= cami%ler-i%>1 "the historic mosques of Istanbul'; <1mahkeme karar-i>1 "court decision' but <1mahkeme-ni%n bu karar-i>1 "this decision of the court'; <1su>1 <1donma-si>1 "freezing of water' but <1suy-un bi%rdenbi%re donma.si>1 "the water's suddenly freezing'. This rule does not apply when the intervening adjective is part of a compound noun such as <1bu*yu*kelc+i%>1 "ambassador' (lit. "great envoy') : <1Tu*rki%ye Bu*yu*kel- c+i%si%>1 "the Ambassador of Turkey'. Compare, however <1Tu*rki%ye'- ni%n bu*yu*k s+ehi%rler-i%>1 "the great cities of Turkey'. } <1ordu subaylari>1 army-officers <1bu ordu subaylari>1 these army-officers <1bu ordu-nun subaylari>1 the officers of this army <1bu ordu-nun bu subaylari%>1 these officers of this army 18. Words indicating nationality. Those formed by suffixing -<1li%>1 (IV, 5) to the name of a country, e.g. <1Kibris-li>1 "Cypriot', <1Dani- marka-li>1 "Danish', may be nouns or adjectives. All other words indicating nationality, e.g. <1Tu*rk, Ingi%li%z, Fransiz, Alman,>1 are nouns and are therefore joined to a following noun by an indefinite izafet : <1I2ngi%li%z edebi%yat-i>1 "English literature' ; <1Fransiz askerler->1 <1i%>1 "French soldiers'. As the singular denotes a class, as well as one member of that class, such expressions must be regarded as meaning not "the-Englishman his-literature', "the-Frenchman his-soldiers', but "the-English their-literature', "the-French their- soldiers'. A definite izafet may be used instead if it is desired to show a more intimate relationship: <1Tu*rk ruh-u>1 "the Turkish soul' but <1Tu*rk-u*n ruh-u>1 "the soul of the Turk'. The colloquialism <1Tu*rk i%s+,>1 used in self-disparagement when something goes wrong, as we might say "a typical piece of British muddle', is rather puzzling, since one would expect <1Tu*rk i%s+-i%>1 "Turkish work'. One explanation is that this expression is not Turkish at all, but German; a relic of the days when German officers were training the Ottoman Army. That is to say, it is an expostulatory <2Tu*rkisch]>2 originally accompanied by a heaven- ward rolling of the eyes. Alternatively, it might be an imitation, deriving from the same period, of an attempt to say "Turkish work' on the part of a foreigner unacquainted with the finer points of the language. The former explanation seems more likely. For "American' two words exist, <1Ameri%kan>1 and <1Ameri%kali.>1 The former is a noun, used only in izafet, and means "the body politic of all the Americans'; it bears the same relationship to <1Ameri%kalilar>1 as "the English' does to "the Englishmen' and is used to qualify things, whereas <1Ameri%kali>1 is an adjective or noun denoting persons of American nationality: <1Ameri%kan hu*ku*->1 <1met-i%>1 "the American government', <1bi%r Ameri%kan uc+ag*-i>1 "an American aircraft' ; but <1bi%r Ameri%kali>1 "an American', <1Ameri%kali>1 <1subaylar>1 "American officers'. "American Ambassador', however, is <1Ameri%kan Bu*yu*kelc+i%-si%,>1 for <1Ameri%kali Bu*yu*kelc+i%>1 would mean "Ambassador of American nationality'. The use of <1bi%r>1 <1Ameri%kan>1 for "an American' is a vulgarism. A similar pair of words exists for "Italian': <1IZtalyan>1 and <1IZtalyali.>1 The latter, however, is virtually obsolete. Nouns of nationality may be used in apposition with other nouns, instead of in izafet, when denoting membership of a people rather than of a nation: <1Tu*rk li%derler-i%>1 and <1Tu*rk li%derler>1 both mean "Turkish leaders', but the first denotes leaders of the Turkish nation whereas the second denotes leaders of the Turkish community in Cyprus. Similarly, <1bi%r Yahudi% asker-i%>1 is a soldier of the Jewish nation, an Israeli soldier, while <1bi%r Yahudi% asker>1 is a soldier of any nation who happens to be a Jew. An apposition is also possible if the nationality of the person is not stressed, or if the second element is personified; e.g. <1bi%r Rus jeolog>1 is a geologist who happens to be a Russian, while <1bi%r Rus so*zcu*-su*>1 is "a Russian spokesman'; <1Tu*rk I2stanbul>1 "Turkish Istanbul'. There is some fluctuation of usage with the words <1Sovyet>1 and <1komu*ni%st;>1 some refer to the Soviet government and the Com- munist bloc as <1Sovyet hu*ku*met-i%>1 and <1Komu*ni%st blok-u;>1 others prefer <1Sovyet hu*ku*met>1 and <1Komu*ni%st blok.>1 Names of continents are used as qualifiers of things: <1Avrupa>1 <1bas+kentler-i%>1 "European capitals' ("Europe its-capitals'), <1Afri%ka nehi%rler-i%>1 "African rivers', <1Asya memleketler-i%>1 "Asian coun- tries'. The forms in -<1li%>1 are used only of persons: <1Afri%kalilar>1 "Africans', <1Asyali gazeteci%ler>1 "Asian journalists', <1Avrupali>1 <1turi%stler>1 "European tourists'. 19. The izafet chain. An izafet group may itself be qualified by a preceding noun: <1i%l sec+i%m kurul-u>1 "province election-com- mittee'; <1Ankara Kiz Li%se-si%>1 "Ankara Girls' Lyce=*e'. Only the last noun in the chain has the third-person suffix, which does double duty: not only does it link <1kurul>1 and <1li%se>1 to their im- mediate qualifiers <1sec+i%m>1 and <1kiz;>1 it also links the groups <1sec+i%m kurulu>1 and <1kiz Ii%sesi%>1 to their qualifiers <1i%l>1 and <1Ankara.>1 A definite izafet is also possible in such situations: <1hakem-i%n>1 favl <1karar-i>1 "the referee's decision of ""foul'' ' ; <1gu*n-u*n dedi%kodu>1 <1konu-su>1 "the gossip-topic of the day'. In <1Bulgari%stan'in IZstanbul Bas+konsoloslug*-u>1 "the Istanbul Consulate-General of Bulgaria' the first qualifier is in the genitive because its re- lationship with the qualified word is closer than is that of the second qualifier. An izafet group may qualify a following noun: <1Di%yanet>1 <1Is+ler-i% Bakanlig*-i>1 "Religion-Affairs Ministry'. Here it will be seen that both qualified nouns have the third-person suffix; that of <1Is+ler>1 links it to its qualifier <1Di%yanet,>1 while that of <1Bakanlik>1 links it to <2its>2 qualifier, the group <1Di%yanet IZs+ler->1i%. Another example: <1sene son-u i%mti%hanlar-i>1 "year-end examinations'. The distinction between this pattern and that of <1Ankara Kiz>1 <1Li%sesi%>1 may be seen by comparing <1Ford ai%le araba-si>1 "the Ford family-car' with <1Ford ai%le-si% araba-si>1 "the Ford-family car'. Other possibilities are: <1Ford ai%le-si%-ni%n araba-si>1 "the car of the Ford-family', <1Ford'un ai%le-si%-ni%n araba-si>1 "the car of Ford's family', and <1Ford'un ai%le araba-si>1 "Ford's family- car'. As a rule (but see ## 20, 21, 24), any noun in an izafet chain which does not have the third-person suffix is not qualified by a preceding noun. In <1Cumhuri%yet Halk Parti%-si%>1 "Republican People's Party',' as <1Halk>1 has no suffix we know it is not in izafet with <1Cumhuri%yet,>1 so the literal meaning is not "Republic-People Party' but "Republic People-Party'. <1In Tu*rk Di%l Kurum-u,>1 the fact that <1Di%l>1 has no suffix shows that it is not qualified by <1Tu*rk,>1 so the phrase means not "Turkish-Language Society' but "Turkish Language-Society'. <1Tu*rk Di%l-i% Dergi%-si%,>1 however, means "Turkish-Language Journal'. So too in <1maki%ne s+eri%d-i% mu*rek- keb-i%;>1 the second word is qualified by the first and both together qualify the third : "typewriter-ribbon ink'. The izafet chain can be extended as required: <1IZstanbul>1 <1U*ni%versi%te-si% Edebi%yat Faku*lte-si% Tu*rk Edebi%yat-i Pro- feso*r-u*>1 "Istanbul-University Literature-Faculty Turk-Literature Professor', i.e. "Professor of Turkish Literature of the Faculty of Letters of the University of Istanbul'. <1IZzmi%r O*rme Sanayi%-i% IZs+c+i%ler-i% Sendi%ka-si>1 "Izmir Knitting-Industry Workers' Union'. The rules and examples given should enable the student to unravel any izafet chain, but he may sometimes encounter a definite izafet where he might have expected an indefinite or vice versa; individual authors' ideas of style may vary. It is entirely a matter of taste whether one writes <1CHP aday-i>1 "the RPP candidate' or <1CHP'ni%n aday-i>1 "the RPP's candidate'. Most writers keep the number of genitives in an izafet chain down to the minimum that is consistent with intelligibility. For example, in <1Bohemya Kirallar-i saray-i-nin yeni% sa=ki%n-i%>1 "the new inhabitant of the palace of the Kings of Bohemia' <1Kirallar-i-ni%n>1 might have been expected as denoting the owners of the palace. But <1saray-i>1 had to be in the genitive because the adjective <1yeni%>1 separates it from <1sa=kin-i%>1, and the juxtaposition of two genitives is avoided as far as possible. The partitive use of the ablative makes it possible to dispense with one genitive, e.g. in <1komi%te u*yeler-i%-n-den bi%r-i%-ni%n oy-u>1 "the vote of one of the members of the committee'. 20. Place-names consisting in an izafet group. These tend to drop the third-person suffix. <1Kadiko*y>1 on the Asiatic shore of the Bosphorus was <1Kadi-ko*y-u*>1 ("judge-village') barely a generation ago, the <1ko*yu*>1 declining as shown in # 16. Now the <1ko*y>1 declines as shown in #6 <2(a)>2. This tendency is doubtless helped by the existence of some other place-names similarly compounded of a noun and <1ko*y>1 which, if they ever had the third-person suffix, lost it long ago, e.g. <1Arnavutko*y>1 and <1Bakirko*y,>1 and of some compounded of an adjective and <1ko*y,>1 e.g. <1Yes+i%lko*y.>1 Another contributory factor may be that the accent in izafet groups is always on the first element, and in place-names is towards the beginning of the word, so that the third-person suffix in the absolute case would tend to be swallowed up. Indeed, the growing practice, frowned on by purists, is for <1sokak>1 "street' to stand in izafet without the third-person suffix. "Grocer Street' is 'properly <1Bakkal Sokag*-i,>1 but one often hears--and <1reads--Bakkal Sokak.>1 The suffix is secure for the moment in names of roads, squares, hills, and impasses: <1Babia=li% Cadde-si%, Hu*rri%yet Meydan-i, Fi%ncancilar Yokus+-u, Korsan C+ikmaz-i.>1 European influence has for some years been helping this tendency (which is, however, native in origin), e.g. in names of new office-buildings <1(han),>1 banks, restaurants, and hotels: <1Boyacilar Han, Pamuk Bank>1 (with the western <1Bank>1 instead of the Turkish <1Banka), YiIdiz Lokanta, Paris Otel,>1 in place of <1Hani, Bankasi, Lokantasi, Oteli%.>1 Even such gallicisms as <1Ri%storan Yildiz>1 and <1Otel Pari%s>1 have begun to appear in Istanbul. 21. Culinary terms without izafet. The third-person suffix is lacking in some time-honoured names of dishes, such as <1s+i%s+ kebap>1 "skewer roast', <1izgara ko*fte>1 "grill mincemeat', <1kuzu pi%rzola>1 "lamb chop', all originally cooks' and waiters' jargon and therefore as untypical of ordinary speech as "eggs and chips twice'. Analogy with these may help to explain why a recently marketed tomato ketchup is labelled <1Domates Ketc+ap>1 and not <1Ketc+api>1 (though "tomato-juice' is <1domates suyu>1 not <1su).>1 The main reason is probably that the manufacturer wishes to familiarize the public with the name <1ketc+ap>1 and therefore presents it in the absolute form without bothering about grammar. 22. Third-person suffix with substantivizing and defining force, The third-person suffix is used as a syntactic device for creating and defining nouns. The stages in the development of this use are exemplified thus : <2(a)>2 <1i%s+-i%n fena-si s+u>1 "the bad Õpartå of the business is this'; <1edebi%yat-in i%yi%-si%>1 "the good Õpartå of literature, good literature'; <1geceler-i%n gu*zel-i%, yildizli-si>1 "the beautiful night is the starry one' ("of-the-nights, their-beautiful is their-starry')- <2(b)>2 <1dog*ru-su>1 "honestly, to tell you the truth' ("the true-of-it'). Here the antecedent is vaguely the matter under discussion. <2(c)>2 <1zengi%n-i% ayni s+eyi% so*ylu*yor, faki%r-i% ayni s+eyi% so*ylu*yor>1 "the rich man says the same thing, the poor man says the same thing', lit. "the-rich-of-it, the poor-of-it'; i.e. of people at large. In <1si%zden akillisi yok>1 "there is none cleverer than you' <1si%zden akilli>1 "cleverer than you' is an adjectival phrase, substantivized by the third-person suffix. Cf. <1bi%r-i%>1 "one of them, someone' (V, 7)- <2(d)>2 <1bundan sonra>1 "after this'; <1bundan sonrasi>1 "that which is after this, what happens next', lit. "the after this of it', where the "it' is the scheme of things entire. Probably under this head is to be sought the explanation for <1burasi, s+urasi,>1 etc. (XII, 12)- 23. The Janus construction. By this term is meant the curious facing-both-ways construction wherein, when two people who are related or otherwise closely connected are mentioned in one sentence, each is defined by a third-person suffix linking him to the other : <1og*l-u baba-si-na bi%r mektup yazdi>1 "the son wrote a letter to the father', lit. "his--the father's--son wrote a letter to his--the son's--father'. <1kiz-i-ni vermedi%g*i% i%c+i%n anne ve baba-si-ni o*ldu*rdu*>1 (newspaper headline) "he killed the mother and father because they did not give their daughter Õto him in marriageå' <1babalar-i-nin cezasini og*ullar-i c+ekecek>1 "the sons will suffer the fathers' punishment' ("their sons . . . their fathers'')- <1hasta-si doktor-u-nu ariyor>1 "the patient is seeking his doctor' ("his patient . . . his doctor')- <1hoca-si talebe-si%-ne bakar>1 "the teacher looks after the 24. Suffixes with izafet groups. We saw in # 19 that in izafet chains the third-person suffix does double duty and is not repeated. There are two small classes of words which can have two personal suffixes: pronouns such as <1bi%r-i%-si%>1 (V,7; and cf. <1s+eysi% Õ s+ey-i%-si% >1 V, 20) and frozen izafet groups such as <1yu*zbas+i>1 "captain'. Origin- ally this was <1yu*z bas+-i>1 "hundred its-head' but through frequent use has come to be treated as a simple noun, declining like <1tarla>1 (#6(d)) and not <1ad-i>1 (# 16), e.g. the plural is <1yu*zbas+ilar>1 not <1yu*zbas+lari.>1 It can therefore take personal suffixes: <1yu*zbas+im>1 "my captain', <1yu*zbas+isi>1 "his captain', etc. See also XIV, 33. Otherwise no word can have more than one personal suffix. When a third-person possessor of an izafet group is to be indicated the third-person suffix is not repeated: <1yaz>1 "summer', <1tati%l>1 -holiday'; <1yaz tati%l-i%>1 "summer holiday' or "his summer holiday'. When a first or second person is the possessor, the third-person suffix of the izafet gives way to the suffix of the first or second person: summer holiday summer holidays my <1yaz tati%li%m yaz tati%lleri%m>1 your <1yaz tati%li%n yaz tati%lleri%n>1 " his <1yaz tati%li% yaz tati%lleri%>1 our <1yaz tati%li%mi%z yaz tati%lleri%mi%z>1 your <1yaz tati%li%ni%z yaz tati%Ileri%ni%z>1 their <1yaz tati%lleri% yaz tati%lleri%>1 All the possible ambiguities can be resolved by the use of a noun or personal pronoun in the genitive: <1Ahmed'i%n yaz tati%li%>1 Ahmet's summer holiday <1onun yaz tati%li%>1 his summer holiday <1onun yaz tati%lleri%>1 his summer holidays <1onlarin yaz tati%li%>1 their summer holiday <1onlarin yaz tati%lleri%>1 their summer holidays Similarly, <1IZzmi%r bu*ro-su>1 may mean "the Izmir office' or "his Izmir office': <1onun I2zmi%r bu*rosu>1 his Izmir office <1s+i%rket-i%n IZzmi%r bu*rosu>1 the company's Izmir office When the suffixes -<1li%>1 and -<1ci%>1 (IV, 4, 5) are added to an izafet group, the third-person suffix is dropped: <1Gece ad-i>1 "the name ""Night'''; <1Gece ad-li s+i%i%r>1 "the poem named ""Night'''. <1Avrupa fermuar-i>1 "European fastener' (French <2fermoir);>2 <1Avrupa fermuar-Ii c+antalar>1 "bags fitted with European fasteners'; <1su yol-u>1 "water-conduit'; <1su yol-cu>1 "man responsible for the upkeep of water-conduits'. 25. The vocative use of the third-person suffix. In English a woman may, in the presence of her child, address her brother as "Uncle',just as the child would do. In Turkish she would address him as <1dayi-si>1 "his uncle'. Similarly, if an English-speaking child is being teased by another and runs off calling "Mother]' the other child may mockingly echo his cry. In Turkish, however, the mocker calls not <1Anne]>1 but <1Annesi%]>1 26. Persian izafet. It was because of the extensive use of this alien grammatical feature, coupled with the borrowing of an immense Arabic and Persian vocabulary, that the literary and administrative language of the Ottoman Empire was largely unintelligible to most of its Turkish subjects. In Persian the qualifier follows the qualified, the opposite of Turkish usage, and the qualified is joined to its qualifier, noun or adjective, by an <2i>2, as in <2koh-i-nur>2 "mountain of light' and <2koh-i-bozorg>2 "great mountain'. This device was used in Ottoman as in Persian, to link Arabic as well as Persian words: <1nokta-i% nazar>1 "point of view'; <1Abdu*lhami%d-i% sani%>1 "Abdulhamid the Second'. The linking <1i%>1 was usually sub- jected to the Turkish vowel harmony and was separated from a preceding long vowel by a <1y>1 : <1S+ura-yi Devlet>1 "Council of State'; these words, in Turkish izafet, would be <1Devlet S+ura-si.>1 Ana- logous violations of normal word-order are found in English: <2court martial, blood royal, law merchant.>2 As if this was not enough, Ottoman followed Persian in borrow- ing from Arabic the curse of grammatical gender, from which Turkish and Persian were born free. In Arabic, <2dawlat->2 "state, dynasty, empire', whence Turkish <1devlet,>1 is feminine. In Ottoman, therefore, the Arabic adjectives meaning "high' and "Ottoman' <2("ali**>2 å <1ali%,>1 <2"Uthma**ni**>2 å <1Osmani%)>1 took their Ara bic feminine forms in the official name of the Empire: <1DevIet-i%>1 <1ali%ye-i% Osmani%ye>1 "The High Ottoman State'. The Turkish words for "some' and "same', <1bazi>1 and <1ayni,>1 are respectively the Arabic <2ba'd>2 "part' and <2'ayn>2 "counterpart' with the Persian izafet, and mean literally "part of' and "the counterpart of'. Purists condemned the use of native Turkish words in Persian izafet, but many Turkish words were in fact so used in Ottoman phraseology, e.g. <1ordu>1 "army' and <1sancak>1 "banner' in <1ordu-yu hu*mayun>1 and <1sancag*i s+eri%f,">1 "Imperial Army' and "Noble Banner', i.e. the standard of the Prophet. Such phrases were classed as <1galat-i mes+hur>1 "widely disseminated mistake', i.e. solecism legitimized by usage. The plural of this term, incidentally, was <1galatat-i mes+hure,>1 the adjective being made feminine to agree with the feminine plural noun. An oft-quoted saying runs: <1galat-i mes+hur I*gat-i% fasi%hten yeg*di%r>1 "the generally used solecism is better than the chaste locution'. Nowadays, Persian izafet compounds which have become part of the standard vocabulary are usually spelled as one word: <1aksi- seda>1 "echo' ("reflection of voice'); <1hi%kmeti%vucu*t>1 <2"raison d'e=tre';>2 <1akliseli%m>1 "common sense'. These present no difficulty because they will be found in the dictionary. In less well-acclimatized compounds the rule is to separate the elements, with a hyphen between the first and the vowel of the Persian izafet: <1ceri%de-i c+amur>1 "organ of the gutter-press' ("newspaper of mud') ; <1vuzuh-u beyan>1 "clarity of exposition'; <1muhtac-i hi%mmet>1 "needful of help'; <1u*ful-u* nabehenga=m>1 "untimely demise'; <1mefhum-u muhali%f>1 "contrary concept, converse'. Some writers, however, make compounds of either type into two separate words, the first incorporating the vowel of the izafet ; <1hi%kmeti% vu*cut, vuzuhu beyan,>1 etc. Further, some may limit the vowel harmony, rejecting <1u>1 and <1u*>1 and writing, e.g. <1vuzuh-i beyan, u*ful-i% nabehenga=m,>1 as being closer to the original Persian pronunciation. III THE ADJECTIVE 1. General observations. The dividing line between noun and adjective is a thin one, but is still worth drawing. If we take as the criterion of a noun the permissibility of using the plural, case, and personal suffixes after it, or the indefinite article <1bi%r>1 before it, very few of the words classed as adjectives in the dictionary will be excluded. <1bu*yu*k>1 "big, old', <1bu*yu*kleri%m>1 "my elders'; <1hasta>1 "ill', <1bi%r hasta>1 "a sick man'; <1genc+>1 "young', <1genc+leri%n>1 "of the young'; <1Avrupali>1 "European', <1Avrupaliya>1 "to the European'. The only large class of exceptions, i.e. of adjectives which are not used as nouns, are those formed with the Turkish suffixes -<1si%, -(i%)msi%, -(i%)mtrak,>1 and -<1(s)el,>1 the Arabic -<2i=>2, and the Persian -<1ane>1 and -<1vari=,>1 to which may be added recent borrowings like <1demokrati%k>1 and <1ku*ltu*rel.>1 On the other hand, if we take as the criterion of an adjective the permissibility of putting it in the comparative and superlative degrees, vast numbers of nouns will be excluded. In other words, although most adjectives can be nouns, the converse does not hold good. 2. Attributive adjectives. These precede their nouns: <1cesur adamlar>1 "brave men'; <1uzun yol>1 "the long road'. Two exceptions : <2(a)>2 <1kare>1 and <1ku*p,>1 "square' and "cubic', follow names of units of length, as in French from which they are borrowed : <1Kibris'in <1yu*z o*lc+u*mu*>1 3.572 <1mi%l kare (9.251 ki%lometre kare) di%r>1 "the area of Cyprus is 3,572 square miles (9,251 square kilometres)'. <2(b)>2 <1merhum>1 "the late' is sometimes used after the name of the deceased instead of before, in imitation of Arabic usage. 3. The indefinite article. <1bi%r>1 "one' may be so termed although the name is not entirely appropriate. One reason is that the noun introduced by <1bi%r>1 may be in the defined accusative; see XVI,4. Another difference from what we understand in English by the indefinite article is that <1bi%r>1 may introduce a noun in the plural, the effect being vaguer than with a singular noun: <1bi%r s+ey mirildandi>1 "he mumbled something', but <1bi%r s+eyler mirildandi>1 "he mumbled something or other'; <1bi%r zamanlar ben de c+ocuktum>1 "once I too was a child', where <1bi%r zaman>1 would be too precise: "at one time'. In this latter example it should also be noted that <1bi%r>1 is not used before <1c+ocuk,>1 although the English has "a child'; its omission is customary with the complement of such verbs as "to be' and "to become'. When it serves as an indefinite article, <1bi%r>1 usually comes be- tween adjective and noun: <1bu*yu*k bi%r tarla>1 "a large field', <1gu*zel bi%r bahc+e>1 "a beautiful garden'. When it means "one', it must precede the adjective, just like any other numeral: <1i%ki% ku*c+u*k tarla satti, bi%r bu*yu*k tarla aldi>1 "he sold two small fields, he bought one large field'. This must not be taken to imply that <1bi%r>1 when it precedes an adjective and noun is always to be translated by "one'; English idiom may sometimes call for "a' or "any' (cf. XVI, 4). The key to understanding this point lies in the basic principle of Turkish syntax: whatever precedes, qualifies. The essential difference between <1gu*zel bi%r bahc+e>1 and <1bi%r gu*zel bahc+e,>1 both of which may translate "a beautiful garden', is that the first means a beautiful member of the class "garden', the second a member of the class "beautiful garden'. <1gu*zel bi%r bahc+e>1 is a beautiful garden as distinct from a less beautiful or even a frankly ugly garden; <1bi%r gu*zel bahc+e>1 is a beautiful garden as distinct from a beautiful meadow or an ugly forest. 4. Comparison of adjectives. The comparative degree is expressed by putting the second member of the comparison (introduced in English by "than') in the ablative case : <1ag*ir>1 "heavy', <1kurs+un-dan>1 <1ag*ir>1 "heavier than lead'. "Less . . . than' is translated by putting <1az>1 "little' between the second member in the ablative case and the adjective : <1kurs+undan az ag*ir>1 "less heavy than lead'. <1daha>1 "more' may be inserted for emphasis : <1kurs+undan daha ag*ir, kurs+un- dan daha az ag*ir.>1 It is not essential, however, except in the absence of a second member, e.g. in "this hammer is cheaper, that one is stronger' <1bu c+eki%c+ daha ucuz, o*teki% daha sag*lam,>1 or in such "floating comparatives' as "For Whiter Washing' <1daha beyaz c+amas+ir i%c+i%n.>1 The ancient comparative suffix -<1rek,>1 which appears in a few diminutives (IV, 1 <2(a)),>2 retains its original force in <1yeg*rek>1 "better, best', from <1yeg*>1 "good'. <1yeg*>1 and <1yeg*rek,>1 also spelled <1yey, yeyre k,>1 survive only in proverbs. The superlative degree is expressed by <1en>1 "most'. <1IZstanbul>1 en <1bu*yu*k s+ehri%mi%zdi%r>1 "Istanbul is our greatest city'; <1bu toprak en az veri%mli%di%r>1 "this soil is least fertile'. 5. Arabic and Persian comparatives. The Persian <1beter>1 "worse' occurs mostly in proverbs. The Arabic elative, which serves as both comparative and superlative, is familiar to us from the slogan <2Alla**h akbar>2 "God is most great'. In Turkish it is currently repre- sented by <1elzem>1 "essential', the Arabic <2alzam,>2 elative of <2la**zim>2 "necessary'; <1enfes>1 "most delightful' <2(anfas>2 Õ nefi**s); <1akdem>1 "prior' <2(aqdam>2 Õ <2qadi**m>2 "ancient'); <1ender>1 "most rare' <2(andar>2 Õ <2na**dir)>2 ; <1ehven>1 "easiest, very cheaply' <2(ahwan>2 Õ <2hayn).>2 Often t hese words are reinforced in Turkish, as <1daha beter>1 "worse', <1en enfes>1 "most delightful'. 6. Intensive adjectives. The only regular' use of prefixation is to intensify the meaning of adjectives and, less commonly, of adverbs. The prefix, which is accented, is modelled on the first syllable of the simple adjective or adverb but with the substitution of <1m, p, r,>1 or <1s>1 for the last consonant of that syllable. It is hard to discern any principle governing the choice of consonant, except that <1p>1 is commoner with back vowels than with front vowels. The following list includes the commonest of such forma- tions; the meaning of the intensive is not given when it is obvious from the meaning of the simple word, as <1apac+ik>1 "wide open, manifest' from <1ac+ik>1 "open', or <1yepyeni%>1 "brand new' from <1yeni%>1 "new'. <1ac+ik>1 open <1apac+ik bas+ka>1 other <1bambas+ka>1 totally different <1beIli%>1 evident <1besbelli%>1 <1beyaz>1 white <1bembeyaz>1 <1bok>1 ordure <1bombok>1 utterly useless <1bos+>1 empty <1bombos+>1 <1bu*tu*n>1 whole <1bu*sbu*tu*n>1 altogether, entirely <1c+abuk>1 quick <1c+arc+abuk>1 <1cavlak>1 naked, bald <1cascavlak>1 <1dizlak>1 ,, ,, <1dimdizlak>1 <1dog*ru>1 straight <1dosdog*ru>1 <1doIu>1 full <1dopdolu>1 <1go*k>1 blue <1go*mgo*k>1 <1kara>1 black <1kapkara>1 <1kati>1 hard <1kaskati>1 <1kirmizi>1 red <1kipkirmizi>1 <1kizil>1 ,, <1kipkizil>1 <1kuru>1 dry <1kupkuru>1 <1ku*tu*k>1 drunk <1ku*sku*tu*k>1 <1mavi%>1 blue <1masmavi%>1 <1mor>1 violet <1mosmor>1 <1sari>1 yellow <1sapsari>1 <1siki>1 tight <1simsiki>1 <1si%yah>1 black <1si%msi%yah>1 <1takir>1(imitates <2tapping)>2<1tamtakir>1 quite empty <1tamam>1 complete <1tastamam>1 <1taze>1 fresh <1taptaze>1 <1temi%z>1 clean <1tertemi%z>1 <1toparlak>1 round <1tostoparlak>1 <1uzun>1 long <1upuzun>1 <1yassi>1 flat <1yamyassi>1 <1yeni%>1 new <1yepyeni%>1 <1yes+i%l>1 green <1yemyes+i%l>1 Irregular are : <1c+iplak>1 "naked', <1c+irilc+iplak>1 as well as <1c+irc+ipla k; sag*lam>1 "healthy', <1sapasag*lam; yalniz>1 "alone', <1yapayalniz>1 as well as <1yapyalniz>1 ; <1c+evre>1 "circumference', <1c+epec+evre>1 as well as <1c+epc+evre>1 "all around'; <1gu*ndu*z>1 "(in) daylight', <1gu*pegu*ndu*z>1 "in broad daylight'; <1du*z>1 "flat', <1du*mdu*z>1 "absolutely flat' and <1du*pe- du*z>1 "downright, openly'; <1parc+a>1 "piece', <1paramparc+a>1 "broken to bits'. The intensive <1sirsiklam>1 or <1sirilsiklam>1 "sopping wet' is current, although the simple <1siklam>1 "wet' is no longer in use. From <1eyu*,>1 an earlier form of <1i%yi%>1 "good', comes <1epey>1 "rather a lot (of)'. Other such formations are sometimes created in speech without attaining general currency, e.g. <1gepegenc+>1 from <1genc+>1 "young'. NOUN AND ADJECTIVE SUFFlXES THIS chapter deals with the suffixes whereby nouns and adjectives are derived from other nouns and adjectives. 1. Diminutives. The diminutive suffixes are -<1rek, -cek, -ceg*i%z, -ci%k,>1 and -<1ce,>1 of which the first two are no longer productive. Before these suffixes, adjectives invariably and nouns usually drop final <1k.>1 <2(a)>2 -<1rek,>1 the ancient comparative suffix (Ill, 4), survives with diminutive force in <1acirak>1 "rather bitter' <1(aci>1 "bitter'), <1bozrak>1 "light grey' <1(boz>1 "grey'), <1ku*c+u*rek>1 "rather small' <1(ku*c+u*k>1 "smal l'), <1ufarak>1 "rather tiny' <1(ufak>1 "tiny'), <1alc+arak>1 "lowish' <1(aIc+ak>1 "l ow'). <2(b)>2 -<1cek>1 survives in <1oyuncak>1 "toy' <1(oyun>1 "game') ; in <1yavrucak >1 (also <1yavrucuk),>1 the diminutive of <1yavru>1 "the young of an animal'; <2in>2 <1bu*yu*cek>1 "biggish' <1(bu*yu*k>1 "big') and <1ku*c+u*cek>1 " very small'. <1orayacak>1 "all that way' <1(oraya>1 "thither') is provincial. <2(c)>2 -<1ceg*i%z,>1 an extended form of -<1cek,>1 is particularly common with nouns denoting living beings and conveys a sense of affection, sometimes mixed with pity: <1adamcag*iz>1 "the poor wee man', <1kizcag*iz>1 "the dear little girl', <1hayvancag*iz>1 "the poor little creature' <1(hayvan>1 "animal'), <1ko*yceg*i%z>1 "the dear little village'. <2(d)>2 -<1ci%k,>1 the most widely used diminutive suffix, throws the accent on to the first syllable : <1Ays+eci%k>1 "little Ayesha'; <1Mehmet->1 <1c+i%k>1 "little Mehmet', the affectionate term for the private soldier; <1evci%k>1 "little house'; <1alc+acik>1 "very low, humble' <1(aIc+ak).>1 From <1bebek>1 "baby' and <1ko*pek>1 "dog' come <1bebeci%k>1 and <1ko*peci%k>1 less commonly <1bebekc+i%k, ko*pekc+i%k.>1 <1A>1 few monosyllables vary slightly from the regular pattern: <1az>1 "little, few' makes <1azacik>1 and <1azicik>1 as well as <1azcik; dar>1 "narrow' makes <1daracik; bi%r>1 "one' makes <1bi%ri%ci%k>1 "unique'. <2(e)>2 -<1ce>1 has a modifying effect on adjectives : <1gu*zelce>1 "quite good' (but not so good as the simple <1gu*zel), seyrekc+e>1 "rather infre- quent', <1uzunca>1 "rather long', <1genc+c+e>1 "quite young'. It makes a few nouns from verbal nouns in -<1me>1 (X,7): from <1bi%lme>1 "guessing', <1bi%lmece>1 "riddle'; from <1bulma>1 "finding', <1bulmaca>1 "puzzle', especially "crossword-puzzle' ; from <1kapma>1 "catching', <1kapmaca>1 "the game of puss-in-the-corner'; from <1c+ekme>1 "drawing', <1c+ek- mece>1 "drawer'. This suffix, which is accented, must not be con- fused with the enclitic -<1ce>1 which makes adverbs; see XII, 2. It may be followed by -<1ci%k>1 as in <1geni%s+c+eci%k>1 "pretty wide', <1yakin- cacik>1 "quite near'. 2. Diminutives of personal names. Apart from those formed with -<1ci%k,>1 these do not seem reducible to a rule; there is no obvious reason why people named <1Mustafa>1 should be addressed as <1Mistik.>1 Commonly the first syllable only of the name is retained and to it is added <1i%, o,>1 or a syllable ending in <1s+: Ercu*ment>1 å <1Erci%; Neri%man>1 å <1Neri%; Mehmet>1 å <1Memi%s+>1 or <1Memo; Meti%n>1 å <1Meti%s+; Fatma>1 å <1Fatos+>1 (also, affectedly, <1Fatis+>1 or <1Fati);>1 <1Hasan>1 å <1Hasso; Ali%>1 and <1Ali%ye>1 å <1Ali%s+; Cema=l>1 å <1Cemo;>1 <1IZbrahi%m>1 å <1IZbo.>1 The forms in -<1o>1 are accented on the first syllable. They are more familiar and socially less acceptable than those <2in>2 -<1s+;>1 cf. the difference in English between <2Bert>2 and <2Berti e>2 as diminutives of <2Albert.>2 3.-<1(i%)msi%,>1 -<1(i%)mtrak,>1 -<1si%.>1 These three suffixes in some contexts have diminutive effect but basically they mean "resembling', like English -<2ish>2 in <2womanish.>2 The initial <1i%>1 of the first two is lost af ter vowels. <2(a)>2 -<1(i%)mtrak,>1 the <1a>1 of which is invariable in the best }authors, is used with adjectives of colour and taste ; <1beyazimtrak>1 "whitish' ; <1yes+i%li%mtrak>1 "greenish'; <1eks+i%mtrak>1 "sourish' <1(eks+i%>1 "sour'); <1acimtrak>1 "rather bitter'. This suffix is sometimes spelt with what seems to be an epenthetic vowel--e.g. <1beyazimtirak--but>1 may be a survival of an older form. (b) -<1(i%)msi%>1 is added to nouns and adjectives: <1mag*ara>1 "cave', <1m "ag*aramsi>1 "cavernous' ; <1duvar>1 "wall', <1duvarimsi>1 "wall-like' ; <1rapor>1 "report', <1raporumsu bi%r yazi>1 "a report-like writing', "a feeble attempt at <1a>1 report'. <2(c)>2 -<1si%>1 is attached only to nouns and adjectives ending in a con- sonant, so cannot be confused with the post-vocalic form of the third-person possessive suffix: <1erkek>1 "male', <1erkeksi%>1 "mannish'; <1c+ocuk>1 "child', <1c+ocuksu>1 "childish'. But "foolish', from <1budala>1 "fool', is <1budalamsi,>1 while <1budalasi>1 means "his fool'. 4. -<1ci%.>1 This suffix is added to the singular of nouns and occasionally to adjectives and adverbs to denote persons who are professionally or habitually concerned with, or devoted to, the object, person, or quality denoted by the basic word: <1i%s+>1 work <1i%s+c+i%>1 workman s<1u*t >1 milk <1su*tc+u*>1 m ilkman <1di%s+>1 ooth <1di%s+c+i%>1 d entist <1orman>1 forest <1ormanci>1 f orester <1Atatu*rk >1 <1tatu*rkc+u*>1 Ataturkist <1halk>1 people <1halkc+i>1 populist <2or>2 adherent of the People's Party <1gu*ru*ltu*>1 noise <1gu*ru*ltu*cu*>1 noisy <2(of people)>2 <1mi%lli%yet>1 nationality <1mi%lli%yetc+i%>1 nationalist <1mi%lli%yet>1 nationality <1mi%lli%yetc+i%>1 nationalist <1yol>1 road <1yolcu>1 traveller <1i%nat>1 obstinacy <1i%natc+i>1 obstinate <1yalan>1 falsehood <1yalanci>1 liar, deceiver <1kac+ak>1 contraband <1kac+akc+i>1 smuggler <1Sika=yet>1 complaint <1s+i%ka=yetc+i%>1 complainant Roentgen <2(discoverer of X-rays)>2 <1ro*ntgenci%>1 radiographer <2or>2 Peeping Tom, <2voyeur>2 <1statu*ko>1 <2status quo>2 <1statu*kocu>1 conservative <1sifir>1 zero <1sifirci>1 schoolteacher who is lavish with zeros <1s+aka>1 joke <1s+akaci>1 joker <1merhum>1 "the late' <1merhumcu>1 devotee of the late Prime Minister Menderes <1eski%>1 old <1eski%ci%>1 old-clothes man <1toptan>1 wholesale <1toptanci>1 wholesaler <1beles+>1 <2(slang)>2 free, gratis <1beles+c+i%>1 scrounger, parasite <1ne>1 what? <1neci%>1 of what profession ? It may be attached to a phrase : <1hazir>1 "ready', <1elbi%se>1 "clothing', <1hazir elbi%seci%>1 "dealer in ready-made clothing'; <1evet efendi%m>1 "yes, sir', <1evet efendi%mci%>1 "yes-man'. In popular speech it is used redundantly with nouns denoting occupation such as <1s+ofo*r>1 "driver', <1kasap>1 (A) "butcher', <1garson>1 "waiter' : <1s+ofo*rcu*, kasapc+i, garsoncu.>1 Cf. -<1i%ci%,>1 XIV, 2 5. -<1li%.>1 This is added to the singular of nouns to make nouns or adjectives which denote : <1(a)>1 Possessing the object or quality indicated by the basic word: <1s+eker>1 sugar <1s+ekerli%>1 sweet <1di%kkat>1 attention, care <1di%kkatli%>1 attentive, careful <1at>1 horse <1atli>1 horseman <1resi%m>1 picture <1resi%mli%>1 illustrated <1u*mi%t>1 hope <1u*mi%tli%>1 hopeful <1akil>1 intelligence <1akilli>1 intelligent <1bulut>1 cloud <1bulutlu>1 cloudy <1gu*ru*ltu*>1 noise <1gu*ru*ltu*lu*>1 noisy <2(of things)>2 <1rahmet>1 divine mercy <1rahmetli%>1 deceased <2(b)>2 Possessing the object or quality in a high degree: <1c+ene>1 jaw <1c+eneli%>1 talkative <1paha>1 price <1pahali>1 expensive <1hiz>1 speed <1hizli>1 rapid <1sevgi%>1 affection <1sevgi%li%>1 beloved <1yas+>1 age <1yas+li>1 aged <2(c)>2 Belonging to a place or institution: <1ko*y>1 village <1ko*ylu*>1 villager, peasant <1s+ehi%r>1 city <1s+ehi%rli%>1 city-dweller <1IZstanbul>1 <1lstanbullu>1 citizen of Istanbul <1C+i%n>1 China <1C+i%nli%>1 Chinese <1Ni%cerya>1 Nigeria <1Ni%ceryali>1 Nigerian <1Ii%se>1 lyce=*e <1li%seli%>1 lyce=*e student <1osman>1 <2(founder of the>2 <1Osmanli>1 Ottoman <2(member>2 <2Ottoman>2 <2or subject of the>2 dynasty)>2 <2dynasty)>2 Added to the name of a colour, it makes an adjective or noun meaning dressed in that colour: <1si%yah>1 black <1si%yahli>1 dressed in black <1kirmizi>1 red <1kirmizili>1 dressed in red It may be added to a phrase: <1uzun boy>1 long stature <1uzun boyIu>1 tall <1geni%s+ omuz>1 broad shoulder <1geni%s+ omuzlu>1 broad- shouldered <1orta yas+>1 middle age <1orta yas+li>1 middle-aged <1kirmizi yanak>1 red cheek <1kirmizi yanakIi>1 red- cheeked <1bi%r mart tari%h-i%>1 the date <1bi%r mart tari%hli%>1 dated 1 March 1 March <1c+amur>1 mud <1c+amurlu>1 muddy <1c+amurIu yu*z>1 muddy face <1c+amurlu yu*zlu*>1 muddy- faced <1kullanis+>1 use (X, 11) <1kuIlanis+li>1 serviceable <1yaygin kulIanis+>1 wide use <1yaygin kullanis+li>1 widely used The suffix appears to be used redundantly in <1bombeli%>1 "convex' Õ French <2bombe>2 "convex'. In <1s+anjanli>1 "shot' (of silk ; other forms being <1janjanli>1 and <1cancanli)>1 it is not redundant, as the French <2changeant>2 is used as a noun in Turkish in the sense of the quality possessed by shot silk: <1s+anjan kumas+lar-i>1 "shot fabrics', 6. . . . -<1li%>1 . . . -<1li%.>1 Pairs of words of opposite meanings, each wit h a suffixed -<1li%,>1 are used adverbially and adjectivally: <1gece-li% gu*ndu*z-lu* c+alis+mak>1 "to work <2night>2 and day'; <1kiz-li erkek-li% o*g*renci% grupIari>1 "groups of pupils including both girls and boys'. The basic words may be adjectives: <1uzak-li yakin-li kahkahalar>1 "bursts of laughter both far and near'. The -<1li%>1 in this use is historically distinct from that discussed in the preceding section. 7. -<1si%z.>1 This suffix means "without': <1u*mi%tsi%z>1 "hopeless', <1sonsuz>1 "endless', <1s+apkasiz>1 "hatless', <1gu*ru*ltu*su*z>1 "noiseless', <1di%kkatsi% z>1 "careless', <1tari%hsi%z>1 "undated'. It may be added to pronouns as well as nouns: <1onsuz>1 "without him', <1sensi%z>1 "without you'. See also XI, 12. 8. -<1li%k.>1 <2(a)>2 Added to nouns or adjectives, it makes abstract nouns: <1gu*zel>1 beautiful <1gu*zelli%k>1 beauty <1kolay>1 easy <1kolaylik>1 ease, facility <1i%yi%>1 good <1i%yi%li%k>1 goodness, good action <1asker>1 soldier <1askerli%k>1 military service <1c+ocuk>1 child <1c+ocukluk>1 childhood, childish action, childishness <1i%ki%>1 two <1i%ki%li%k>1 duality <1i%s+-c+i%>1 workman <1i%s+c+i%li%k>1 workmanship <1kac+ak-c+i>1 smuggler <1kac+akc+iIik>1 smuggling <1Atatu*rk-c+u*>1 Ataturkist <1Atatu*rkc+u*lu*k>1 Ataturkism <1di%kkat-li%>1 careful <1di%kkatIi%li%k>1 carefulness <1di%kkat-si%z>1 careless <1di%kkatsi%zli%k>1 carelessness Vulgarly it is added to Arabic abstract nouns: <1i%nsani%yet>1 "humanity' å <1i%nsani%yetli%k>1 ; cf. <1s+ofo*rcu*,>1 etc., # 4, end. When -<1li%k>1 is added to nouns of rank the resulting word is not invariably abstract but exhibits the same ambiguity as "the Presi- dent's office' (the office he holds or the office in which he works): <1kaymakamlik>1 may be the rank of lieutenant-governor or his official residence or the district he administers; <1kirallik>1 may be kingship or kingdom or reign. <2(b)>2 Added to nouns it makes nouns and adjectives meaning "intended for or suitable for . . .': <1o*n>1 front <1o*nlu*k>1 pinafore <1tuz>1 salt <1tuzluk>1 salt-cellar <1ki%ra>1 hire <1ki%ralik>1 for hire, to let <1go*z>1 eye <1go*zlu*k>1 eye-glasses, spectacles <1c+amas+ir>1 linen <1c+amas+irlik>1 laundry <1baba>1 father <1babalik>1 adoptive father, paternity <1s+ehi%t>1 martyr <1s+ehi%tli%k>1 military cemetery, martyrdom <1hastane>1 hospital <1hastaneli%k>1 hospital-case <1mahkeme>1 law-court <1mahkemeli%k>1 (person) brought <1geli%n>1 bride <1geli%nli%k>1 marriageable girl, nubile, bridal, wedding- dress, the state of being a bride <2(c)>2 Added to numerical expressions it makes nouns and adjec- ti%ves : <1seksen>1 eighty <1seksenli%k>1 octogenarian <1on>1 ten <1onIuk>1 temer; coin or note of ten piastres or pounds <1yu*z>1 hundred <1yu*z li%ralik>1 hundred-lira note <1yil>1 year <1yillik>1 yearling <1bi%r saat>1 one hour- <1bi%r saatli%k>1 a place one <1bi%r yer>1 hour's journey away <1on i%ki%>1 twelve cars <1oni%ki%>1 a twelve- <1araba>1 <1arabalik bi%r>1 car convoy <1konvoy>1 The numerical expression may be a noun in the locative case: <1yu*z-de>1 in a hundred <1yu*zdeli%k>1 percentage <1on-da>1 in ten <1ondalik>1 tithe, ten per cent. com- mission Cf. <1gu*nde>1 in the day <1gu*ndeIi%k>1 daily wage <2(d)>2 Added to adverbs of time: <1s+i%mdi%>1 now <1s+i%mdi%Ii%k>1 for the present <1bugu*n>1 today <1bugu*nlu*k>1 for today Although these may be translated as adverbs, as in <1bugu*nlu*k bu kadar yeter>1 "that's enough for today', they really belong in <2(c)>2 above ; <1bugu*nlu*k>1 means "the today-amount'. 9. -<1das+.>1 This suffix is not affected by vowel harmony but it does appear as -<1tas+>1 after unvoiced consonants. Added only to nouns, it denotes common attachment to the concept expressed by the basic noun, like English prefixed or sufxed "fellow'. <1vatan>1 home-land <1vatandas+>1 compatriot, fellow citizen <1okul>1 school <1okuldas+>1 schoolmate <1meslek>1 profession <1meslektas+>1 colleague <1di%n>1 religion <1di%ndas+>1 co-religionist <1c+ag*>1 time, epoch <1c+ag*das+>1 contemporary 2(adj.or noun)>2 Two exceptions: <1kardes+>1 not -<1das+>1 is the standard Turkish for "brother' or "sister' (Õ <1karin-das+>1 "womb-fellow'), and "name- sake' is <1adas+>1 with a single <1d>1 although "name' is <1ad.>1 The possible explanation for the latter anomaly is that its second element is not -<1das+>1 but <1es+>1 "mate' and this word <1adas+>1 is the most likely etymon of the suffix -<1das+.>1 The language reformers have chosen to make this suffix con- form to vowel harmony in the neologism <1i%s+-tes+-li%k>1 "co-operation' <1(i%s+>1 "work') and in the resurrected <1go*nu*I-des+>1 "sympathizer' (originally <1go*nu*ldas+>1 from <1go*nu*l>1 "soul'), apparently through a misunderstanding of the phonetic spelling used by Redhouse. 10. -<1gi%l.>1 This invariable suffix is a provincialism. Added to titles or personal names it denotes "the house or family of . . .': <1Kay->1 <1makamgi%l, Mehmetgi%l,>1 also in the plural <1Kaymakamgi%ller, Mehmetgi%ller.>1 It may be suffixed, after a personal suffix, to nouns denoting relatives: <1teyzemgi%l>1 "my aunt's family', the standard Turkish for this being <1teyzemler>1 (Il, 15, end). It has been used by the reformers to coin names of plant and animal families : <1gu*l>1 "rose', <1gu*lgi%u*er>1 "Rosaceae'; <1kedi%>1 "cat', <1kedi%gi%ller>1 "Felidae'. 11- -<1(s)el.>1 Arabic words ending in the adjectival suffix -<2i**>2 have greatly enriched the Turkish vocabulary; witness such words as <1tari%hi=>1 "historical', <1di%ni=>1 "religious'. Arabic nouns ending in -<1at- >1 drop it before adding the -<2i**,>2 hence <1si%yasi%>1 "political' <1(si%yaset>1 "politics'), <1i%radi%>1 "voluntary' <1(i%rade>1 "will'), <1mi%lli%>1 "national' <1(mi%llet>1 "nation'). The language reformers, in their desire to purge Turkish of foreign elements, advocated the replacement of this useful suffix by -<1sel>1 or, when added to words ending in <1s>1 or <1z,>1 -<1el.>1 Th is they employed with foreign borrowings and with Turkish words, both existing and manufactured : <1tari%h>1 (A) history <1tari%hsel>1 historic <1si%yaset>1 (A) politics <1si%yasal>1 political <1cebi%r>1 (A) algebra <1cebi%rsel>1 algebraic <1ki%mya>1 (A) chemistry <1ki%myasal>1 chemical <1fi%zi%k>1 physics <1fi%zi%ksel>1 physical <10*z>1 self <1o*zel>1 private <1bi%li%m>1 science <1bi%li%msel>1 scientific <1anayasa>1 constitution <1anayasal>1 constitutional In this last example the suffix has been reduced to -<1I>1 to avoid the cacophonous -<1sasal.>1 To justify this innovation the reformers cited such time- honoured words as <1uysal>1 "compliant' <1(uymak>1 "to conform'), <1kumsal>1 "sandy' or "a sandy tract' <1(kum>1 "sand') and <1yoksul>1 "destitute' <1(yok>1 "non-existent'). The real inspiration of it, how- ever, was in such French words as <2culturel>2 and <2social.>2 12. -<1vari=.>1 This Persian suffix, meaning "-like', is still productive in Turkish to a limited extent: <1S+ekspi%rvari=>1 "Shakespearian'; <1C+o*rci%lvari=>1 "Churchillian'; <1James Bondvari= bi%r casusluk>1 "a James Bond-ish case of espionage'. 13. -<1ci%l.>1 This occurs in a few words and has the sense of "tending towards, accustomed to, addicted to': <1ak>1 white <1akc+il>1 faded <1kir>1 grey <1kirc+il>1 grizzled <1adam>1 man <1adamcil>1 tame <2or>2 ready to attack man <1baIik>1 fish <1balikc+il>1 heron <1tavs+an>1 hare <1tavs+ancil>1 eagle <1o*lu*m>1 death <1o*lu*mcu*l>1 moribund Some neologisms have been made with this suffix: <1ben>1 I <1benci%l>1 selfish <1ana>1 mother <1anacil>1 mother-bound <1ev>1 house <1evci%l>1 domesticated <1ki%tap>1 book <1ki%tapc+il>1 bookish 14. -<1hane.>1 The Persian <2kha**ne>2 "house' is not quite dead as a suffix in Turkish; <1pastahane>1 "cake-shop' is of more recent origin than <1hastahane, eczahane,>1 and <1postahane>1 and unlike them it keeps its <1h>1 more often than not (I, 11). It is added to a few Turkish words, e.g. : <1su*thane>1 "dairy', <1buzhane>1 "ice-house', <1di%kimhane>1 "tailoring workshop', <1as+hane>1 "cook-house'. A modern slang formation is <1kazikhane>1 "clip joint' from <1kazik>1 "swindle'. 15. -<1ane.>1 This Persian suffix, in which the <1a>1 is long, serves <2(a)>2 to make adjectives or nouns into adverbs : <1mest>1 "drunk', <1mestane>1 "drunkenly'; <2(b)>2 to turn nouns and adjectives indicating persons into adjectives describing things: <1s+ah>1 "king', <1s+ahane>1 "regal'; <1s+ai%r>1 "poet', <1s+ai%rane>1 "poetic'; <1dost>1 "friend', <1dostane>1 "frien dly' (as in "a friendly word'); <1mu*debbi%r bi%r pas+a>1 "a prudent Pasha', <1pas+anin mu*debbi%rane hareketi%>1 "the Pasha's prudent action', It is mentioned here because it has recently shown itself productive of at least one word: from <1bi%lgi%c+>1 "know-all', <1bilgi%c+ane>1 "in a know-all fashion'. PRONOUNS 1 . Personal pronouns : <2Singular First Second Third>2 <2abs.>2 <1ben sen o>1 <2acc.>2 <1beni% seni% onu>1 <2gen.>2 <1beni%m seni%n onun>1 <2dat.>2 <1bana sana ona>1 <2loc.>2 <1bende sende onda>1 <2abl.>2 <1benden senden ondan>1 <2Plural>2 <2abs.>2 <1bi%z si%z onlar>1 <2acc.>2 <1bi%zi% si%zi% onlari>1 <2gen.>2 <1bi%zi%m si%zi%n onlarin>1 <2dat.>2 <1bi%ze si%ze onlara>1 <2loc.>2 <1bi%zde si%zde onlarda>1 <2abl.>2 <1bi%zden si%zden onlardan>1 In pre-nineteenth-centuy texts the usual forms of the third person are: (sing.) <1ol, ani, anin, ana, anda, andan>1 ; (pl-) <1anlar, anIari,>1 etc. It will be noticed that the table exhibits some anomalies: the <1m>1 in the genitive of the first-person singular and plural ; the change from <1e>1 to <1a>1 in the dative of the first- and second-person singular; in the third person the <1n>1 before the case-suffixes of the singular and before the -<1Iar>1 of the plural. The most plausible explanations of these anomalies are: the original <1beni%M>1 and <1bi%zi%M>1 became <1beni%m>1 and <1bi%zi%m>1 under the influence of the pronominal suffixes -<1i%m>1 and -<1i%mi%z,>1 helped perhaps by the labial <1b.>1 The original suffix of the dative was not -<1e>1 but -<1ge; benge, senge>1 became <1beMe, seMe>1 and the influence of this nasal brought about the change to <1bana, sana,>1 a change possibly helped by analogy with the old third-person dative <1aMa>1 å <1ana;>1 this very form <1aMa>1 may have been due to the influence of the M in an carlier <1*oMa.>1 The <1n>1 appears in the third person also when <1o>1 takes the suffixes -<1si%z>1 (IV, 7) and -<1ce>1 (XII, 2): <1onsuz>1 "without him', <1onca>1 "according to him'. The usual explanation of this <1n>1 is that it is the "pro- nominal <1n'>1 which appears after the third-person suffix and in the declension of -<1ki%>1 and <1kendi%>1 (## 3, 4). <1o>1 is a demonstrative as well as a personal pronoun; see #5. <1si%z>1 is the regular polite form for "you', singular or plural, and <1bi%z>1 is used colloquially for "I' (XVI, 3 <2(c));>2 they may therefore take the plural suffix in the colloquial--<1bi%zler,si%zler>1--when referring to more than one person. In courtly speech, which is steadily becoming rarer, <1ben>1 may be replaced by <1bendeni%z>1 "your slave' (Õ Persian <2banda;>2 the resemblance to <1ben>1 is coincidental), the full meaning of which has become somewhat abraded, so that a following verb nowadays is usually in the first and not the third person, and, for example, "my humble opinion' is <1bendeni%zi%n fi%kri%m>1 "your slave's my opinion'. Similarly, <1si%z>1 may be replaced by <1zat-i ali%ni%z>1 or <1zat->1 <1ali%leri%>1 (Persian izafet), literally "your high person, their high person', which are followed by a verb in the second-person plural. 2. Uses of the personal pronouns. As they are definite by nature, we may call <1ben, sen, o,>1 etc,, the nominative instead of the absolute case; there is no question of their being used as an indefinite accusative. The persons of verbs are shown by suffixes but a pronoun in the nominative may be used for emphasis : <1o gi%tti%, ben gi%tmedi%m>1 "he went; <2I>2 did not go'. The pronoun object of a verb is generally omitted if it can be understood from the context : <1ki%tabi du*n aldim, daha okuma- dim>1 "I bought the book yesterday; I have not read Õitå yet'. The use of <1seni%>1 "thee' with terms of abuse is conventionaIly explained by the ellipsis of a verb such as "I dislike/deplore/warn': <1seni% gi%di% ]>1 "you scoundrel]'; <1seni% afacan seni% ]>1 "you cheeky little urchin you ]' More precisely, the reason there is no verb is that the speaker does not have in mind any specific verb but only an inarticulate emotion of displeasure of which <1seni%>1 is the object. In the genitive the pronouns can be used predicatively; cf. Il, 11: <1bu memleket ni%c+i%n bi%zi%m?>1 "why is this land ours?'; <1bu para beni%m>1 "this money is mine'; <1seni%n olsun>1 "keep it' (Iit. let->1it-be of-you'); <1mesuli%yet si%zi%n deg*i%l>1 "the responsibility is not yours'. They may reinforce the personal suffixes: <1ev-i%mi%z>1 or <1bi%zi%m ev-i%mi%z>1 "our house'; <1sokag*-iniz>1 or <1si%zi%n sokag*-iniz>1 "your street'; <1ad-i>1 or <1onun ad-i>1 "his name'. The genitive of the third-person pronouns can resolve ambi- guities which might arise from the various possible senses of, for example, <1c+ocuklari>1 (cf. II, 15): <1onun c+ocuklari>1 his children <1onlarin c+ocug*u>1 their child <1onlarin c+ocuklari>1 their children Pronouns of the first and second persons in the genitive are also used informally as attributive adjectives, i.e. replacing the personal suffixes : "our house' can be <1bi%zi%m ev;>1 "your street' <1si%zi%n sokak.>1 The genitive of the third-person pronouns cannot, however, replace the personal suffixes in standard Turkish: <1onun ad>1 instead of <1adi>1 or <1onun adi>1 is a provincialism (cf. <1Ahmed'i%n>1 <1Mustafa,>1 p. 43, penultimate paragraph). 3. -<1ki%.>1 The pronominal or "mixed' suffix -<1ki%>1 is exceptional in the matter of vowel harmony, not changing except after <1gu*n>1 "day' and <1du*n>1 "yesterday', when it becomes -<1ku*.>1 Added to the genitive case of a noun or pronoun, it makes a possessive pronoun: <1hi%z- metc+i%-ni%n-ki%>1 "the one belonging to the servant'- <1c+ocug*-un-ki%>1 -the one belonging to the child'; <1beni%mki%>1 "mine'; <1seni%nki%>1 "thine'; <1onunki%>1 "his, hers, the one belonging to it'; <1bi%zi%mki%>1 "ours'. <1si%zi%nki%>1 "yours'; <1onlarinki%>1 "theirs'. <1bu kaIem beni%m deg*i%l>1 and <1bu kalem beni%mki% deg*i%l>1 may both be translated "this pen is not mine'. The former is a simple denial of ownership, the latter implies "I have a pen but this is not it'. The noun in the genitive to which -<1ki%>1 is suffixed may be in the plural and may have a personal suffix. <1arkadas+-iniz-in-ki%>1 the one belonging to your friend <1arkadas+-lar-iniz-in-ki%>1 the one belonging to your friends Added to an expression of time or place, which may be an adverb or a noun in the locative case, -<1ki%>1 makes a pronoun or adjective: <1yazin>1 "in summer', <1ko*ylu*nu*n yazinki% kazanci>1 "the peasant's summer earnings'; <1bugu*n>1 "today', <1bugu*nku* gazete>1 "today's newspaper', <1bugu*nku*ler>1 "those who are today, people nowadays'; <1yarin>1 "tomorrow', <1yarinki% toplanti>1 "tomorrow's meeting'; <1s+i%mdi%>1 "now', <1s+i%mdi%ki% durum>1 "the present situation'; <1okul c+ag*-i>1 "school-age', <1okul c+ag*indaki% c+ocuklar>1 "children of school-age' ("who are in school-age'). <1lzmi%r'deki% bu*romuz ku*c+u*k, Adana'daki% daha bu*yu*ktu*r>1 "our office which-is-in- Izmir is small, the-one-in-Adana is bigger'. Pronouns in -<1ki%>1 may be declined. In the singular the case- endings are preceded by the pronominal <1n,>1 but this does not ap- pear in the plural. Thus the declension of <1beni%mki%>1 is as follows : <2Singular>2 <2Plural>2 <2abs.>2 <1beni%mki% beni%mki%ler>1 mine <2acc.>2 <1beni%mkini% beni%mki%leri%>1 mine <2gen.>2 <1beni%mki%ni%n beni%mki%leri%n>1 of mine <2dat.>2 <1beni%mki%ne beni%mki%lere>1 to mine <2loc.>2 <1beni%mki%nde beni%mki%lerde>1 in mine <2abl.>2 <1beni%mki%nden beni%mki%lerden>1 from mine <1c+ocug*un boyu babasininki%ni% gec+ti%>1 "the child's stature has passed his father's'; <1resi%mleri%mi%z kardes+leri%ni%zi%nki%lerden>1 <1kiymetli%di%r>1 "our pictures are more valuable than your brothers' '. 4. kendi%.>1 As an adjective it means "own': <1kendi% oda-m>1 "my own room', <1kendi% kiz-i>1 "her own daughter', <1kendi% memleket-i%ni%z>1 "your own country'. With the personal suffixes it makes the emphatic or reflexive pronouns "myself', etc. : <1kendi%-m>1 , <1kendi%-n, kendi%>1 or <1kendi%-si%,>1 <1kendi%-mi%z, kendi%-ni%z, kendi%-Ieri%.>1 For "himself' with reflexive meaning, <1kendi%>1 is far more usual than <1kendi%si%;>1 indeed, purists maintain that <1kendi%si%>1 should never be used reflexively. Both forms take the pronominal <1n>1 before all case-endings : <2abs.>2 <1kendi% kendi%si%>1 <2acc.>2 <1kendi%ni% kendi%si%ni%>1 <2gen.>2 <1kendi%ni%n kendi%si%ni%n>1 <2dat.>2 <1kendi%ne kendi%si%ne>1 <2loc.>2 <1kendi%nde kendi%si%nde>1 <2abl.>2 <1kendi%nden kendi%si%nden>1 As a reflexive pronoun <1kendi%>1 is usually repeated, the first time in the absolute with no suffix, the second time with the appropriate personal and case suffix : <1kendi% kendi%-m-i% mu*dafaa>1 <1etti%m>1 "I defended myself'; <1i%s+i% kendi% kendi%-m-e yapamadim>1 "I could not do the job for (or ""by'') myself'; <1kendi% kendi%-n-i%>1 <1tenki%t edi%yor>1 "he is criticizing himself'; <1kendi% kendi%-mi%z-den>1 <1korkmiyalim>1 "let us not be afraid of ourselves'. <1kendi%si%>1 and its plural <1kendi%leri%>1 are commonly employed as simple third-person pronouns with no reflexive or emphatic sense : <1kendi%si% evde>1 "he is at home'; <1kendi%leri%ni% go*rdu*nu*z mu*>1 "have you seen them ?' As <1kendi%-si%>1 literally means "his self', it may stand in izafet with a preceding noun in the genitive: <1Atatu*rk'u*n kendi%si%>1 "Atatu*rk himself'; <1Mecli%s'i%n kendi%si%>1 "the Assembly itself'. 5. Demonstratives : <1bu>1 this (close to the speaker) <1s+u>1 this <2or>2 that (a little further away) <1o>1 that (also "he, she, it') When used as adjectives these words are invariable. For their declension when used as pronouns see <1o>1 in # 1: sing. <1bu, bunu,>1 etc., <1s+u, s+unu,>1 etc. ; pl. <1bunlar,>1 etc., <1s+unlar,>1 etc. <1s+u>1 means "the following': <1s+u tekli%f>1 "the following proposal, this proposal which I am about to mention'; <1bu tekli%f>1 "the pro- posal which has just been mentioned'. Where we say "this or that', Turkish prefers "that or this'.. <1s+unu>1 yap, <1bunu yap>1 "do that, do this'. In archaizing legal language, <1i%s+bu>1 may be found for the adjectival <1bu.>1 Until the last century <1s+ol>1 was sometimes used for <1s+u.>1 The personal suffixes are not used with the demonstratives except in such stereotyped expressions as <1s+u-nun bu-nun s+u-su>1 <1bu-su i%le ala=kadar olmiyan>1 "not interested in other people's business' ("the that and this of that one and this one'); <1o-nun>1 s+u-su bu-su>1 "his private concerns' ("his that and this')- Demonstratives precede attributive adjectives: <1bu uzun yol>1 "this long road' ; <1s+u geni%s+ omuzlu gu*res+c+i%>1 "that broad-shouldered wrestler'; <1o mes+hur akto*r>1 "that famous actor'. They may come within a definite izafet; cf. II, 17, end. An idiomatic use of <1bu>1 is to place it after a noun: <1sanatka=r bu,>1 literally "artist this', meaning "the fellow's an artist; what do you expect?' So <1hayat bu>1 "that's Iife for you'; <1c+ocuk bu>1 "he's only a child; don't ask too much of him-. From <1bu, s+u,>1 and <1o>1 are formed <1bo*yle, s+o*yIe,>1 and <1o*yle,>1 use d both as adverbs, "thus', and adjectives, "such, this/that kind of': <1bo*yle adamlar>1 such men (as this) <1s+o*yle evler>1 such houses (as those over there) <1oyle fi%ki%rler>1 such ideas (as those) The addition of the third-person suffix to these words makes them into pronouns (cf. Il, 22): <1bo*ylesi%>1 "this sort of person', <1s+o*ylesi%>1 or <1o*ylesi%>1 "that sort of person'; plural: <1bo*yleleri%, s+o *y- leleri%, o*yleleri%.>1 The singular forms are also used adjectivally-- <1bo*yIesi% adamIar>1 "such men'--but this use has not achieved general currency. <1beri%ki%, o*teki%>1 mean respectively the nearer and the further of two. They may be adjectives or pronouns; being compounded with -<1ki%,>1 when used as pronouns they take the pronominal before all cases of the singular: <1bu gazeteyi% i%stemi%yorum,>1 <1o*teki%-n-i% ver>1 "I don't want this newspaper, give me the other one over there'. <1o*teki% beri%ki%>1 means "this one and that one, any- body and everybody'. 6. Interrogatives : <1ki%m>1 who? <1hangi%>1 which? <1ne>1 what? <1kac+>1 how many? <1ki%m>1 declines like a noun, in singular and plural: <1bu c+anta ki%m-i%n?>1 "whose is this bag?'; <1ki%m-i% go*rdu*n?>1 "whom did you see ?'; <1ki%mler-e?>1 "to what people ?' <1ne>1 exhibits certain irregularities: <2Singular Plural>2 <2abs.>2 <1ne neler>1 <2acc.>2 <1ne>1 or <1neyi%>1 <1neler>1 or <1neleri%>1 <2gen.>2 <1neyi%n>1 or <1neni%n neleri%n>1 <2dat.>2 <1neye>1 or <1ni%ye nelere>1 <2loc.>2 <1nede neIerde>1 <2abl.>2 <1neden neIerden>1 There are also alternative forms with the personal suffixes, meaning "what of mine ?', "what of yours ?', etc.: <2Singular Plural>2 1 <1nem>1 or <1neyi%m nemi%z>1 or <1neyi%mi%z>1 2 <1nen neyi%n neni%z neyi%ni%z>1 3 <1nesi% neyi% neleri%>1 The usual accusative singular is <1ne>1 : <1ne yaptin ?>1 "what have you done ?' <1neyi%>1 is used: <2(a)>2 For "what specific thing?'; e.g. if you hear that someone is going to the opera and ask <1ne go*receksi%n?>1 "what are you going to see ?', you may elicit the facetious reply "an opera, of course ]' There is no danger of this if you ask <1neyi% go*receksi%n?>1 "what Õspecific item of the repertoireå are you going to see ?' The defined accusative plural <1neleri%>1 is similarly used for "what specific things?' <2(b)>2 When another interrogative follows, especially one com- pounded with <1ne: neyi% ve ne zaman yaptin?>1 "what have you done, and when ?'; <1ki%m neyi% ki%me satiyor>1 "who is selling what, to whom ?' The regular spelling of the dative singular is <1neye- neye yarar?>1 "for-what is it suitable ?', while <1ni%ye>1 is generally used in the sense of "what for, why ?', as is the ablative <1neden.>1 The plural is used in exclamations: <1neler go*rdu*m]>1 "what things I saw ]' One of the commonest uses of <1ne>1 with personal suffixes is exemplified in <1nen var?>1 "what's the matter with you ?',lit. "what- of-yours exists, what do you have ?', cf. <2qu'as-tu?>2 Note also <1neme la=zim?>1 "what has it to do with me?', lit. "to-what-of-mine is it necessary ?' <1bu okul-un ne-si%-si%n?>1 "you are this school's what ?', i.e. "what is your position in this school?'--<1kapici-si-yim>1 "I am its janitor'. <1ne>1 may be the qualifying element of an indefinite izafet e.g. <1ne ders-i% var?>1 "what lesson is there?' (on the time-table)-- logically, because the answer will also consist in an indefinite izafet: <1geometri% ders-i%.>1 There is a story of a man who tries to tell a friend that he has seen a ghost, <1hortlak,>1 but in his terror he can only stammer <1ho-ho-ho.>1 His friend asks <1ne ho'su?>1 "what ho?, the <1ho>1 belonging to what ?' <1ne>1 may be an adjective as well as a pronoun: <1ne hacet?>1 "what need?', <1ne i%nat ]>1 "what obstinacy]', <1ne gu*zel c+i%c+ekler]>1 "what lovely flowers]' It may also render "how' as in <1ne gu*zel]>1 "how b, -F <1Il'>1 . , <1al*m?>1 "how do you know?' (lit. "how is it known ?'); or "why' as in <1ne karis+iyorsun ?>1 "what are you inter- fering Õforå ?' It forms part of many compound interrogatives : <1ne zaman, ne>1 <1vaki%t>1 "when ?'; <1ne kadar>1 "how much ?'; <1ni%c+i%n>1 (Õ <1ne i%c+i%n>1 " what for?') "why?'; <1nasil>1 (Õ <1ne asil>1 "what basis ?') "how?', "what sort of . . .?'; <1neci%>1 "of what profession?' With the adverbial suffix -<1ce>1 (XII, 2), it makes (a) <1nece>1 "in what language?' and <2(b)>2 <1ni%ce,>1 meaning originally "how many ?', then "how many]' and nowadays mostly "many'. The elision of the <1e>1 of <1ne,>1 as seen in <1ni%c+i%n>1 and <1nasil,>1 is frequent in rapid conversation : <1ne olacak ?>1 "what will happen ?' å <1nolacak?>1 or <1n'olacak?; ne yapalim?>1 "what are we to do ?' å <1napalim ?>1 <1hangi%>1 and <1kac+>1 are adjectives, the latter always construed with a singular noun: <1hangi% vi%la=yet?>1 "which province?'; <1hangi%>1 <1vi%la=yetler?>1 "which provinces ?'; <1kac+ vi%la=yet ?>1 "how many pro- vinces?' With the addition of personal suffixes they become pronouns: <1hangi%-mi%z?>1 "which of us ?'; <1kac+-iniz?>1 "how many of you ?'; <1hangi%-si% ?>1 "which one of them ?'; <1hangi%-ler-i% ?>1 "which <2(pl .)>2 of them ?' 7. Indefinite, determinative, and negative. Most of the pronouns in this category are formed from adjectives by the addition of the third-person suffix, on the pattern of <1bo*yle-si%>1 (# 5). Thus <1bi%r>1 "a, one' is an adjective: <1bi%r adam gi%tti%>1 "one man went'; <1bi%r-i%>1 is a pronoun: <1adamlardan bi%ri% gi%tti%, bi%ri% kaldi>1 "one of the men went, one remained'. The suffix may be doubled: <1bi%r-i%-si%.>1 <1bi%ri%>1 and <1bi%ri%si%>1 may also mean "someone'; <2in>2 this use the ante- cedent of the third-person suffix is people at large, a "they' as vague as in "they say': <1bi%ri%>1 or <1bi%ri%si% bana seslendi%>1 "someone called out to me'. In those words below in which <1bi%r>1 is the first element it carries the word-accent. 8. <1bazi, ki%mi%>1 "some' (adjective). The final vowel of <1bazi>1 is the mark of the Persian izafet, so is unaccented. <1ki%mi%>1 in this adjectival sense is a neologism. Both qualify singular or plural nouns: <1bazi>1 or <1ki%mi% adam>1 "some man'; <1bazi>1 or <1ki%mi% adamlar>1 "some men'. Pronouns : <1bazisi, bazilari, ki%mi%, ki%mi%si%>1 "some people' ; <1bazimiz, ki%mi%mi%z>1 "some of us'; <1baziniz, ki%mi%ni%z>1 "some of you'. 9. <1bi%rtakim>1 "a number of' (lit. "a set') always qualifies plural nouns: <1bi%rtakim ko*ylu*ler>1 "a number of villagers'. Like the indefinite article, it may come between adjective and noun: <1ku*c+u*k bi%rtakim devIetler>1 "a number of small states'. Note the distinction between <1bi%rtakim ki%taplar>1 "a number of books' and <1bi%r takim ki%tap>1 "a set of books' (for the construction of the latter see XVI, <17).>1 Pronoun : <1bi%rtakimi>1 "a number of them'. 10. <1her>1 (P) "each, every', with noun in singular: <1her gu*n>1 "every day'; <1her i%ki%-si%>1 "both of them'; <1her u*c+-u*mu*z>1 "all three of us'; <1her bi%ri%, herkes>1 (P) "everyone'; <1her bi%r-i%mi%z>1 "each one of us'; <1her ki%m>1 "whoever'; <1her ne>1 "whatever'; <1her ne kadar>1 "however much'; <1her hangi%>1 "whichever'; <1her hangi% bi%r>1 "any'. Compounds <1of her>1 are sometimes written as one word: <1herbi%ri%mi%z, herne->1 <1kadar,>1 etc. 11. <1hep>1 is an adverb meaning "altogether, entirely, always'. With the personal suffixes it becomes a pronoun: <1hep-i%mi%z>1 "all of us', <1hep-i%ni%z>1 "all of you'. The third person is <1hepsi%>1 (Õ <1hep-i%-si%,>1 with the suffix doubled) "all of it, all of them, everyone'. 12. <1c+ok>1 as an adverb means "much, very': <1c+ok konus+tuk>1 "we talked a lot'; <1c+ok faydali>1 "very useful'. With a noun, singular or plural, it means "much, many': <1c+ok i%s+>1 "much work'; <1c+ok ki%s+i%>1 "many persons', <1c+ok yerler>1 "many places'. With possessive suffixes it is a pronoun, meaning "most' rather than "more': <1c+og*-umuz>1 "most of us'; <1c+og*-unuz>1 "most of you'; <1c+og*-u>1 "most of it, most of them'. The last is used as an adjective as well as a pronoun, like <1bo*ylesi%>1 and <1ki%mi%>1 : <1c+og*u i%nsanlar>1 " most people'; <1c+og*u zaman>1 "most times, most often'. <1bi%rc+ok>1 "a good deal of' is followed by a noun in singular or plural; pedants say singular only. Pronouns: <1bi%rc+og*u>1 "a good deal of it, a good many of them'; <1bi%rc+oklari>1 "a good many people <2or>2 things'. 13. <1az>1 as an adverb means "little : <1az i%c+er>1 "he drinks little'. As an adjective, with a singular noun, "few, little': <1az ki%s+i%>1 "few persons'; <1az s+arap i%c+er>1 "he drinks little wine'. See also Ill, 4. <1bi%raz>1 "a little': <1bi%raz yu*ru*du*k>1 "we walked a little'; <1bi%raz>1 <1ekmek yedi%m>1 "I ate a little bread'; <1bi%raz-i>1 "a little of it'. 14. <1bi%rkac+>1 "a few, sevcral', with singular noun: <1bi%rkac+ gu*n>1 <1kaldi>1 "he stayed several days'. Pronoun : <1bi%rkac+i>1 "several of them', etc. 15. <1bu*tu*n>1 as a noun or as an adjective qualifying a singular noun means "whole': <1mu*Iet-i%n bu*tu*n-u*>1 "the whole of the nation'; <1bu*tu*n mi%llet>1 "the whole nation'. As an adjective with a plural noun it means "all': <1bu*tu*n mi%lletler>1 "all the nations'. 16. <1bas+ka, di%g*er>1 (P) "other'. Pronouns: <1bas+kasi, bi%r bas+kasi, bas+ka bi%ri%, di%g*er bi%ri%>1 "another of them, someone <2or>2 something else': <1kaldir bunu,>1 <1bas+kasini geti%r>1 "take this away, bring another'. <1benden bas+ka>1 "other than me'; <1benden bas+kasi>1 "someone other than me'. 17. <1o*bu*r>1 (Õ <1o bi%r;>1 I, 31, end) "the other, the next': <1o*bu*r gu*n>1 "the day after tomorrow'; <1o*bu*r du*nya>1 "the next world'. Pronoun: <1o*bu*ru*>1 "the other one'. 18. <1bi%rbi%r>1 or <1bi%ri%bi%r,>1 with the appropriate possessive suffix, means "each other': 1 <1bi%rbi%ri%mi%z>1 or <1bi%ri%bi%ri%mi%z>1 2 <1bi%rbi%ri%ni%z>1 or <1bi%ri%bi%ri%ni%z>1 3 <1bi%rbi%ri%, bi%ri%bi%ri%,>1 or <1bi%ri%bi%rleri%>1 <1bi%rbi%ri%mi%z-e yardim edi%yoruz>1 "we are helping each other'; <1bi%ri%bi%ri%ni%z-i% sevi%ni%z>1 "love one another'; <1bi%ri%bi%ri%nden gu*zel> 1 <1kizlar>1 "girls each more beautiful than the other'. The Persian <1yekdi%g*er>1 is an increasingly rarer alternative. 19. <1ayni>1 "same'. In view of its origin (lI, 26, third paragraph) this ought to be immediately followed by a noun, as in <1ayni zaman>1 "the same time'. It is, however, regularly used nowadays with an intervening adjective and even predicatively: <1ayni uzun yol>1 "the same long road'; <1hedefleri%mi%z ayni>1 "our aims are the same'. This <1ayni,>1 which is frequently misspelt <1ayni%,>1 is accented on the first syllable. There is another word <1ayni,>1 accented on the last syllable, in which the <1i>1 is the Turkish third-person suffix: <1ad-i beni%m-ki%- ni%n ayn-i-dir>1 "his name is the same as mine', lit. "his-name of-mine is-its-counterpart'. The suffix is sometimes doubled. <1bunun ayn-i-si-ni alalim>1 "let's buy one just like this' ("of-this its-counterpart'). This, however, is a vulgarism, against which schoolchildren are warned. Oddly, what they are told to put in its place is <1tipkisi>1 "its replica', which also contains a doubled third-person suffix. The bare form <1*tipik>1 (Arabic <2&ibq)>2 is never used, though <1tipki>1 (the final <1i>1 being that of the Persian izafet) is commonly put before a noun or pronoun to reinforce the post- position <1gi%bi%>1 "like': <1tipki babasi gi%bi%>1 "just like his father'; <1tipki onlar gi%bi%>1 "just like them'. 20. <1s+ey,>1 as well as meaning "thing', is an all-purpose pronoun, used like French <2chose>2 to take the place of a word or name the speaker cannot for the moment recall. For its syntactic function see XV, 3. When it takes the third-person suffix this is usually doubled, <1s+ey-i%-si%>1 (sometimes spelled <1s+eysi%;>1 cf. <1hepsi%,>1 # 11), probably because in ordinary speech <1s+ey-i%>1 is barely distinguishable from <1s+ey: s+ey-i%n s+ey->1i%-<1si% ne oIdu--mektub-un zarf-i?>1 "what has become of the what-d'ye-call-it of the what-d'ye-call-it--the envelopc of the letter ?' 21. <1falan, falanca, fi%la=n, fi%la=nca>1 "so and so, such and such' are adjectives and pronouns. <1falan tari%hte, falanca geldi%>1 "on such and such a date, so and so came'. <1falan>1 and <1fi%la=n>1 also mean "and so on' after nouns, "or there- abouts' after expressions of time or quantity: <1cami%ler-i% falan>1 <1gezdi%>1 "he toured the mosques and so on'; <1temmuzda fi%la=n i%sti%yor>1 "he wants ten liras or so'. They may be used together: <1Bedri%, Orhan, Ha=mi%t falan fi%la=n geIi%yorlar>1 "Bedri, Orhan, Hamit and so on and so forth are coming'. <1falan festeki%z>1 and <1falan fes+meka=n>1 are similarly used and convey even less en- thusiasm at the prospect. 22. <1i%nsan>1 "human being' is used for the indefinite "one': <1bu>1 <1sicaklikta i%nsan c+abuk yorulur>1 "in this heat one gets tired quickly'. See also the use of the impersonal passive in VIII, 54. 23. <1hi%c+,>1 in origin the Persian for "nothing', has the same sense in Turkish: <1ne yaptin?--hi%c+>1 "what have you done ?'--"nothing'. It also functions as an adverb reinforcing negatives: <1hi%c+ konus+maz>1 "he doesn't talk at all'. With <1bi%r>1 it is written as one word: <1hi%c+bi%r haber yok>1 "there is no news at all'. In positive questions it translates "ever', in negative questions "never'; <1hi%c+ o*yle s+ey olur mu?>1 "does such a thing ever happen ?'; <1hi%c+ Antalya'da bulunmadiniz mi?>1 "have you never been in Antalya ?' 24. <1ki%mse,>1 originally "whoever it is' <1(ki%m-i%se,>1 XX, 7), now means "person, somebody not clearly specified': <1bi%r ki%mse si%zi%>1 <1ariyordu>1 "someone was looking for you'. In conjunction with a negative it means "no one', like French <2personne:>2 <1ki%mse aldiris+>1 <1etmi%yor>1 "no one is paying attention'; <1ki%mse-si%z c+ocuklar>1 "children who are alone in the world' (IV, 7). Its diminutive is used in the negative sense only: <1ki%mseci%k yok>1 "there's <1no>1 one at all'; <1ki%mseci%ki%er kalmamis+>1 "there are no people left at all'. VI NUMERALS <1I.>1 Cardinals : <1bi%r>1 1 <1oni%ki%>1 12 <1kirk>1 40 <1i%ki%>1 2 <1onu*c+>1 13 <1elli%>1 50 <1u*c+>1 3 <1on do*rt>1 14 <1aItmis+>1 60 <1do*rt>1 4 <1on bes+>1 15 <1yetmi%s+>1 70 <1bes+>1 5 <1on alti>1 16 <1seksen>1 80 <1alti>1 6 <1on yedi%>1 17 <1doksan>1 90 <1yedi%>1 7 <1on seki%z>1 18 <1yu*z>1 100 <1seki%z>1 8 <1on dokuz>1 19 <1bi%n>1 l,000 <1dokuz>1 9 <1yi%rmi%>1 20 <1bi%r mi%lyon>1 l,000,000 <1on>1 10 <1yi%rmi% bi%r>1 21 <1bi%r mi%lyar>1 l,000,000,000 <1on bi%r>1 11 <1otuz>1 30 <1sifir>1 zero Numbers are compounded by simple juxtaposition: <1yu*z bi%r>1 "a hundred and one'; <1u*c+ mi%Iyon do*rt yu*z yi%rmi% bi%n seki%z yu*z>1 <1doksan alti>1 "three million four hundred and twenty thousand eight hundred and ninety-six'. In the numbers from 11 to l9 inclusive (which may be found written as one word), the accent is on the <1on.>1 In higher numbers the last syllable of the unit is accented. Whereas "one hundred' and "one thousand' are <1yu*z>1 and <1bi%n>1 respectively, "one million' and "one milliard' (i.e. an American billion) require <1bi%r.>1 In writing figures, a full stop <1(nokta)>1 is used to separate the thousands; thus <1bes+ bi%n alti yu*z otuz i%ki%>1 is written <1 5.632.>1 On the other hand, a comma <1(vi%rgu*l)>1 is used where English uses a decimal point, so 7-5 ("seven point five') appears as 7,5 <1(yedi% vi%rgu*l bes+).>1 Less commonly, the thousands are separated by a comma, and a full stop may be used for the decimal point: 5,632; 7.5. In vague assessments of number such as "two or three', "five or six', the "or' is not expressed: <1i%ki% u*c+, bes+ aIti.>1 For "three or four', idiom mysteriously prefers <1u*c+ bes+>1 to <1u*c+ do*rt.>1 Cf. the expressions <1u*c+ as+ag*i bes+ yukari>1 "a little more or less', literally "three down five up', and <1u*c+e bes+e bakmamak>1 "not to haggle about the price', literally "not to look at three Õorå five'." Care must be taken not to confuse <1on bes+>1 "fifteen' with <1bes+ on>1 "five or ten'. Care is also necessary with <1yu*z,>1 which besides "hundred' may mean "cause' or "face': <1i%ki% yu*z>1 "two hundred'; <1i%ki% yu*zlu*>1 "two- faced'; <1i%ki%yu*zlu*lu*k>1 "hypocrisy'; <1yu*z o*Ic+u*mu*>1 "surface-area'; <1 bu>1 <1yu*zden>1 "for this reason'. <1kirk>1 is used for an indefinitely high number: <1kirkayak>1 "centi- pede' ("forty-feet'); <1kirk yilda bi%r>1 "once in a blue moon' ('in forty years')- When case-endings or other suffixes are written after figures, the rules of consonant-assimilation and vowel-harmony must be observed: "from 2 to 9', <1i%ki%den dokuza,>1 2 <1den>1 9 <1a;>1 "from 3 to 7', <1u*c+ten yedi%ye,>1 3 <1ten>1 7 <1ye;>1 "from 6 to 11', <1altidan on bi%re,>1 6 <1dan>1 11 <1e.>1 An apostrophe may precede the suffix: <1 2'den 9'a,>1 etc. For the use of the singular form of the noun after numerals, see 11,2. 2. Classifiers. A numeral is rarely used alone, e.g. in answer to a question ; either the noun is repeated or, if the things enumerated are separate entities and not units of measurement, the word <1tane>1 ("seed, grain') is added after the numeral. <1kac+ saat bekli%yor- sunuz?--i%ki% saat>1 "how many hours have you been waiting?'-- "two hours'. <1kac+ ki%tap aldiniz?--do*rt tane>1 "how many books have you bought?'--"four'. <1tane>1 is often inserted between numeral and noun (unless the latter is a unit of measurement): <1bes+ tane anahtar>1 "five keys'; <1seki%z tane mendi%l>1 "eight handker- chiefs'. It is also added after <1kac+,>1 especially without a following noun: <1kac+ tane i%sti%yorsunuz?>1 "how many do you want?' If people are being enumerated, <1ki%s+i%>1 "person' is similarly used : <1kac+ ki%s+i% geli%yor kokteyli%ni%ze?--kirk alti ki%s+i%>1 "how many are coming to your cocktail-party ?'--"forty-six'. When enumerating cattle, or vegetables such as onions and cabbage, <1bas+>1 "head' is interposed after the numeral: <1elli% bas+ sig*ir>1 "fifty oxen'; <1yu*z bas+ koyun>1 "a hundred sheep'; <1i%ki% bas+ la=hana>1 "two cabbages'. Cf. the English "fifty head of cattle', but note that Turkish uses simple apposition, with no "of'. <1el>1 "hand' is similarly used when enumerating shots of a firearm or deals of cards: <1bi%r el tabanca atti>1 "hc fired one pistol-shot'; <1bi%r eI poker oyniyalim>1 "let's play a hand of poker'. Other such classifiers were used in Ottoman : <1aded>1 "number' as alternative to <1tane; kita>1 "piece', of books, documents, ships, and fields; <1pare>1 "piece', of artillery, ships, and villages. 3. Fractions. The denominator, in the locative case, precedes the numerator: <1u*c+te bi%r>1 (lit. "in-three one') "one-third'; <1yedi%de do*rt>1 "four-sevenths'- <1yu*zde ii%rmi% bes+>1 "twenty-five per cent.';<1yu*zde yu*z>1 "one hundred per cent.' The percentage sign consequently precedes the number-- %<125>1; %<1100.>1 The numerator is put in definite izafet with the whole, of which the fraction is part: <1c+ocuklarin bes+te u*c+u*>1 "three-fifths of the children' ("of-the- children, in-five their-three'); <1geli%r-i%m-i%n yu*zde yi%rmi% bes+i%>1 "twenty-five per cent. of my income'. This last example would ap- pear in figures as <1geli%ri%mi%n>1 %<125 i%. yeku=n yu*z o*lc+u*m-u*-nu*n>1 % <118,7 si% (yu*zde on seki%z vi%rgu*l yedi%si%) ormanlarla kapli- dir>1 "of its total surface-area, 18.7 % is covered with forests'. <1buc+uk>1 means "and a half' and is used only after whole numbers and, jocularly, after <1az>1 "little' and <1yari>1 "half': <1i%ki% buc+uk li%ra> 1 "two and a half liras'; <1on yedi% buc+uk ki%lometre>1 "seventeen and a half kilometres'; <1az buc+uk ki%s+i%>1 "a handful of people'; <1yari buc+uk ustalik>1 "inadequate craftsmanship'. <1yarim>1 is an adjective meaning "a half-' : <1yarim saat>1 "a half-hour' ; <1yarim ki%lo domates>1 "half a kilo of tomatoes' (note the apposition). <1yari>1 is used : <2(a)>2 As a noun: <1talebeler-i%n yari-si kiz>1 "half of the pupils are girls'; <1gece-ni%n yari-si-ni konus+arak gec+i%rdi%k>1 "we spent half of the night in talking'; <1gece yari-si>1 "midnight'; <1gece-ni%n yari-si-n-da>1 "in the middle of the night'. <2(b)>2 As an adjective meaning "mid-, at the half-way mark': <1yari gece>1 "midnight'; <1yari yol-da birakmak>1 "to leave in the lurch' (lit. "at mid-way'). <2(c)>2 As an adverb: <1yari anlamak>1 "to half-understand'; <1yari>1 <1Tu*rkc+e, yari Fransizca konus+tuk>1 "we spoke half Turkish, half French'. <1c+eyrek>1 (P) "quarter' is now little used except when telling the time; see XII, 14. 4. Ordinals. The suffix is -<1i%nci%>1 after consonants, -<1nci%>1 after vowels : <1bi%ri%nci%>1 or <1i%lk>1 lst <1yi%rmi%nci%>1 20th <1i%ki%nci%>1 2nd <1yi%rmi% bi%ri%nci%>1 2lst <1u*c+u*ncu*>1 3rd <1otuzuncu>1 30th <1do*rdu*ncu*>1 4th <1kirkinci>1 40th <1bes+i%nci%>1 5th <1elli%nci%>1 50th <1altinci>1 6th <1altmis+inci>1 60th <1yedi%nci%>1 7th <1yetmi%s+i%nci%>1 70th <1seki%zi%nci%>1 8th <1sekseni%nci%>1 80th <1dokuzuncu>1 9th <1doksaninci>1 90th <1onuncu>1 l0th <1yu*zu*ncu*>1 l00th <1on bi%ri%nci%>1 llth <1bi%ni%nci%>1 l,000th <1mi%lyonuncu>1 millionth <1mi%lyarinci>1 thousand- millionth As will be seen from "llth' and "2lst', the ordinal suffix is attached only to the last member in a compound number. The suffix should be written in full after figures: <11 i%nci%,>1 2 <1nci%,>1 3 <1u*ncu*,>1 etc. Some abbreviate it to <1ci%, cu*,>1 etc. The suffix also appears in : <1kac+inci>1 "how manyeth ?'; <1sonuncu>1 "last' <1(son>1 "end, last') ; <1fi%la=ninci>1 "so-manyeth'. Roman numerals are used to indicate centuries and with names of sovereigns and formal events such as congresses and exhibitions ; as a rule the ordinal suffix is not then written but a full stop may follow the numeral: XX or XX. <1asir>1 "the twentieth <1(yi%rmi%nci%)>1 century'; XXVIII or XXVlII. <1IZzmi%r Enternasyonal Fuari>1 "Twenty-eighth <1(yi%rmi% seki%zi%nci%)>1 International Fair of Izmir'. The Roman numeral may precede or follow a sovereign's name; "Selim the Third' may be written <1Seli%m>1 III, III <1Seli%m,>1 or III. <1Seli%m,>1 all three being read as <1u*c+u*ncu* Seli%m.>1 The first six Arabic ordinals are sometimes used with names of sovereigns in Persian izafet. They are : <1evvel>1 lst <1rabi%>1 4th <1sani%>1 2nd <1hami%s>1 Sth <1sali%s>1 3rd <1sadi%s>1 6th All the as are long. <1Mehemmed-i% sani%>1 == <1i%ki%nci% Mehmet>1 Muhammad II; <1Seli%m-i% sali%s>1 == <1u*c+u*ncu* Seli%m,>1 Selim III. 5. Distributives. These answer the question <1kac+ar ?>1 "how many each?' and are formed by adding to the cardinal the suffix -<1er>1 after a consonant, -<1s+er>1 after a vowel: <1bi%rer>1 one each <1seki%zer>1 eight each <1i%ki%s+er>1 two each <1dokuzar>1 nine each <1u*c+er>1 three each <1onar>1 ten each <1do*rder>1 four each <1on bi%rer>1 eleven each <1bes+er>1 five each <1yi%rmi%s+er>1 twenty each <1altis+ar>1 six each <1otuzar>1 thirty each <1yedi%s+er>1 seven each <1kirkar>1 forty each etc. As with the ordinals, the suffix is attached only to the last element of compounds: <1yi%rmi% u*c+er>1 "23 each'; <1i%ki% yu*z elli% dokuzar>1 "259 each'. With whole hundreds and thousands, how- ever, it is more usual nowadays to attach the distributive suffix to the number preceding the <1yu*z>1 or <1bi%n: i%ki%s+er yu*z>1 rather than <1i%ki% yu*zer>1 for "2oo each'; <1bes+er bi%n>1 rather than <1bes+ bi%ner>1 for "5,000 each'. The two foreign borrowings <1mi%lyon>1 and <1mi%lyar>1 never take the distributive suffix: <1bi%rer mi%lyon li%ra>1 "a million lira each'; <1altis+ar mi%lyar>1 "six thousand million each'. The distributive of <1yarim>1 is irregular, taking the post-vocalic -<1s+ar>1 despite its final consonant: <1yarims+ar>1 "half each'. The suffix is not attached to <1buc+uk>1 but to the preceding whole number : <1yi%rmi% yedi%s+er buc+uk>1 "twenty-seven and a half each'. <1i%ki% ki%s+i%>1 <1bi%rer yil altis+ar ay hapi%s cezasina mahku=m edi%lmi%s+lerdi%r>1 "two people have each been sentenced to one year and six months' imprisonment' ("one-each year, six-each months'); in figures, <1 1 er yil 6 s+ar ay.>1 A frequent idiomatic use of <1bi%rer>1 is seen in: <1askerleri%mi%z,>1 <1bi%rer aslan gi%bi% du*s+mana saldirdi>1 "our soldiers attacked the enemy like so many lions' (lit. "like one-each lion, each one like a lion'). Like <1bi%r, bi%rer>1 may come between adjective and noun: <1muharri%ri%n mu*s+ahedeleri% bu hususta canli bi%rer mi%sal>1 <1tes+ki%l etmektedi%r>1 "the author's observations constitute so many vivid examples in this connexion' (lit. "vivid one-each example, each one a vivid example'). <1kac+ar>1 "how many each ?' when repeated means "in lots of how many ?' Thus <1kac+ar ki%raz yi%yorsunuz>1 "how many cherries each are you eating ?' but <1ki%razlari kac+ar kac+ar yi%yorsunuz>1 ? "how many at a time, at a mouthful, are you eating the cherries ?' Cf. XII, 1. 6. Collectives. The suffix -<1i%z>1 after consonants, -<1z>1 after vowels, makes numerals denoting twins, triplets, etc.: <1i%ki%-z, u*c+-u*z,>1 <1do*rd-u*z, bes+-i%z. altiz, yedi%z,>1 etc., are theoretically possible but seem never to be used, for reasons biological rather than gram- matical. The collectives are mostly used as nouns but they can qualify a noun, usually in the plural: <1i%ki%zler>1 or <1i%ki%z c+ocuklar>1 (rarely <1i%ki%z c+ocuk)>1 "twins'; <1u*c+u*zler>1 "triplets'; <1u*c+u*z kizlar> 1 (rarely <1u*c+u*z kiz)>1 "girl triplets'; <1do*rdu*zler>1 "quadruplets'; <1do*rd u*z>1 <1kardes+ler>1 "quadruplet brothers'; <1Di%onne bes+i%zleri%>1 "the Dionne quintuplets'. The suffix -<1li%>1 may be added, e.g. <1bes+i%zli% s+amdan>1 "five-branched candlestick'. 7. Dice numbers. Two dice are cmployed in the game of <1tavla>1 "backgammon' and the various possible throws are named in a curious mixture of Turkish and Persian: 1-1 <1hepyek>1 3-3 <1du*se>1 1-2 <1i%ki%bi%r>1 or <1yekdu*>1 3-4 <1c+arise>1 or <1ci%harise>1 1-3 <1seyek>1 3-5 <1pencu*se>1 1-4 <1c+aru*yek>1 or <1ci%hariyek>1 3-6 <1s+es+u*se>1 1-5 <1p'ncu*yek>1 4-4 <1do*rtc+ar>1 or <1do*rtci%har>1 1-6 <1s+es+yek>1 4-5 <1bes+do*rt>1 2-2 <1dubara>1 4-6 <1s+es+i%c+ar>1 or <1s+es+ci%har>1 2-3 <1sebaydu*>1 5-5 <1du*bes+>1 2-4 <1c+aru*du*>1 or <1ci%haridu*>1 5-6 <1s+es+bes+>1 2-5 <1pencu*du*>1 6-6 <1du*s+es+>1 2-6 <1s+es+i%du*>1 Not all these terms are recorded in the dictionaries and some other variant spellings may be found. Playing-card numbers are formed with -<1li%;>1 the ace is <1bi%rli%,>1 the deuce <1i%ki%li%>1 and so on up to the ten, <1onlu.>1 VII POSTPOSITIONS <11.>1 General observations. The functions of some English pre- positions are performed in Turkish by the case-suffixes. Those of the rest are performed by postpositions, which follow the word they govern. A few of them can appear as suffixes, but the majority are independent words. Those listed as primary are variously construed with the absolute, genitive, dative, and ablative cases. The only more-or-less current postposition governing the accusa- tive is the obsolescent <1mu*taakip>1 (A) "following, after': <1zi%yafet-i% mu*taakip>1 "after the banquet'. Those listed as secondary post- positions ("postpositional expressions' is another possible term) are nouns in the dative, locative, or ablative case, linked by izafet to the word they govern. An English analogy would be to call "in' and "before' primary and "on the inside of' and "in front of' secondary prepositions. <12.>1 Primary postpositions with absolute case: <1u*zere, u*zre>1 on <1i%c+re>1 in <1u*zere>1 is mostly used with the infinitive in -<1mek>1 (X, 2 (d)) but may occasionally be found with other substantives: <1yol u*zere>1 "on the road'; <1a**deti% u*zere>1 "in accordance with his custom'. <1i%c+re>1 is obsolete except in archaizing poetry: <1ci%han i%c+re>1 "in the world'. <13.>1Primary postpositions with absolute or genitive case: <1gi%bi%>1 like <1kadar>1 (A) as much as Ile with <1i%c+i%n>1 for These take the genitive of the personal pronouns <1ben, sen, 0, bi%z,>1 and <1si%z,>1 the demonstrative pronouns <1bu, s+u,>1 and <1o>1 and the interrogative <1ki%m.>1 All other substantives, including pronouns pluralized by -<1ler,>1 appear before these postpositions in the absolute case. Colloquially, however, even the pronouns listed above are used in the absolute case before these postpositions. This is particularly frequent with <1ki%m;>1 instead of <1ki%mi%nle,>1 <1ki%mi%n i%c+i%n,>1 and <1ki%mi%n gi%bi%>1 "with whom?', "for whom ?', "like whom ?', one hears <1ki%mle, ki%m i%c+i%n,>1 and <1ki%m gi%bi%,>1 the last being a more respectable solecism than the first two. <2(a)>2 <1gi%bi%: beni%m gi%bi% bi%r adam>1 "a man like me'; <1seni%n gi%bi%>1 "like you'; <1bi%zi%m gi%bi%>1 or <1bi%zler gi%bi%>1 "like us'; <1onlar gi%bi%>1 "like them'; <1bu*lbu*l gi%bi%>1 "like a nightingale'. The word may also serve as a noun: <1bu gi%bi%ler>1 "people like these' (lit. "these likes'); it can also stand in definite izafet with a pronoun--bu-<1nun gi%bi%-si%>1 "the like of this'--or in indefinite izafet with a noun--bu <1adam gi%bi%si%>1 "the like of this man'. A common locution is <1o*yle gi%bi%-m-e geli%yor ki%>1 "it seems to me as if . . .' ("it so comes to-my-like that . . .')- <1gi%bi%-Ier-den,>1 in apposition to a preceding word or clause, means "on the lines of, of the order of': <1ko*ylu*, mem- leketi%n efendi%si%di%r, gi%bi%lerden bi%r nutuk>1 "a speech on the lines of ""the peasant is the master of the country'''. <2(b)>2 <1kadar>1 is in origin an Arabic word for "amount', which helps explain its Turkish use: <1bi%r saat kadar c+alis+tim>1 "I worked for about an hour, as much as an hour' ("an hour amount'); <1yi%rmi%, yi%rmi% bes+ kadar ki%s+i%>1 "some twenty or twenty-five people'; <1tas+ kadar sert>1 "hard as stone' ("stone amount hard') ; <1o adam kadar zengi%n>1 "as rich as that man'; <1fi%l kadar i%ri%>1 "huge as an elephant'. With the genitive of pronouns: <1onun kadar zengi%n>1 "as rich as he'; <1si%zi%n kadar bi%r c+ocuk>1 "a child as big (or ""old'') as you'. When it follows the absolute case of <1bu, s+u,>1 or <1o,>1 these function not as pronouns but as demonstrative adjectives, and the resulting <1bu, s+u,>1 or <1o kadar>1 may be adverbial as well as adjectival: <10 kadar gu*ldu*k>1 "we laughed so much'; <1bu kadar para>1 "this much money'. <2(c)>2 <1i%le>1 has not only the comitative sense of English "with' but also denotes the instrument: <1ki%m-i%n i%le gi%tti%ni%z?>1 "with whom did you go ?', <1vapur i%le gi%tti%ni%z>1 "you went by boat'; <1bunu zamk i%le yapis+tirdim "I>1 stuck this with glue'. Note also: <1ki%lo i%le satmak>1 "to sell by the kilogramme'; <1para i%le satmak>1 "to sell for money'. Sometimes it must be translated "because of'. It may be suffixed; the <1i%>1 is dropped after a consonant and becomes <1y>1 after a vowel, the resulting -<1le>1 or -<1yle>1 being subject to vowel harmony: <1ki%mi%nle>1 "with whom ?'; <1vapurla>1 "by boat'; <1gu*mru*kc+u*yle>1 "with the customs-officer'; <1kariyla>1 "with the woman'. After the third-person suffix it appears as an invariable -<1yle:>1 <1kari-si>1 his wife <1karisiyle>1 with his wife <1c+eki%c+-i%>1 his hammer <1c+eki%c+i%yle>1 with his hammer <1go*z-u*>1 his eye <1go*zu*yle>1 with his eye <1omuz-u>1 his shoulder <1omuzuyle>1 with his shoulder Although this rule reflects the normal educated pronunciation, many people neglect it, writing <1karisiyla, omuzuyla.>1 Less often, the vowel of the third-person suffix is combined with the post- position to make an invariable -<1(s)i%yle: karisi%yle, go*zi%yle, omuzi%yle.>1 Colloquial alternatives to <1i%le>1 are <1i%len>1 and <1i%nen.>1 Instead of <1beni%mle, onunla>1 "with me, with him', one hears <1benle>1 or <1bennen, onla>1 or <1onnan,>1 in the informal speech even of educated people. <2(d)>2 <1i%c+i%n>1 (for which the older pronunciation <1i%c+u*n>1 is not un- common) translates most senses of English "for': <1bunu yurd-un i%yi%li%g*-i% i%c+i%n yapti>1 "he did this for the good of the country'; <1bunu si%zi%n i%c+i%n aldim>1 "I bought this for you'; <1yolculuk i%c+i%n hazir- liklar>1 "preparations for thejourney'; <1bo*yle bi%r ev i%c+i%n bu kadar para veri%li%r mi%?>1 "does one pay so much money for such a house ?' It also renders "about' as in "what do you think about this pro- posal?' <1bu tekli%f i%c+i%n ne du*s+u*nu*yorsun?>1 With the infinitive, rarely with the third-person imperative, it expresses purpose; with the personal participle, cause (XI, 24). As an archaism it may be found suffixed, as -<1c+i%n>1 or -<1c+u*n>1 after consonants, -<1yc+i%n>1 or -<1yc+u*n>1 after vowels, the forms in <1u*>1 appeari ng when the vowel of the preceding syllable is rounded: <1seni%n-c+i%n>1 "for you'; <1onun-c+u*n>1 "for him'; <1muhabbeti%-yc+i%n>1 "for love of him'; <1koms+u-yc+u*n>1 "for the neighbour'. <1go*re, nazaran>1 (A) according to <1dog*ru>1 towards <1kars+i>1 against <1kadar>1 (A),-<1dek, deg*i%n>1 as far as <1dai%r>1 (A) concerning <1rag*men>1 (A) in spite of <1i%nat>1 (A) in despite of <1ni%speten>1 (A) in proportion to The equivalents of these words are italicized in the translations of the examples which follow. <1radyo'ya go*re, hava gu*zel olacak>1 <2"according>2 to the radio, the weather is going to be fine'; <1bu vazi%yet-e go*re>1 <2"in view of>2 this situation'; <1yeni% ev, tam onlar-a go*re>1 "the new house is <2just right for>2 them'. In the first two examples, <1go*re>1 could be replaced by <1nazaran.>1 See also the last paragraph on this page, and note <1bulundug*una go*re>1 on p. 165. <1ko*y-e dog*ru yu*ru*du*k>1 "we walked <2towards>2 the village'; <1sabah-a dog*ru uyandim>1 <2"towards>2 morning I awoke'. <1hangi% takim-a kars+i oyniyacaksiniz?>1 <2"against>2 which team are you going to play ?'; <1bu suc+lama-ya kars+i ne so*yleyebi%ldi% ?>1 "what could he say <2in reply to>2 this accusation?'; <1deni%z-e kars+i>1 <1oturduk>1 "we sat <2facing>2 the sea'; <1sabah-a kars+i uyandim>1 <2"towards>2 morning I awoke'. <1ko*y-e kadar yu*ru*du*k>1 "we walked as <2far>2 as the village'; <1aks+am-a kadar konus+tuk>1 "we talked <2until>2 evening'; <1o*g*le-ye>1 <1kadar geIecek>1 "he will come <2by>2 noon'; <1bi%r saat-e kadar>1 <1gelecek>1 "he will come <2in>2 an hour'; <1bi%r kac+ gu*n-e kadar gelecek>1 "he will come <2in>2 a few days'. The provincialism -<1dek>1 or <1deg*i%n>1 is favoured by modernists as a native equivalent of <1kadar>1 as a postposition with the dative (but not with the absolute or genitive as in (3). -<1dek>1 is usually suffixed but never changes its vowel: <1ko*yedek, aks+amadek.>1 The rarer <1deg*i%n>1 is usually written separately : <1ko*ye deg*i%n, aks+ama deg*i%n.>1 <1atom bombasi-n-a dai%r bi%r konferans>1 "a lecture <2about>2 the atom-bomb'. Modernists prefer <1u*zeri%ne>1 (# 6) to <1dai%r.>1 <1genc+li%g*-i%-n-e rag*men bu*yu*k bi%r sanatka**rdir>1 <2"in spite of>2 her youth she is a great artist'. The neologism <1kars+in>1 has been proposed as an alternative but has not won general acceptance. <1baba-si-n-a i%nat okula gi%tmi%yor>1 <2just to spite>2 his father he doesn't go to school'. <1beni%mki%-n-e ni%speten si%zi%nki% c+ok pahali>1 <2"in proportion to>2 mine, <2compared with>2 mine, yours is very expensive'. The modernist alternative is <1go*re. ni%speten>1 as an adverb means "relatively'. A number of adjectives are construed with a dative, e.g. <1ai%t>1 (A) "belonging (to)', <1mukabi%l>1 (A) "in return (for)', <1aykiri>1 "contrary (to)'. They are mentioned here because in some contexts they may be parsed as postpositions. <15.>1 Primary postpositions with ablative case : <1evvel>1 (A), <1o*nce>1 before <1bu yana>1 since <1yana>1 on the side of <1i%c+eri%>1 inside <1dolayi, o*tu*ru*>1 because of <1bas+ka>1 besides, apart from <1i%ti%baren>1 (A) with effect from See also # 9, end, and XII, l0. EXAMPLES: <1bugu*n-den evvel>1 or <1o*nce>1 <2"before>2 today'; <1toplanti- dan sonra>1 " <2after>2 the meeting'- <1Erzurum'dan sonra yol nasil?>1 "how is the road <2beyond>2 Erzurum?'; <1ag*ustos-tan beri%>1 or <1bu yana>1 <2"since>2 August'; <1go*l-den beri% hava gu*zel>1 <2"this side of>2 the lake the weather is fine'; <1aydin-in i%yi%-si% her zaman halk-tan yana-dir>1 "the best type of intellectual (Il, 22 <2(a))>2 is always <2on the side of>2 the people'; <1para-dan yana durum ko*tu*>1 <2"as regards> money>2 the position is bad'; <1dakti%lo-dan yana c+ok tali%hli%yi%m>1 "I am very lucky <2as regards>2 secretarial assistance' ("on-the-side-of typist'); <1bi%r anti%kaci-dan i%c+eri% gi%rdi%k>1 "we went <2inside>2 an antique-dealerÕ's shopå'; <1bu-n-dan dolayi gi%tmedi%k>1 <2"because of>2 this we did not go' (the synonymous <1o*tu*ru*>1 is far rarer); <1bi%r dayi-dan bas+ka hi%c+bi%r akrabasi yok>1 "he has no relative <2apart from>2 an uncle' (two Arabic synonyms are <1maada>1 and <1gayri%,>1 neither very frequent) ; <1pers+embe-den i%ti%baren her gu*n>1 "every day, <2starting from>2 Thursday'. 6. Secondary postpositions: I. The words in the following list are all nouns and may be used in any case and with any personal suffix : <1ara-miz-da>1 "in between us' ("in our interval') ; <1arka-niz- dan>1 "from behind you' ("from your back'); <1masa-nin u*st-u*-n-u* si%ldi%>1 "she wiped the top of the table'. It is only when they are used in izafet with another noun and in the dative, locative, or ablative case that they correspond in function to English prepositions and are called postpositions. <1alt>1 underside <1kars+i>1 opposite side <1ara>1 interval, space between <1orta>1 middle <1arka, art>1 back <1o*n>1 front <1bas+>1 immediate vicinity <1pes+>1 (P) space behind <1dis+, hari%c+>1 (A) exterior <1u*st, u*zer->1, <1fevk>1 (A) top <1etraf(A), c+evre>1 surroundings <1yan>1 side <1i%c+, dahu*>1 (A) interior To these may be added the adverbs of place listed in XII, 10. EXAMPLES: <1topu masa-nin alt-i-n-a atti>1 "he threw the ball under the table'; <1ceket-i% kol-u-nun alt-i-n-da, parkta gezi%->1 <1yordu>1 "his jacket under his arm, he was strolling <2in>2 the park'; <1araba-nin alt-i-n-dan c+ikti>1 "he emerged from under the car'. <1i%ki% ev-i%n ara-si-n-a gi%rdi%>1 "he entered between the two houses'; <1i%ki% evi%n arasinda bekledi%>1 "he waited between the two houses'; <1i%ki% evi%n arasindan c+ikti>1 "he emerged from between the two houses'. In such phrases as "between A and B', "and' is translated by the postposition <1i%le: Dog*u i%le>1 (or <1Dog*uyla) Bati arasinda>1 "be- tween East and West'; <1dag* i%le (dag*la) irmag*in arasinda>1 "between the mountain and the river'. Note that in the first example, where "East' and "West' are broad general terms, the izafet is indefinite, while in the second, where a specific river is intended, the izafet is definite, with <1irmak>1 "river' in the genitive. <1kapi-nin arka-si-n-a>1 (or <1ard-i-n->1a) <1saklandi>1 "he hid behind the door' (dative of end of motion) ; <1kapinin arkasinda (ardinda) durdu>1 "he stood behind the door' (lit., as in American English, "in back of the door'); <1kapinin arkasindan (ardindan) c+ikti>1 "he emerged from behind the door'. <1masa-si-nin bas+-i-n-a oturduk>1 "we sat down at (""to-the- immediate-vicinity-of'') his table'; <1si%la=h bas+ina]>1 "to arms ]'; <1vazi%fe bas+inda>1 "on duty'; <1mi%krofon bas+inda s+arki so*ylemek>1 "to sing songs at the microphone'. <1bas+>1 may be defined by <1alt>1 as in <1dam-in altbas+inda>1 "im- mediately under ("'in-the-underside-vicinity-of'') the roof'. Note also <1omuz bas+-im-da duruyor>1 "he is standing at my shoulder', lit. "in-my-shoulder-vicinity', <1omuz bas+im>1 being an izafet group with the first-person suffix replacing the third; see Il, 24. <1vi%la=yet-i%n sinirlar-i dis+-i-n-a>1 (or, less commonly, <1hari%c- i%-n-e) c+ikmadi>1 "he did not go outside (""to-the-outside-of'') the boundaries of the province'; <1surIar-in dis+inda (hari%ci%nde' oturuyorlar>1 "they are living outside the city-walls'; <1bi%na-nin dis+indan (hari%ci%nden) bi%r ses geldi%>1 "a voice came from outside the building'. The next two examples well illustrate the difference between the definite and indefinite izafets: <1okul-un dis+inda bi%r taksi% bulunmaktadir>1 "there is a taxi outside the school' ; <1bi%r mi%lyon c+ocuk okul dis+inda bulunmak->1 <1tadir>1 "a million children are outside school' (i.e. not attending any school). <1etraf>1 is far commoner than its modern replacement <1c+evre:>1 <1s+ehr-i%n etrafinda (c+evresi%nde) c+ok bag* var>1 "there are many orchards round the city'. <1dahi%I,>1 on the other hand, is fast going out of use. <1deni%z-i%n i%c+-i%-n-e (dahi%l-i%-n->1e) "into the sea'; <1acai%p bi%r karis+iklik i%c+i%nd e (dahi%li%nde)>1 <2"in>2 a strange confusion'; <1ku*c+u*k kahve-ni%n i%c+i%nden (dahi%li%nden)>1 "from inside the small cafe'. We have already met <1kars+i>1 as a primary postposition. As a noun it means "opposite side', so in izafet as a secondary postposition it means "to/on/from the opposite side of', according to case. It is particularly common in the locative in the sense of <2"vis-a-vis,>2 facing, confronted with': <1i%nsan iztirab-i kars+i-si-n-da aydin ne di%yor?>1 "confronted with human affliction, what does the intellectual say ?' <1kalabalig*-in orta-si-n-a>1 "to the middle of the crowd'; <1kalabalig*in ortasinda>1 "in the middle of the crowd'; <1kalabali- g*in ortasindan>1 "from <2or>2 through the middle of the crowd'. <1sahne-ni%n o*n-u*-n-e>1 "to the front of the stage'; <1sahneni%n o*nu*nde>1 "in front of <2or>2 at the front of the stage'; <1sahneni%n o*nu*nden>1 "from <2or>2 through the front of the stage'. <1kilavuz-un pes+-i%-n-e du*s+tu*k>1 "we began to follow (""we-fell to-the-rear-of'') the guide'. "To run after' is <1pes+i%nde>1 or <1pes+i%nden kos+mak.>1 The hyphen after <1u*zer>1 in the list above is to indicate that this word, alone among nouns, is never found without a personal suffix. <1du*s+man-in u*st-u*-n-e>1 or <1u*zer-i%-n-e yu*ru*du*ler>1 "they marched onto the enemy'; <1yayla-nin u*stu*nden>1 <2or>2 <1u*zeri%nden i%ndi%ler>1 "they came down from-on-top-of the plateau'. <1uzeri%ne>1 and <1u*stu*ne>1 are commoner than <1u*zeri%nde>1 and <1u*stu*nde>1 for "on' meaning "on the subject of': <1tarih u*zeri%ne>1 <2or>2 <1u*stu*ne aras+tirmalari>1 "his researches on history'. They are also used for "on top of' in the sense of "in addition to': <1bi%ra u*zeri%ne>1 <2or>2 <1u*stu*ne s+arap i%c+me>1 "don't drink wine on top of beer'. See also <1aks+amu*stu*,>1 etc., XII, 13 <1(a).>1 <1fevk>1 is little used nowadays: <1kale-ni%n fevkinda>1 (I, 35, penultimate paragraph) <1bi%r bayrak var>1 "there is a flag over the citadel'. <1pencere-m-i%n yan-i-n-a geldi%>1 "he came beside my window'; <1penceremi%n yaninda bi%r ag*ac+ var>1 "there is a tree beside my window'; <1penceremi%n yanindan ayrildi>1 "he departed from- beside my window'. <1yan>1 may be qualified by <1u*st: kutu-nun u*styaninda>1 "on the top-side of the box'. It is also compounded with <1bas+: i%stasyon->1 <1un yanibas+inda>1 "just beside the station'. The first <1i>1 in this word, though originally the third-person suffix, is invariable: <1yani- bas+imda>1 "just beside me'. <1art, arka, o*n, pes+,>1 and <1yan>1 with a personal suffix but no case- ending are compounded with <1sira>1 "row' to make postpositions, the <1sira>1 conveying the sense of close proximity: <1kardes+-i%-ni%n ard-i sira yu*ru*du*>1 "he walked just-behind his brother'; <1kla=si%k dersler-i%n yan-i sira, marangozluk dersleri% veri%li%r>1 "side by side with the classical lessons, carpentry lessons are given'; <1o*n-u*m sira yu*ru*du*>1 "he walked just-in-front-of-me'. With <1kiyi>1 "shore' is made the adverb <1kiyisira>1 "along the shore'. The nouns discussed above are also used as adjectives: <1alt dudak>1 "bottom lip'; <1ara kapi>1 "communicating door'; <1arka bahc+e>1 "back garden'; <1dis+ ti%caret>1 "external trade'; <1i%c+ ti%caret>1 "internal trade'. In the official terms for External and Internal Affairs, however, <1dis+>1 and <1i%c+>1 are nouns: <1dis+ i%s+ler-i%, i%c+ i%s+l er-i%.>1 7. Secondary postpositions: II. The nouns in the first column below (which, as nouns, mean respectively "truth', "side', "cause (or face)', "regard', "name') are also used to make postpositions, but differ from the previous group in that in the meanings shown they are used only in the case shown, though they may change for person. That is to say, whereas, for example, "under' may be <1altina, aItinda,>1 or <1altindan>1 according to context,"concerning' can only be <1hakkinda>1 in the locative, while "concerning me' is <1hakkimda>1 and "concerning you' <1hakkinizda,>1 again in the locative. <1hak>1 (A) <1hakkinda>1 concerning <1taraf>1 (A) <1tarafindan>1 by, through the agency of <1yu*z yu*zu*nden>1 because of <1bakim bakimindan>1 from the point of view of <1nam>1 <2(P)>2 <1namina>1 in the way of These are used in indefinite izafet only; i.e. the noun they follow is never in the genitive. Any exceptions to this rule are apparent only, as the examples will show. <1i%nkila=p hakkinda bi%r nutuk so*yledi%>1 "he gave a speech about the revolution'; <1kardes+-i% tarafindan uzaklas+tirildi>1 "he was sent away by his brother'; <1o adam yu*zu*nden kan akacak>1 "because of that man, blood will flow'; <1protokol bakimindan haklidir>1 "from the point of view of protocol, he is right'; <1para namina bi%r s+eyi%m yok>1 "I have nothing in the way of money, nothing you could call money'. If we now make the izafet definite in each example, i.e. if we put the first noun of each into the <1genitive--i%nkila=bin, kardes+i%ni%n, o adamin, protokolun, paranin--then hakkinda, tarafindan, yu*zu*nden, bakim- indan,>1 and <1namina>1 will revert to their literal meanings: "in the truth of the revolution'; "he was sent away from his brother's side'; "blood will flow from that man's face'; "he is right from protocol's regard'; "I have nothing for money's name', the first and the last two being as meaningless in Turkish as in English. <1bakimindan>1 has almost entirely supplanted <1nokta-i nazarin- dan>1 (Il, 26). The rule that these postpositions are used only in indefinite izafet is not broken by, for example, <1o-nun hakkinda>1 "con- cerning him' any more than it is by <1beni%m hakkimda>1 "concern- ing me'; the pronoun <2in>2 the genitive is not in izafet with the following <1hakk->1 but merely reinforces its personal suffix. <1husus>1 (A) "particular'--bu <1hususta i%ti%razim yok>1 "I have no objection in this particular, in this regard'--is used as a ost- positional expression especially with the infinitive of the verb: <1oraya gi%tmek hususunda i%ti%razim yok>1 "I have no objection in-the-matter-of going there'. 8.Secondary postpositions: III. The nouns in the next list are also used only in the case shown (for the ending of <1boyunca>1 see XII, 2) but differ from those in the previous section in that they can be used in definite izafet. In fact, however, they are mostly found in indefinite izafet, even when they follow a defined noun. <1boy>1 length <1boyunca>1 along, <1esna>1 (A) duration <1esnasinda>1 in the course of <1zarf>1 (A) container <1zarfinda>1 during <1saye>1 (P) shadow <1sayesi%nde>1 thanks to <1ug*ur>1 luck <1ug*runa,>1 for the sake of <1ug*runda>1 <1yer>1 place <1yeri%ne>1 instead of <1zarfinda>1 and <1esnasinda>1 seem hardly ever to be used in definite izafet, but one hesitates to say they are never so used. EXAMPLES: <1Kizil Irmak (Irmag*in) boyunca>1 "along the Red River'- <1Tu*rk tari%h-i% (tari%h-i%-ni%n) boyunca>1 "throughout Turkish history'; <1muharebe esnasinda>1 "in the course of the battle'; <1muharebe zarfinda>1 "during the battle'; <1Ahmet>1 <1(Ahmed'in) sayesi%nde her s+ey i%yi% oldu>1 "thanks to Ahmet, everything has become all right'; <1c+ocuk, akl-i (akl-i-nin) sayesi%nde kurtuldu>1 "the child was saved, thanks to his intelli- gence'; <1vatan-i (vatan-i-nin) ug*runa/ug*runda can verdi%>1 "he gave his life for his country's sake'; <1asi%stan, profeso*r-u* (pro- feso*r-u*-nu*n) yeri%ne derse gi%tti%>1 "the assistant went to the class instead of his professor'; <1beni% es+ek yeri%ne alma>1 "don't take me for a donkey'. <1esna>1 is also used in the locative, defined by a demonstrative: <1bu esnada>1 "during this time'. 9. <1leh, aleyh.>1 The Arabic <2la-h'>2 "for him' and <2"alay-h'>2 "against him' make Turkish secondary postpositions in the locative: <1leh- i%-n-de>1 "for, <2pro'>2 and <1aleyh-i%-n-de>1 "against, <2contra';>2 <1tekli%f- i%n lehi%nde/aleyhi%nde konus+tu>1 "he spoke for/against the motion'. Although the final <1h>1 is originally the Arabic third-singular mas- culine pronoun, these words can be used with the suffixes of any of the three persons: <1leh-i%mi%z-de konus+tu>1 "he spoke for us'; <1aleyh-i%ni%z-de konus+tu>1 "he spoke against you'. They may also be used in the locative without personal suffixes as primary postpositions following an ablative: <1tekli%f-ten lehte mi%si%ni%z, aleyhte mi%si%ni%z?>1 "are you for or against the motion ?' 10. The preposition <1i%la=.>1 This, the Arabic <2ila**>2 "to, towards', is the only preposition used in Turkish as an independent word, as distinct from, for example, the Arabic <2bi>2 in <1bi%lhassa>1 "in par- ticular' or the Italian <2a>2 in <1alafranga>1 <2"alla franca,>2 in European style'. It is employed between numbers: <1on bes+ i%la= yi%rmi% ki%s+i%>1 "fifteen to twenty people', written in figures <115-20.>1 Modernists avoid the word and would read these figures as <1on bes+ten yi%r- mi%ye kadar>1 "from 15 to 2o' or <1on bes+ i%le yi%rmi% arasinda>1 "between 15 and 20'. Because of the resemblance between <1i%la=>1 and <1i%le,>1 the semiliterate trying to show off produces a horrid synthesis : <10n bes+ i%la= yi%rmi% arasinda.>1 Another example of the correct use : <1tas+lar, yarim i%la= bi%r metre kalinlig*inda toprakla o*rtu*lu*r>1 "the stones are covered with earth to (lit. "in') a depth of a half to one metre'. VIII THE VERB 1. The stem. The form of the verb which is cited in the dictionaries is the infinitive in -<1mek,>1 e.g. <1bi%lmek>1 "to know', <1bulmak>1 "to find', <1go*rmek>1 "to see', <1anlamak>1 "to understand'. When one is describing the conjugation of the verb it is more convenient to omit this ending and cite only the stem: <1bi%l-, buI-, go*r-, anla->1. 2. The verb "to be'. We shall first deal with those parts of the anomalous and defective verb "to be' which are used as auxiliaries in the conjugation of all verbs. In the oldest texts the infinitive "to be' was <1ermek,>1 but the stem <1er->1, abraded in the course of time, now appears as <1i%->1. Some grammarians consequently speak of "the verb <1i%mek',>1 but no such form ever existed. 3. The present tense of "to be'. The forms of the present tense of "to be' exist only as enclitic suffixes, subject to the fourfold harmony. In origin they are suffixed personal pronouns, with the exception of the third person -<1di%r,>1 originally <1turur>1 "he stands'. -<1di%r>1 is placed in parentheses in the following table as a reminder that in Turkish (as in Arabic and Russian), simple "A is B' equivalences are expressed without a copula. See #4. When a suffix beginning with a vowel follows a vowel, a <1y>1 is inserted to preserve the identity of both. <2Present>2 : "I am', etc. <2Singular>2 1-<1i%m>1 -<1u*m>1 -<1im>1 -<1um>1 2 -<1si%n>1 -<1su*n>1 -<1sin>1 -<1sun>1 3 <1(-di%r/ti%r)>1 (-<1du*r/tu*r) (-dir/tir) (-dur/tur)>1 <2Plural>2 1-<1i%z>1 -<1u*z>1 -<1iz>1 -<1uz>1 2 -<1si%ni%z>1 -<1su*nu*z>1 -<1siniz>1 -<1sunuz>1 3 -<1(di%r/ti%r)ler>1 -<1(du*r/tu*r)ler>1 -<1(dir/tir)lar>1 -<1(dur/tur)lar>1 4. Uses of -<1di%r.>1 In writing and in formal speech -<1di%r>1 expresses the copula: <1kizin adi, Fatma'dir>1 "the girl's name is Fatima'; <1enerji% kaynaklarimiz bol-dur>1 "our sources of power are abundant'. It will be noticed that the verb in thc latter example is singular; this is customary with inanimate plural subjects and possible with animate plural subjects. See further XVI, 1. In ordinary speech -<1di%r>1 is not used in such simple "A==B' sentences; one says <1kizin adi Fatma; enerji% kaynaklarimiz bol.>1 -<1di%r>1 is generally used as a copula in speech as well as in writing : <2(a)>2 When the prcdicate is a noun in such a sentence as: <1en c+ok sevdi%g*i%m s+ai%r Nedi%m'di%r>1 "my favourite poet is Nedim', where the omission of -<1di%r>1 might lead to misunderstanding: "my favourite poet, Nedim, . . .'. <2(b)>2 When the subject is a pronoun understood from the con- text: <1yaman bi%r adam-dir>1 "he is a remarkable man'. There is an alternative, in the colloquial, of using the third-person pronoun instead of -<1di%r: o, yaman bi%r adam>1 or <1yaman bi%r adam, o.>1 <2(c)>2 When the subject is a noun which follows the predicate: <1yaman bi%r adamdir, amcaniz>1 "he is a remarkable man, your uncle'. <2(d)>2 When the subject is a phrase containing a postposition and the predicate is a noun-clause introduced by <1ki%>1 (XIII, l5): <1onun sayesi%nde-di%r ki% muvaffak olduk>1 "it is thanks to him that we have succeeded'; <1bundan dolayi-dir ki% gi%tmedi%m>1 "it is because of this that I did not go'. In terms of the equivalent English, one could include these two examples under <2(b)>2 above. This is the only one of the four situations in which the -<1di%r>1 is never omitted. Otherwise, the use of -<1di%r>1 in informal speech is either for emphasis or, more often, to indicate a supposition. Whereas the written words <1vesi%ka kasa-da-dir>1 mean "the document is in the safe', the same words in informal speech mean "the document is surely in the safe, must be in the safe', or, less commonly, a confident "the document <2is>2 in the safe'; only the tone of voice shows which of the two is intended. If the speaker is stating a simple fact, which he does not think it necessary to emphasize, he will say <1vesi%ka kasada.>1 - The following are possible answers to the spoken question <1c+ocuklar nerede?>1 "where are the children ?' <1bahc+ede>1 in thc garden <1bahc+edeler>1 they are in the garden <1bahc+ededi%rler>1 they are in the garden <2(emphatic) or>2 they are surely in the garden <2(supposition)>2 <1bahc+edelerdi%r>1 they are surely in the garden <2(supposition)>2 One manifestation of the rapid closing of the gap between the written and spoken languages is that -<1di%r>1 is more and more omitted in writing when it merely expresses the copula. For -<1di%r>1 suffixed to finite verbs see # 42. 5. Examples of the present tense of "to be'. "I am, etc., at home' <2Singular Plural>2 1 <1evde->1y-<1i%m evde-y-i%z>1 2 <1evde-si%n evde-si%ni%z>1 3 <1evde(-di%r) evde(-di%r)-ler>1 "I am, etc., Turkish' <2Singular Plural>2 1 <1Tu*rk-u*m Tu*rk-u*z>1 2 <1Tu*rk-su*n Tu*rk-su*nu*z>1 3 <1Tu*rk(-tu*r) Tu*rk(-tu*r)-ler>1 "I am, etc., ready <2Singular>2 <2Plural>2 1 <1hazir-im hazir-iz>1 2 <1hazir-sin hazir-siniz>1 3 <1hazir(-dir) hazir(-dir)-lar>1 "I am, etc., responsible' <2Singular>2 <2Plural>2 1 <1sorumlu-y-um sorumlu-y-uz>1 2 <1sorumlu-sun sorumlu-sunuz>1 3 <1sorumlu(-dur) sorumlu(-dur)-Iar>1 6. Forms based on <1i%>1-. The finite forms of "to be' based on <1i%>1-, namely the past, the conditional, and the inferential, all exist both as independent words and as suffixes. When suffixed, the <1i%>1 of the stem is lost after consonants and changes to <1y>1 after vowels, while the remainder of the form is subject both to the fourfold vowel harmony and the alternation <1d/t.>1 7. The past tense of "to be'. The base, i.e. the third singular, is <1i%di%>1 and the other persons are formed by adding to it -<1m>1 for the first and -<1n>1 for the second singular, and -<1k>1 for the first, -<1ni%z>1 fo r the second, and -<1ler>1 for the third plural. "I was', etc. <2Suffixed after vowels>2 <2Singular>2 1 <1i%di%m>1 -<1ydi%m>1 -<1ydu*m>1 -<1ydim>1 -<1ydum>1 2 <1i%di%n>1 -<1ydi%n>1 -<1ydu*n>1 -<1ydin>1 -<1ydun>1 3 <1i%di%>1 -<1ydi%>1 -<1ydu*>1 -<1ydi>1 -<1ydu>1 <2Plural>2 1 <1i%di%k>1 -<1ydi%k>1 -<1ydu*k>1 -<1ydik>1 -<1yduk>1 2 <1i%di%ni%z>1 -<1ydi%ni%z>1 -<1ydu*nu*z>1 -<1ydiniz>1 -<1ydunuz>1 3 <1i%di%ler>1 -<1ydi%ler>1 -<1ydu*ler>1 -<1ydilar>1 -<1ydular>1 <2Suffixed after consonants>2 <2Singular>2 1 -<1di%m/tim/du*m/tu*m/dim/tim/dum/tum>1 2 -<1di%n/ti%n/du*n/tu*n/din/tin/dun/tun>1 3 -<1di%/ti%/du*/tu*/di/ti/du/tu>1 <2Plural>2 1 -<1di%k/ti%k/du*k/tu*k/dik/tik/duk/tuk>1 2 -<1di%ni%z/ti%ni%z/du*nu*z/tu*nu*z/diniz/tiniz/dunuz/tunuz>1 3 -<1di%ler/ti%ler/du*ler/tu*Ier/dilar/tilar/dular/tular>1 EXAMPLES: <1evde i%di%m>1 or <1evdeydi%m>1 "I was at home'; <1Tu*rk i%di%>1 or <1Tu*rktu*>1 "he was Turkish'; <1hazir i%di%k>1 or <1hazirdik>1 "we were ready'; <1sorumlu i%di%ni%z>1 or <1sorumluydunuz>1 "you were respon- sible. 8. The present conditional of "to be': "if I am', etc. The base is <1i%se>1 and the personal endings are the same as those of the past. <2Suffixed>2 <2Singular After vowels After consonants>2 1 <1i%sem>1 -<1ysem>1 -<1ysam>1 -<1sem>1 -<1sam>1 2 <1i%sen>1 -<1ysen>1 -<1ysan>1 -<1sen>1 -<1san>1 3 <1i%se>1 -<1yse>1 -<1ysa>1 -<1se>1 -<1sa>1 <2Plural>2 1 <1i%sek>1 -<1ysek>1 -<1ysak>1 -<1sek>1 -<1sak>1 2 <1i%seni%z>1 -<1yseni%z>1 -<1ysaniz>1 -<1seni%z>1 -<1saniz>1 3 <1i%seler>1 -<1yseler>1 -<1ysalar>1 -<1seler>1 -<1salar>1 EXAMPLES: <1evde i%sem>1 or <1evdeysem>1 "if I am at home'; <1Tu*rk i%se>1 or <1Tu*rkse>1 "if he is Turkish'; <1hazir i%sek>1 or <1hazirsak>1 "if we are ready'; <1sorumlu i%seni%z>1 or <1sorumluysaniz>1 "if you are responsible'. 9. The past conditional of "to be': "if I was', etc. This expresses open past condition as in: "if I was right, why did you not agree with me ?' For the remote or unfulfilled condition, as in "if I had been right,would you have agreed with me ?', see # 34- The various persons of the present conditional are added to the past base: <1idi%-i%sem>1 å <1i%di%ysem>1 or, when suffixed, -<1ydi%ysem.>1 Alterna- tively, the suffixed third singular of the present conditional is added to the various persons of the past: <1i%di%m-se.>1 The latter alternative is, however, provincial and colloquial, so much so that in writing it occurs only in the suffixed forms -<1di%mse>1 or -<1ydi%mse,>1 etc.; the theoretically possible independent forms <1i%di%mse,>1 etc,, seem never to be used. Comparison with # 7 will show that the following paradigm has been simplified to the extent of three-quarters of its full size by the omission of the suffixed forms <2(a)>2 beginning with <1t,>1 as used after unvoiced consonants, and <2(b)>2 with the rounded vowels <1u*>1 and <1u.>1 <2Suffixed>2 <2Singular After vowels After consonants>2 1 <1i%di%ysem>1 -<1ydi%ysem>1 -<1ydiysam>1 -<1di%ysem>1 -<1diysam>1 2 <1i%di%ysen>1 -<1ydi%yscn>1 -<1ydiysan>1 -<1di%ysen>1 -<1diysan>1 3 <1i%di%yse>1 -<1ydi%yse>1 -<1ydiysa>1 -<1di%yse>1 -<1diysa>1 <2Plural After vowels After consonants>2 1 <1i%di%ysek -ydi%ysek -ydiysak -di%ysek -diysak>1 2 <1i%di%yseni%z -ydi%yseni%z -ydisaniz -di%yseni%z -diysaniz>1 3 <1i%di%yseler -ydi%yseler -ydiysalar -di%yseler -diysalar>1 <2Suffixed>2 <2Singular After vowels After consonants>2 1 -<1ydi%mse>1 -<1ydimsa>1 -<1di%mse>1 -<1dimsa>1 2 -<1ydi%nse>1 -<1ydinsa>1 -<1di%nse>1 -<1dinsa>1 <2Plural>2 1 -<1Vdi%kse>1 -<1ydiksa>1 -<1di%kse>1 -<1diksa>1 2 -<1ydi%ni%zse -ydinizsa>1 -<1di%ni%zse -dinizsa>1 3 -<1ydi%yseler -ydiysalar>1 -<1di%yseler -diysalar>1 EXAMPLES: <1evde i%di%ysem, evdeydi%ysem,>1 or <1evdeydi%mse>1 "if I was at home'; <1Tu*rk i%di%yse>1 or <1Tu*rktu*yse>1 "if he was Turkish'; <1hazir i%di%ysek, hazirdiysak>1 or <1hazirdiksa>1 "if we were ready'; <1sorumlu i%di%yseni%z, sorumluyduysaniz>1 or <1sorumluydunuzsa>1 "if you were responsible'. 10. The inferential. The inferential present/past <1i%mi%s+>1 means "he is/was said to be' or "I infer that he is/was although I had not realized it before'. Though some grammarians have termed it the dubitative, in itself it does not imply doubt or uncertainty; e.g. a sentence beginning <1Orhan hasta i%mi%s+>1 "Orhan is said to be ill' may continue "and we ought to visit the poor man' or "but I bet he's malingering'. Similarly, a speaker who says <1ben geri%ci% i%mi%s+i%m>1 "I am said to be reactionary' may go on "and it's true and I'm proud of it' or "but this is a wicked slander'. It is formed by adding to the base <1i%mi%s+,>1 or the suffixed -<1ymi%s+>1 or -<1mi%s+,>1 etc., the present suffixes of the verb "to be', with the exception of -<1di%r.>1 <2Singular Suffixed after vowels>2 <11i%mi%s+i%m -ymi%s+i%m -ymu*s+u*m -ymis+im -ymus+um>1 <12i%mi%s+si%n -ymi%s+si%n -ymu*s+su*n -ymis+sin -ymus+sun>1 <13i%mi%s+ -ymi%s+ -ymu*s+ -ymis+ -ymus+>1 <2Plural Suffixxed after vowels>2 <1li%mi%s+i%z -ymi%s+i%z -ymu*s+u*z -ymis+iz -ymus+uz>1 <12i%mi%s+si%ni%z -ymi%s+si%ni%z -ymu*s+su*nu*z -ymis+siniz -ymus+sunuz>1 <13i%mi%s+ler -ymi%s+ler -ymu*s+Ier -ymis+lar -ymus+lar>1 <2Suffixed after consonants>2 -<1mi%s+i%m -mu*s+u*m -mis+im -mus+um>1 etc. The <1s+s>1 of the second person is sometimes simplified in pro- nunciation, rarely in writing, to <1s+: i%mi%s+i%n, i%mi%s+i%ni%z.>1 EXAMPLES: <1evde i%mi%s+i%m>1 or <1evdeymi%s+i%m>1 "I am said to be at home'; <1Tu*rk imi%s+>1 or <1Tu*rkmu*s+>1 "he is said to be Turkish'; <1hazir imi%s+i%z>1 or <1hazirmis+iz>1 "we are said to be ready'; <1sorumlu>1 <1i%mi%s+si%ni%z>1 or <1sorumluymus+sunuz>1 "you are said to be respon- sible'; <1ki%mdi%r?>1 "who is he?'; <1ki%mmi%s+?>1 "who is he supposed to be?'; <1gu*nahimiz ne i%mi%s+?>1 "what is our sin said to be?' i.e. "what are we reported to have done that has offended you ?' If told "the new Minister is a good man', <1yeni% Bakan i%yi% bi%r adam,>1 one may reply <1i%mi%s+>1 or -<1mis+,>1 meaning "so we are told, but I have no first-hand knowledge of him'. <1ben mi%s+lere mus+lara pek kulak>1 <1vermem>1 "I don't pay much heed to gossip' (lit. "I do not much give ear to <1mi%s+es>1 and <1mus+es')->1 11. The inferential conditional: "I gather that if I am/was' or "if I am/was, as they say', etc. The present conditional endings are suffixed to <1i%mi%s+>1 or its suffixed forms. <2Singular Suffixed after vowels>2 1 <1i%mi%s+sem -ymi%s+sem -ymu*s+sem -ymis+sam -ymus+sam>1 2 <1i%mi%s+sen -ymi%s+sen -ymu*s+sen -ymis+san -ymus+san>1 3 <1i%mi%s+se -ymi%s+se -ymu*s+se -ymis+sa -ymus+sa>1 <2Plural>2 1 <1i%mi%s+sek -ymi%s+sek -ymu*s+sek -ymis+sak -ymus+sak>1 2 <1i%mi%s+seni%z -ymi%s+seni%z -ymu*s+seni%z -ymis+saniz -ymus+saniz>1 3 <1i%mi%s+seler -ymi%s+seler -ymu*s+seler -ymis+salar -ymus+salar>1 <2Suffixed after comonants>2 <1-mi%s+sem -mu*s+sem -mis+sam -mus+sam>1 etc. These forms, which are used in reported speech, are not often met with in writing. If someone says to you <1hazirsaniz yola>1 <1c+ikmalisiniz>1 (# 3o) "if you are ready you ought to start off', you may report these words thus: <1ben hazir i%mi%s+sem>1 (or <1hazir- mis+sam) yola c+ikmaliymis+im>1 "they are saying that if I am ready I ought to start off'. 12. The negative of "to be'. This is made by putting after <1deg*i%l>1 "not' the suffixed forms, less commonly the independent forms, given above. <2(a) Present:>2 "I am not', etc. <2Singular Plural>2 1 <1deg*i%li%m deg*i%li%z>1 2 <1deg*i%lsi%n deg*i%lsi%ni%z>1 3 <1deg*i%l(di%r) deg*i%l(di%r)ler>1 <2(b) Past:>2 "I was not', etc. <2Singular>2 1 <1deg*i%ldi%m>1 or <1deg*i%li%di%m>1 2 <1deg*i%ldi%n deg*i%li%di%n>1 3 <1deg*i%ldi% deg*i%l i%di%>1 <2Plural>2 1 <1deg*i%ldi%k deg*i%l i%di%k>1 2 <1deg*i%ldi%ni%z deg*i%I i%di%ni%z>1 3 <1deg*i%ldi%ler deg*i%l i%di%ler>1 <2(c) Present conditional:>2 "if I am not', etc. <2Singular>2 1 <1deg*i%lsem>1 or <1deg*i%li%sem>1 2 <1deg*i%lsen deg*i%l i%sen>1 3 <1deg*i%lse deg*i%li%se>1 <2Plural>2 1 <1deg*i%lsek deg*i%l i%sek>1 2 <1deg*i%lseni%z deg*i%l i%seni%z>1 3 <1deg*i%lseler deg*i%li%seler>1 <1(deg*i%llerse)>1 <2(d) Past conditional:>2 "if I was not', etc. <2Singular>2 1 <1deg*i%li%di%ysem>1 or <1deg*i%ldi%ysem>1 or <1deg*i%ldi%mse>1 2 <1deg*i%l i%di%ysen deg*i%ldi%ysen deg*i%ldi%nse>1 3 <1deg*i%l i%di%yse deg*i%ldi%yse deg*i%ldi%yse>1 <2Plural>2 1 <1deg*i%l i%di%ysek deg*i%ldi%ysek deg*i%ldi%kse>1 2 <1deg*i%l i%di%yseni%z deg*i%ldi%yseni%z deg*i%Idi%ni%zse>1 3 <1deg*i%l i%di%yseler deg*i%ldi%yseler deg*i%ldi%lerse>1 <2(e) Inferential:>2 "I am/was said not to be', "I infer that I am/was not', etc. <2Singular>2 1 <1deg*i%l i%mi%s+i%m>1 or <1deg*i%lmi%s+i%m>1 2 <1deg*i%l i%mi%s+si%n deg*i%lmi%s+si%n>1 3 <1deg*i%l i%mi%s+ deg*i%lmi%s+>1 <2Plural>2 1 <1deg*i%l i%mi%s+i%z deg*i%lmi%s+i%z>1 2 <1deg*i%l i%mi%s+si%ni%z deg*i%lmi%s+si%ni%z>1 3 <1deg*i%l i%mi%s+ler deg*i%lmi%s+ler>1 <2(f) Inferential conditional:>2 "I gather that if I am not', "if I am not, as they say', etc. <2Singular>2 1 <1deg*i%l i%mi%s+sem>1 or <1deg*i%lmi%s+sem>1 2 <1deg*i%l i%mi%s+sen deg*i%lmi%s+sen>1 3 <1deg*i%l i%mi%s+se deg*i%lmi%s+se>1 <2Plural>2 1 <1deg*i%l i%mi%s+sek deg*i%lmi%s+sek>1 2 <1deg*i%l i%mi%s+seni%z deg*i%lmi%s+seni%z>1 3 <1deg*i%l i%mi%s+seler deg*i%Imi%s+seIer>1 <1deg*i%l>1 alone means "not' as well as "is not', usually following the word it negates : <1bugu*n deg*i%I, du*n geldi>1 "he came yesterday, not today' ("this-day not, yesterday he-came'). When it precedes one of two parallel words, it indicates that that one is of less importance than the other : <1deg*i%l sen, ben de bi%lmedi%m>1 "never mind about you, even <2I>2 did not know'; <1deg*i%l parasini, hayatini kurtara- madi>1 "never mind about his money, he couldn't save his <2Iife'.>2 If the positions of <1deg*i%l>1 and <1parasini>1 were reversed, the meaning would be "it wasn't his money, it was his life that he could not save'. <1hi%zmetc+i%yi% deg*i%l, beni% kog*du>1 "it wasn't the servant, it was me he threw out'; <1deg*i%l hi%zmetc+i%yi%, beni% bi%le kog*du>1 "never mind about the servant, he even threw <2me>2 out'. The sense of "never mind about' is occasionally expressed by a following <1deg*i%l;>1 see XXIV, 32. 13. Interrogative. The interrogative particle is <1mi%,>1 which turns the immediately preceding word into a question. It is written separately from the preceding word, but takes its vowel harmony from it: <1dog*ru>1 "true', <1dog*ru mu ?>1 "true ?'; <1bugu*n mu*?>1 "today ?'; <1yarin mi?>1 "tomorrow ?' It may even follow and turn into a ques- tion a word which is already interrogative; thus the reply to <1ki%m geldi%?>1 "who came?' may be <1ki%m mi%?>1 "do you ask ""who?''?' (literally """who ?''?'). The forms of the verb "to be' are appended or suffixed to it, but when -<1ler>1 alone and not -<1di%rler>1 is used for the third plural of the present tense the -<1ler>1 precedes <1mi%.>1 <2(a)>2 <2Present>2 : "am I, etc., at home/Turkish/ready/responsible ?' <2Singular>2 1 <1evde m%iyi%m Tu*rk mu*yu*m hazir miyim sorumlu muyum>1 2 <1,, mi%si%n ,, mu*su*n ,, misin ,, musun>1 3 <1,, mi%(di%r) ,, mu*(du*r)' ,, mi(dir) ,, mu(dur)>1 <2Plural>2 1 <1,, mi%yi%z ,, mu*yu*z ,, miyiz ,, muyuz>1 2 <1,, mi%si%ni%z ,, mu*su*nu*z ,, misiniz ,, musunuz>1 <1evdeler mi% Tu*rkler mi% haziriar mi sorumiuiar mi>1 3 <1evde Tu*rk hazir sorumlu>1 <1mi%di%rler mu*du*rler midirlar mudurlar>1 <2(b) Past:>2 "was I at home, etc. ?' <1evde mi% i%di%m>1 or <1evde mi%ydi%m>1 <1Tu*rk mu* i%di%m Tu*rk mu*ydu*m>1 <1hazir mi i%di%m hazir miydim>1 <1sorumlu mu i%di%m sorumlu muydum>1 For the remaining persons see the conjugation of <1i%di%m>1 and its forms when suffixed after vowels, in # 7. <2(c) Inferential:>2 "am I said to be at home, etc. ?' <1evde mi% i%mi%s+i%m>1 or <1evde mi%ymi%s+i%m>1 <1Tu*rk mu* i%mi%s+i%m Tu*rk mu*ymu*s+u*m>1 <1hazir mi i%mi%s+i%m hazir miymis+im>1 <1sorumlu mu i%mi%s+i%m sorumlu muymus+um>1 For the remaining persons see # lo. Some grammarians complete the paradigm by setting out the interrogative of the conditional; present, past, and inferential: <1i%sem mi%, i%di%ysem mi%, i%mi%s+sem mi%.>1 This is unnecessary if it be borne in mind that <1mi%>1 functions simply as a question-mark. The "interrogative of the conditional' of the verb "to be' occurs only in such contexts as when someone is asked a question like "what shall we do if he is not at home ?' <1evde deg*i%lse ne yapa->1 <1lim?>1 and replies "if he is not at home?' <1evde deg*i%lse mi%?>1 See also # 34 <2(e).>2 14. Negative-interrogative. <1mi%>1 and the appropriate part of the verb "to be' are placed after <1deg*i%l:>1 <1evde deg*i%l mi%yi%m>1 "am I not at home ?' <1evde deg*i%l mi% i%di%m>1 or <1evde deg*i%l mi%ydi%m>1 "was I not at home ?' <1evde deg*i%l mi% i%mi%s+i%m>1 or <1evde deg*i%l mi%ymi%s+i%m>1 "am I not said to be/am I said not to be at home ?' 15. The regular verb. This category includes all verbs other than the verb "to be'. If we look back over the preceding pages we see that the conjugation of the verb "to be' may be summarized as follows: there are two distinct sets of personal endings, which we may call Types I and Il. <2Type I Type ll>2 <2Singular>2 1 -<1i%m -m>1 2 -<1sin -n>1 3 -<1(-di%r)>1 -- <2Type I Type II>2 <2PIural>2 1 -<1i%z>1 -<1k>1 2 -<1si%ni%z>1 -<1ni%z>1 3 -<1(di%r)ler>1 -<1ler>1 Type I is the present tense, "I am', etc.; Type Il is added to the base of the past tense <1i%di%>1 and of the conditional <1i%se.>1 The Type I endings are suffixed to <1i%mi%s+>1 to make the inferential: <1i%mi%s+-i%m,>1 <1i%mi%s+-si%n,>1 etc. The conditional, i.e. <1i%se>1 plus the Type Il endings, is added to the past base <1i%di%>1 to make the past conditional: <1i%di%- yse-m, i%di%-yse-n,>1 etc. Added to the inferential base it makes the inferential conditional: <1i%mi%s+-se-m, i%mi%s+-se-n,>1 etc. The same principle applies to the conjugation of the regular verb, but two other sets of personal endings are used in addition to Types I and lI. Type Ill is confined to the subjunctive and Type IV to the imperative, which has no first person. <2Type lll Type lV>2 <2Singular>2 1 -<1eyi%m>1 2 -<1esi%n>1 -- 3 -<1e>1 -<1si%n>1 <2Plural>2 1 -<1eli%m>1 2 -<1esiniz>1 -<1in,-iniz>1 3 -<1eler>1 -<1si%nler>1 By the addition of "characteristics' to the verb-stem the follow- ing tense- and mood-bases can be formed: 1. present 5. necessitative 2. future 6. <1di%>1 -past 3. aorist 7 conditional 4. <1mi%s+->1past 8. subjunctive The imperative is not included in this list because it has no characteristic. The term "tense- and mood-bases' is used in pre- ference to "tenses and moods' because from each base a variety of compound tenses and moods can be formed. Each base is also the third-person singular of its tense or mood. Only the <1di%>1-past, conditional, subjunctive, and imperative have endings of their own ; all the other bases are substantival in origin and are verbalized by means of the verb "to be'. For this reason the device of sus- pended affixation is regularly used in the verb : just as, in English, there is no need to repeat the part of the verb "to be' in 'I was sitting in my room Õand I waså reading the paper', so in Turkish: <1odamda oturuyorÕ-dum veå gazeteyi% okuyor-dum.>1 The regularity of the verbal system will soon impress itself on the student. Where it has been thought unnecessary to set out a conjugation in full, the first and second persons of the singular and the third person of the plural have been given, as, in this last, alternative forms can occur, with the plural suffix preceding or following the personal suffix. The less common forms of the plural are shown in brackets. When alternative forms exist for a whole conjugation, the most usual is given first. A synopsis of the finite verb will be found on page 136. The occasional change of <1t>1 to <1d>1 before vowels must be borne in mind; thus the present base of <1et->1 "to do' is <1edi%yor,>1 of <1gi%t->1 "to go' <1gi%di%yor,>1 of <1tat->1 "to taste' <1tadiyor.>1 Most stems in <1t,>1 howe ver, do not undergo this change : <1at->1 "to throw', <1atiyor>1 ; <1tut->1 "to hold' , <1tutuyor>1 ; <1yat->1 "to lie down', <1yatiyor.>1 16. Present I. The characteristic of the base is an invariable -<1yor,>1 originally an independent verb <1yorir,>1 the aorist of the ancient <1yorimak>1 "to go, walk'. It is suffixed directly to vowel- stems : <1eri%->1 to melt, <1eri%yor bu*yu*->1 to grow, <1bu*yu*yor tani->1 to recognize, <1taniyor koru->1 to protect, <1koruyor>1 Final <1e/a>1 of the stem changes before this suffix in accordance with the rule given in I, 36: <1bekle->1 to wait, <1bekli%yor go*zle->1 to observe, <1go*zlu*yor anla->1 to understand, <1anliyor topla->1 to collect, <1topluyor>1 The original final vowel of the stems <1bi%Ie->1 "to sharpen' and <1yika->1 "to wash' is sometimes preserved in <1writing--bi%leyor, yikayor-->1 in order to avoid confusion with the present of <1bi%l->1 "to know' and <1yik->1 "to demolish': <1bi%li%yor, yikiyor.>1 With consonant-stems, the appropriate closed vowel is inserted before -<1yor: gel->1 to come, <1geli%yor go*r->1 to see, <1go*ru*yor al->1 to take, <1aliyor kos+->1 to run, <1kos+uyor>1 The accent is on the vowel preceding the -<1yor.>1 17. Uses of the present. This tense is used for actions either in progress or envisaged: <1Antalya'da c+aIis+iyor>1 "he is working in Antalya'; <1kendi%si%ni% haftada i%ki% defa go*ru*yorum>1 "I see him twice a week'; <1yarin gi%di%yoruz>1 "we are going to morrow'. As it can denotc actions begun in the past and still going on, it is used in such sentences as <1i%ki% sene-di%r bu evde oturuyor>1 lit. "it is two years he is living in this house' and <1burada hazi%ran ayindan beri% oturuyor>1 lit. "he is living here since the month of June', where English has the perfect "he has been living'. See also # 25. I8. Paradigms of the present. To the basc in -<1yor>1 are added the suffixes of thc verb "to be' except -<1di%r;>1 both in the written and in the spoken language the addition of -<1di%r>1 to the present tense indicates a supposition; see # 42. <2(a) Present simple:>2 <1aliyorum>1 I am taking <1aliyoruz>1 we are taking <1aliyorsun>1 you are taking <1aliyorsunuz>1 you are taking <1aliyor>1 he is taking <1aliyorlar>1 they are taking <2(b) Present past>2 : <1aliyordum>1 I was taking <1aliyorduk>1 we were taking <1ali%yordun>1 you were taking <1aliyordunuz>1 you were taking <1aliyordu>1 he was taking <1aliyorlardi>1 they were <1(aliyordular)>1 taking Theoretically the separate forms <1aIiyor i%di%m,>1 etc., might be expected but their use is in fact an Armenianism. <2(c) Present conditional:>2 <1aliyorsam>1 if I am taking <1aliyorsak>1 if we are taking <1aliyorsan>1 if you are taking <1aliyorsaniz>1 if you are taking <1aliyorsa>1 if he is taking <1aliyorlarsa>1 if they are <1(aliyorsalar)>1 taking <1(d)>1 <2Past conditional:>2 "if I was taking': <2Singular>2 1 <1aliyor i%di%ysem>1 or <1aliyorduysam>1 or <1aliyordumsa>1 2 <1aliyor i%di%ysen aliyorduysan aliyordunsa>1 <2Plural>2 3 <1aliyor i%di%yseler aliyorduysalar aliyorlardiysa>1 <1(aliyorIar i%di%yse)>1 For the full conjugation cf. # 9. <2(e) Inferential:>2 "I am/was said to be taking' or "I gather that I am/was taking': <2Singular>2 1 <1aliyormus+um>1 2 <1aliyormus+sun>1 <2Plural>2 3 <1aliyorlarmis+>1 <1(aliyormus+lar)>1 See # 10. , ; i <2dii>2 I "if I amjwas as they say, t~ing' or <2(f) Inferential conditional:>2 "if I am/was, as they say, taking' or "I gather that if I am/was taking': <2Singular>2 1 <1aliyor i%mi%s+sem>1 or <1aliyormus+sam>1 2 <1aliyor i%mi%s+sen aliyormus+san>1 <2Plural>2 3 <1ahyor i%mis+seler aliyormus+salar>1 <1(aliyorlar i%mi%s+se) (aliyorlarmis+sa)>1 See # 11- <2(g) Negative.>2 The negative suffix is -<1me,>1 added to the verb-stem before the characteristic; its vowel is subject to the rules given in I,36. <1bekle-me-yor>1 å <1beklemi%yor>1 he is not waiting <1g->1-<1or-me-yor>1 å <1go*rmu*yor>1 he is not seeing <1al-ma-yor>1 å <1almiyor>1 he is not taking <1kos+-ma-yor>1 å <1kos+muyor>1 he is not running <2Plural>2 <1(aliyorlar i%di%yse)>1 I am/was taking': <2Singular>2 1 <1aliyormus+um>1 2 <1aliyormus+sun>1 <2Plural>2 3 <1aliyorlarmis+>1 <1(aliyormus+lar)>1 See # lo. "I gather that if I am/was taking': <2Singular>2 1 <1aliyor i%mi%s+sem>1 or <1aliyormus+sam>1 2 <1aliyor i%mi%s+sen aliyormus+san>1 <2Plural>2 3 <1ahyor i%mi%s+seler aIiyormus+salar>1 To the present negative base thus formed, the suffixes of "to be' are added,just as with the positive base ; for example, the negative conjugation of <1al->1 is exactly as shown in paragraphs (a) to (f), with the substitution of <1almiyor>1 for <1aliyor>1 throughout. <2(h) Interrogative.>2 The appropriate interrogative form of "to be' is placed after the present base, positive or negative. As the inter- rogative particle turns the preceding word into a question, the literal meaning of, for example, <1almiyor muydunuz>1 is "is it not-taking that you were ?' "am I taking ?' "am I not taking ?' <2Singular>2 1 <1aliyor muyum almiyor muyum>1 2 <1aliyor musun almiyor musun>1 3 <1aliyor mu almiyor mu>1 <2Plural>2 1 <1aIiyor muyuz almiyor muyuz>1 2 <1aliyor musunuz aImiyor musunuz>1 3 <1aliyorlar mi aImiyorlar mi>1 "was I taking?' "was I not taking ?' <2Singular>2 1 <1aliyor muydum almiyor muydum>1 2 <1aliyor muydun almiyor muydun>1 <2Plural>2 3 <1aliyorlar miydi almiyorlar miydi>1 <1(aliyor muydular) (almiyor muydular)>1 "am/was I said to be "am/was I said not to be taking ?' taking ?' <2Singular>2 1 <1aliyor muymus+um almiyor muymus+um>1 2 <1aliyor muymus+sun almiyor muymus+sun>1 <2Plural>2 3 <1aliyorlar miymis+ almiyorlar miymis+>1 <1(aliyor muymus+lar) (almiyor muymus+lar)>1 19. Present lI. The base of this tense is the locative case of the infinitive in -<1mek,>1 to which are added the endings of the verb "to be': <1gelmekte-y-i%m>1 "I am (in the act of) coming'; <1almakta- sin>1 "you are (in the act of) taking'; <1gelmekte-ydi%m>1 "I was (in the act of) coming'; <1go*zlemekte-ymi%s+si%niz>1 "you are/were said to be (in the act of) observing'; <1kos+makta-larsa>1 "if they are (in the act of) running', etc. The negative is formed with the negative of "to be' (# 12)-- <1aImakta deg*i%li%m>1 "I am not taking'; <1almakta deg*i%lsek>1 "if we are not taking', etc. For the interrogative and negative-interroga- tive see ## 13-14- This present in -<1mekte,>1 originally a literary formation, is rapidly invading the spoken language. It differs from the present in -<1yor>1 in being used only of actions in progress and never of actions envisaged. Very rarely the locative of the verbal noun in -<1me>1 is similarly used: <1alma-da-y-im>1 "I am in the act of taking'. Subsequent references to "the present tense' are to be taken as applying to the present I. 20. Future I. The characteristic is -<1ecek,>1 added directly to consonant-stems : <1gel-ecek>1 "he will come' ; <1go*r-ecek>1 "he will see' ; <1al-acak>1 "he will take'; <1bul-acak>1 "he will find'. After vowel-stems a <1y>1 is inserted: <1eri%-y-ecek>1 "it will melt'; <1tani-y-acak>1 "he will recognize'. If the final vowel of the stem is <1e>1 or a,it is narrowed by the following <1y>1 into <1i%>1 or <1i:>1 <1bekle-y-ecek>1 å <1bekli%yecek>1 he will wait <1anla-y-acak>1 å <1anliyacak>1 he will understand 21. Uses of the future. This tense is used, like the English future, to express not only what is going to happen but what the speaker wants to happen: <1si%gara i%c+mekten vazgec+eceksi%n>1 "you are going to give up smoking cigarettes'; <1i%ster i%stemez bu i%s+i% yapacaksin>1 "like it or not, you are going to do this job'. Also as in English, the third person expresses a confident assumption: <1s+i%mdi% merdi%venden c+ikan Ahmet olacak>1 literally "the one now coming upstairs will be Ahmet', i.e. "that will be Ahmet coming upstairs now'. The future past, besides expressing past intention--zaten <1bunu yapacaktim>1 "I was going to do it any- way'--is employed in the apodosis of conditional sentences, both for "I would do it if . . .' and "I would have done it if . . .'. 22. Paradigms of the future. To the future base are added the "to be' endings, as with the present base, except that the written language regularly uses -<1di%r>1 in the third person of the future to express a simple future statement and not a supposition. The change of intervocalic <1k>1 to <1g*>1 must be borne in mind. <2(a) Future simple>2: "I shall come' "I shall take' <2Singular>2 1 <1geleceg*i%m alacag*im>1 2 <1geleceksi%n alacaksin>1 3 <1gelecek(ti%r) alacak(tir)>1 <2Plural>2 1 <1geleceg*i%z alacag*iz>1 2 <1geleceksi%ni%z alacaksiniz>1 3 <1geIecekler(di%r) alacaklar(dir)>1 <2(b) Future past:>2 "I was about to come, "I was about to take, would come' would take' <2Singular>2 1 <1gelecekti%m alacaktim>1 2 <1geIecekti%n alacaktin>1 3 <1gelecekti% alacakti>1 <2Plural>2 1 <1gelecekti%k alacaktik>1 2 <1gelecekti%ni%z alacaktiniz>1 3 <1geIeceklerdi% alacakIardi>1 <2(c) Future conditional:>2 "if I am about to "if I am about to come' take' <2Singular>2 1 <1geleceksem alacaksam>1 2 <1geleceksen alacaksan>1 <2Plural>2 3 <1geleceklerse alacaklarsa>1 <1(gelecekseler) (alacaksalar)>1 cf- # l8 <2(c)>2. <2(d) Future past conditional:>2 "if I was about to come': <2Sinular>2 1 <1gelecek i%di%ysem>1 or <1gelecekti%ysem>1 or <1gelecekti%mse>1 2 <1gelecek i%di%ysen gelecekti%ysen gelecekti%nse>1 <2Plural>2 3 <1gelecek i%di%yseler gelecekti%yseler geleceklerdi%yse>1 <1(gelecekler i%di%yse)>1 So, with the changes due to vowel harmony, <1alacak i%di%ysem>1 or <1alacaktiysam>1 or <1alacaktimsa,>1 etc. Cf. # 9. <2(e) Future inferential:>2 "I am/was said to be about to come': <2Singular>2 1 <1gelecek i%mi%s+i%m>1 or <1gelecekmi%s+i%m>1 2 <1gelecek i%mi%s+si%n geIecekmi%s+si%n>1 <2Plural>2 3 <1geleceWer i%mi%s+ geleceklermi%s+>1 <1(gelecek i%mi%s+ler) (gelecekmi%s+ler)>1 <2(f) Future inferential conditional:>2 "if, as they say/said, I am/was about to come': <2Singular>2 1 <1gelecek i%mi%s+sem>1 or <1gelecekmi%s+sem>1 2 <1gelecek i%mi%s+sen gelecekmi%s+sen>1 <2Plural>2 3 <1gelecek i%mi%s+seler gelecekmi%s+seler>1 <1(gelecekler i%mi%s+se) (geleceklermi%s+se)>1 <2(g)>2 Future negative.>2 Compare the present negative in # 18- <1gel-me-y-ecek>1 å <1gelmi%yecek>1 he will not come <1al-ma-y-acak>1 å <1almiyacak>1 he will not take The same endings are attached as to the positive base: <1gelmi%- yeceg*i%m, gelmi%yecekti%ni%z, gelmi%yecek i%mi%s+seler,>1 etc. <2(2) Future interrogative and negative-interrogative.>2 These are formed on the same lines as those of the present (# 18 <2(h))>2, e.g. <1gelecek mi%yi%m>1 am I about to come? <1geImi%yecek mi%yi%m>1 am I not about to come ? <1gelecek mi%ydi%m>1 was I about to come ? <1gelmi%yecek mi%ymi%s+i%m>1 am I said not to be about to come ? 23. Future II. The ancient future suffix -<1esi%>1 has a restricted use in the modern language. As a finite verb it occurs only in the base-form, i.e. in the third-person singular, and is employed solely for cursing: <1i%pe gel-esi%>1 may he come to the rope <1ko*r ol-asi>1 may he become blind <1ev-i%n yikil-asi>1 may your house be demolished <1ocak-lari batasi>1 may their hearth sink <1ense-n kirilasi>1 may your neck be broken <1geber-esi%>1 may he die Iike a dog <1kara toprag*a>1 may he enter the black earth <1gi%r-esi%>1 The negative -<1me>1 is narrowed by the buffer <1y>1 before this suffix: <1go*r-mi%-y-esi%>1 "may he not see'; <1ol-mi-y-asi>1 "may he not become'. Provincially, with the inferential forms of "to be' it does not have this optative force but a different development of the original future meaning : <1cepleri%nden paralarini c+al-asi i%mi%s+i%m>1 "I am alleged to have stolen their money from their pockets'; <1karim>1 <1benden hos+lan-mi-y-asi i%mi%s+>1 "my wife is alleged not to like me'. The future sense may not be readily apparent in these two typical examples. The connexion of thought is suggested by the merican use of "I am not about to do it' for "I am not likely to do it, not the sort of person who would do it'. Unless otherwise indicated, subsequent references to "the future tense' apply to the future I. 24. Aorist. This term, borrowed from Greek grammar, means "the braod tense', whoich denotes continuing activity. The charac- teristic is <1r,>1 added directly to vowel-stems: <1benze->1 to resemble <1benzer>1 he resembles <1anla->1 to understand <1anlar>1 he understands <1koru->1 to protect <1korur>1 he protects <1de->1 to say <1der>1 he says <1ko->1 to put <1kor>1 he puts After consonant-stems, a vowel is added before the <1r.>1 Original monosyllabic stems add <1e/a:>1 <1bi%n->1 to mount <1bi%ner>1 he mounts <1do*n->1 to turn <1do*ner>1 he turns <1et->1 to do <1eder>1 he does <1yap->1 to make, do <1yapar>1 he makes, does <1sun->1 to present <1sunar>1 he presents To this rule there are thirteen exceptions; monosyllabic stems which insert <1i%/u*/i/u>1 before the <1r.>1 It will be noted that all but one of these stems end in <1I>1 or <1r:>1 <1bi%l->1 to know <1bi%li%r>1 <1gel->1 to come <1geli%r>1 <1ver->1 to give <1veri%r>1 <1go*r->1 to see <1go*ru*r>1 <1o*l->1 to die <1o*lu*r>1 <1al->1 to take <1alir>1 <1kal->1 to remain <1kalir>1 <1san->1 to think <1sanir>1 <1var->1 to reach <1varir>1 <1bul->1 to find <1bulur>1 <1dur->1 to stand <1durur>1 <1ol->1 to become, be, <1olur>1 happen <1vur->1 to strike <1vurur>1 Polysyllabic stems add <1i%/u*/i/u>1 : <1i%mren->1 to covet <1i%mreni%r>1 <1su*pu*r->1 to sweep <1su*pu*ru*r>1 <1aldat->1 to deceive <1aldatir>1 <1konus+->1 to speak <1konus+ur>1 So too do extensions of monosymballic stems, even if they are themselves monosyllables: <1de->1 to say <1de-n->1 to be said <1deni%r>1 it is said <1ye->1 to eat <1ye-n->1 to be eaten <1yeni%r>1 it is eaten <1ko->1 to put <1ko-n->1 to be put <1konur>1 it is put 25. Uses of the aorist. The aorist denotes continuing activity, but to equate, for example, <1yapar-im>1 with "I do' and <1yapiyor-um>1 wi%th "I am doing' is a misleading oversimplification. Funda- mentally, <1yaparim>1 means "I am a doer' and according to context it may represent: "I habitually do'; "by and large I am the sort of person who does'; "I am ready, willing, and able to do'; "I shall do'. <1yapiyorum>1 means : "I have undertaken, and am now engaged in, thejob of doing'; "I am doing now'; "I am doing in the future', i.e. "I have the job in hand'. <1yazarim>1 and <1yaziyorum>1 may both be translated "I write'. But more specifically: <1yazarim>1 "I am a writer; in principle I write (though I may not yet have put pen to paper)'. <1yaziyorum>1 "I am writing now'; "as a matter of fact I do write'; "I write, for example, for four hours every morning' <1--her sabah do*rt saat yaziyorum--where>1 the broad <1yazarim>1 would be incongruous with the precise expression of time. For "I love you' the Turk says <1seni% sevi%yorum;>1 if he said <1seni% sev- erim>1 that would sound far too vague and without immediacy, corresponding rather to "I like you'. The aorist is used in requests: <1otur-ur musunuz>1 "will you sit down ?' The future, <1oturacak misiniz,>1 means "are you going to sit down ?' and the present, <1oturuyor musunuz,>1 "are you in fact sitting down ?' In promises: <1yarin geli%r-i%m>1 "I shall come tomorrow'. This carries more conviction than the present <1yarin geli%yorum>1 "I am coming tomorrow' or the future <1yarin geleceg*i%m>1 "I am going to come tomorrow'. See also # 36. In stage directions : <1Esma gi%r-er, otur-ur. Osman yeri%nden>1 <1kalk-ar>1 "Esma enters, sits. Osman rises from his place'. <1In>1 proverbs: <1i%t u*r-u*r kervan gec+-er>1 "the dogs howl, the caravan moves on' caravan moves on'. As a vivid present: <1bi%r aks+am kapi hizla c+alin-ir>1 "one evening there is a violent ringing at the door'. The aorist of <1ol->1 "to become, happen, be' is used to ask per- mission: <1ol-ur mu>1 "is it all right ?' (lit. "does it happen ?'); answer <1olur>1 "all right' or <1olmaz>1 "certainly not' ("it does not happen; it's not on'). Note also <1olur mu bo*yle>1 "does it happen thus?' i.e. "can such things be ?' An instructive example of the difference between the aorist and the present is seen in this cynical remark on traffic hazards in Turkey: <1bas+ka memleketlerde kazara o*lu*rler>1 ; <1bi%z kazara yas+iyoruz>1 "in other countries they die by accident; we live by accident'. The force of the aorist <1o*lu*rler>1 is "I cannot say con- fidently that anyone abroad is in fact dying at this precise instant, but I am aware that people abroad are liable to <1die--kazara--as>1 the result of accident'. The present <1yas+iyoruz>1 means "we are in fact living at this moment but--kazara--it's more by luck than judgement'. 26. Paradigms of the aorist. To the aorist base the "to be' endings are suffixed as to -<1yor,>1 i.e. without -<1di%r>1 in the third person of the present. <2(a) Aorist present>2 : "I come' "I see' "I take' "I find' <2Singular>2 1 <1geli%ri%m go*ru*ru*m alirim bulurum>1 2 <1geli%rsi%n go*ru*rsu*n alirsin buIursun>1 3 <1geIi%r go*ru*r aIir bulur>1 <2Plural>2 1 <1geli%ri%z go*ru*ru*z aliriz buluruz>1 2 <1geli%rsi%ni%z go*ru*rsu*nu*z alirsiniz buIursunuz>1 3 <1geli%rler go*ru*rler alirlar bulurIar>1 The common Anatolian -<1i%k>1 instead of -<1i%z>1 in the first-person plural occasionally finds its way into literary works: <1geli%ri%k, go*ru*ru*k, alirik, buluruk;>1 sometimes with <1h>1 instead of <1k,>1 to represent the pronunciation kh (see I, 9, end). <2(b) Aorist past>2. Besides translating "I used to do', this tense also occurs in the apodosis of conditional sentences in the sense of "I would do, would have done'. <2Singular>2 1 <1geli%rdi%m go*ru*rdu*m alirdim bulurdum>1 2 <1geli%rdi%n go*ru*rdu*n alirdin buIurdun>1 3 <1geli%rdi% go*ru*rdu* alirdi bulurdu>1 <2Plural>2 1 <1geli%rdi%k go*ru*rdu*k alirdik bulurduk>1 2 <1geli%rdi%ni%z go*ru*rdu*nu*z aIirdiniz bulurdunuz>1 3 <1geli%rlerdi% go*ru*rlerdi% alirlardi bulurlardi>1 <1(geli%rdu*er) (go*ru*rdu*ler) (alirdilar) (buIurdular)>1 The separated forms <1geli%r i%di%m, go*ru*r i%di%m,>1 etc., are an Armenianism. <2(c) Aorist present conditional.>2 As the conditional suffixes are subject only to the twofold harmony, two examples are sufficient : <1go*ru*rsem>1 goes like <1geli%rsem, bulursam>1 like <1alirsam.>1 "if I come' "if I take' <2ni>2 <2Singular>2 1 <1geli%rsem alirsam>1 2 <1geli%rsen alirsan>1 3 <1geli%rse alirsa>1 <2Plural>2 1 <1geli%rsek alirsak>1 2 <1geli%rseni%z alirsaniz>1 3 <1geli%rlerse alirlarsa>1 <1(geli%rseler) (alirsalar)>1 <2(d) Aorist past conditional:>2 "if I came, used to come', etc. The Past conditional forms of "to be', separate or suffixed, follow the aorist base : <2Singular>2 1 <1geIi%r/go*ru*r/alir/bulur i%di%ysem>1 2 ,, ,, ,, ,, <1i%di%ysen>1 <2Plural>2 3 ,, ,, ,, ,, <1i%di%yseler>1 <1(geli%rler/go*ru*rler/alirlar/bulurlar i%di%yse)>1 <2Singular>2 1 <1geli%rdi%ysem go*ru*rdu*ysem alirdiysam bulurduysam>1 2 <1geli%rdi%ysen go*ru*rdu*ysen alirdiysan bulurduysan>1 <2Plural>2 3 <1geli%rdi%yseler go*ru*rdu*yseler ahrdiysalar bulurduysalar>1 <1(geli%rler- (go*ru*rler- (alirlar- (bulurlar->1 <1di%yse) di%yse) diysa) diysa)>1 <2(e) Aorist inferential:>2 "I am/was said to come', etc. <2Singular>2 1 <1geli%rmi%s+i%m go*ru*rmu*s+u*m alirmis+im bulurmus+um>1 2 <1geli%rmi%s+si%n go*ru*rmu*s+su*n ahrmis+sin bulurmus+sun>1 <2Plural>2 3 <1geli%rIermi%s+ go*ru*rlermi%s+ alirlarmis+ bulurlarmis+>1 <1(geli%rmi%s+ler) (go*ru*rmu*s+ler) (alirmis+lar) (bulurmus+lar)>1 <2(f) Aorist inferential conditional:>2 "if I am/was said to come', etc, <2Singular>2 1 <1geli%r/go*ru*r/alir/bulur i%mi%s+sem>1 2 ,, ,, ,, ,, <1i%mi%s+sen>1 <2Plural>2 3 ,, ,, ,, ,, <1i%mi%s+seler>1 <1(geli%rIer/go*ru*rler/aIirlar/bulurlar i%mi%s+se)>1 <2Singular>2 1 <1geli%rmi%s+sem go*ru*rmu*s+sem alirmis+sam bulurmus+sam>1 2 <1geli%rmi%s+sen go*ru*rmu*s+sen alirmis+san bulurmus+san>1 <2Plural>2 3 <1geli%r- go*ru*r- alir- bulur->1 <1mi%s+seIer mu*s+seIer mis+salar mus+salar>1 <1(geli%rler- (go*ru*rler- (alirlar- (bulurlar->1 <1mi%s+se) mi%s+se) mis+sa) mis+sa)>1 <2(g)>2 Negative.>2 The aorist is unique in that its negative is not formed by inserting -<1me>1 before the characteristic <1r>1 of the positive; instead, the negative has a characteristic of its own, -<1mez,>1 and this is abraded to -<1me>1 in the first persons. Further, whereas in other negative bases it is the syllable before the -<1me>1 that is accented, in the negative of the aorist the -<1me>1 or -<1mez>1 itself is accented except in the third-person plural, where the accent is on the -<1ler>1. As -<1mez>1 is subject to the twofold harmony, two examples are sufficient. "I do not come' "I do not take' <2Singular>2 1 <1gelmem almam>1 2 <1gelmezsi%n almazsin>1 3 <1gelmez almaz>1 <2Plural>2 1 <1gelmeyi%z almayiz>1 2 <1gelmezsi%ni%z almazsiniz>1 3 <1gelmezler almazlar>1 An older form of the first-person plural was in -<1mezu*k>1 instead of -<1meyi%z.>1 It survives in <1i%stemezu*k>1 "we don't want (it)', used to typify opposition to progress. The other tenses and moods are formed like their positive counterparts but on the base -<1mez/maz,>1 e.g. <2Aorist past negative:>2 "I used not to come/take, would not come/take' : <2Singular>2 1 <1gelmezdi%m almazdim>1 2 <1geImezdi%n almazdin>1 <2Plural>2 3 <1gelmezlerdi% almazlardi>1 <1(gelmezdi%ler) (almazdilar)>1 <2(h) Interrogative.>2 The interrogative and negative-interrogative conjugations follow the usual pattern: <1geli%r mi%yi%m>1 do I come? <1alir miyim>1 do I take? <1gelmez mi%yi%m>1 do I not <1almaz miyim>1 do I not take? come ? <1geli%r mi%ydi%m>1 used I to <1alir miydim>1 used I to come ? take ? etc. etc. The negative-interrogative is used colloquially as a vivid pre- sent: <1terbi%yesi%z heri%f ayag*ima basmaz mi>1 "the mannerless fellow goes and steps on my foot', lit. "does he not step on . . .?' i.e. "is he the sort of man who would not step on . . . ?', a rhetorical question expecting the answer "no'. 27. <1mi%s+->1past. This base is formed by adding -<1mi%s+>1 to the stem: <1gelmi%s+, go*rmu*s+, almis+, bulmus+.>1 Two distinct functions are combined in it. <2(a)>2 As a finite verb, with the Type I endings (excluding -<1di%r),>1 it conveys that the information it gives is based either on hearsay or on inference from observed facts, but not on the speaker's having seen the action take place. If you say <1kar yag*mis+>1 "snow has fallen', it means either that someone has told you so or that you have seen the ground covered with snow, but not that you actually saw the snow falling. So <1c+orabim kac+mis+>1 "my stocking has laddercd'; i.e. the speaker infers this from the look of her stocking but did not notice it happening. In this respect the <1mi%s+->1past resembles the inferential of the verb "to be', except that <2(i)>2 whereas <1i%mi%s+>1 refers to past or present time, the <1mi%s+->1past i s exclusively a past tense ; <1(ii) i%mi%s+>1 mostly conveys that the informa- tion given is based on hearsay, less often that it is based on inference; (iii) -<1mi%s+>1 is accented when it ends a word, whereas <1i%mi%s+,>1 like all other parts of the verb "to be', is enclitic. <2(b)>2 This base is also a past participle, with no inferential con- notation; see IX, 5. There is no inferential connotation, i.e. the base is a past participle, when it is conjugated with -<1di%r>1 or with the past or conditional forms of the verb "to be'. The addition of -<1di%r>1 to the base makes a definite past tense : <1gelmi%s+ti%r>1 "he came, has come'; this is the normal past tense, third person, in written narrative, for which the spoken language employs the past tense in -<1di%.>1 Thus with the Type I endings the following distinction can be made: <2(a) Inferentialpast:>2 "I gather that I have come', etc. <2Singular>2 1 <1gelmi%s+i%m go*rmu*s+u*m almis+im bulmus+um>1 2 <1gelmi%s+si%n go*rmu*s+su*n almis+sin bulmus+sun>1 3 <1gelmi%s+ go*rmu*s+>1' <1almis+ bulmus+>1 <2Plural>2 1 <1gelmi%s+i%z go*rmu*s+u*z almis+iz bulmus+uz>1 2 <1gelmi%s+si%ni%z go*rmu*s+su*nu*z almis+siniz bulmus+sunuz>1 3 <1gelmi%s+ler gormus+ler almis+lar bulmus+lar>1 As with <1i%mi%s+,>1 the <1s+s>1 of the second person is frequently reduced to <1s+>1 in speech and sometimes in informal writing. <2(b) Definite past>2: "he came, has come; they came, have come', etc. (third person only) : <2Singular>2 3 <1gelmi%s+ti%r go*rmu*s+tu*r almis+tir buImus+tur>1 <2Plural>2 3 <1gelmi%s+lerdi%r go*rmu*s+lerdi%r almis+Iardir bulmus+lardir>1 <1(gelmi%s+ti%r- (go*rmu*s+tu*r- (almis+tir- (bulmus+tur->1 <1ler) ler) lar) lar)>1 28. Pluperfect. The addition of the Type lI endings makes the pluperfect ; <1gelmi%s+-ti%m>1 literally means "I-was having-come'. "I had come' "I had seen' "I had taken' "I had found' <2Singular>2 1 <1gelmi%s+ti%m go*rmu*s+tu*m almis+tim bulmus+tum>1 2 <1geImi%s+ti%n go*rmu*s+tu*n almis+tin buImus+tun>1 <2Plural>2 3 <1gelmi%s+Ierdi% go*rmu*s+lerdi% almis+lardi bulmus+lardi>1 <1(gelmi%s+ti%ler) (go*rmu*s+tu*ler) (almis+tilar) (bulmu's+tular)>1 The pluperfect is used more frequently than its English counter- part to show that one past event preceded another, e.g. <1s+ehre>1 <1saat 10 da varmis+tik, bu*rosuna saat 3 te gi%tti%k>1 "we Õhadå arrived in the city at 10 and went to his office at 3'. 29. Other paradigms of the <1mi%s+->1past. <2(a) Fonditional:>2 literally "if-I-am having-come', etc. "if I have "if I have "if I have "if I have come' seen' taken' found' <2Singular>2 1 <1gelmi%s+sem go*rmu*s+sem almis+sam bulmus+sam>1 2 <1gelmi%s+sen go*rmu*s+sen almis+san bulmus+san>1 <2plural>2 3 <1gelmi%s+lerse go*rmu*s+lerse almis+larsa bulmus+larsa>1 <1(gelmi%'s+seler) (go*rmu*"s+seler) (almis+salar) (bulmus+salar)>1 <2(b) Pluperfect conditional:>2 "if I had come', etc. The independent <1i%di%ysem,>1 etc. (# 9) is put after the base: <2Singular>2 1 <1gelmi%s+/go*rmu*s+/almis+/bulmus+ i%di%ysem 2 <1 ,, ,, ,, ,, i%di%ysen <2Plural>2 3 ,, ,, ,, ,, i%di%yseler (gelmi%s+ler/go*rmu*s*ler/almis+lar/bulmus+lar i%di%yse) The one-word forms <1gelmi%s+ti%ysem,>1 etc., are not literary. is followed by the inferential of "to be'; see # lo. In this tense, for reasons of euphony, the independent <1i%mi%s+i%m,>1 etc., are used very much more often than the suffixed forms. It must be empha- sized that the inferential element here comes from the <1i%mi%s+>1 and not from the base, which in this tense, as in the pluperfect and conditional, functions simply as a past participle. Thus <1gelmi%s+ i%mi%s+>1 or <1gelmi%s+mi%s+>1 means literally "he-is-said-to-be having- come', just as <1gelmi%s+ti%>1 means "he-was having-come' and <1gel- mi%s+se>1 "if-he-is having-come'. <2Singular>2 1 <1gelmi%s+/go*rmu*s+/almis+/bulmus+ i%mi%s+i%m>1 2 ,, ,, ,, ,, <1i%mi%s+si%n>1 <2Plural>2 3 ,, ,, ,, ,, <1i%mi%s+ler>1 <1(gelmi%s+ler/go*rmu*s+ler/aImis+lar/bulmus+lar i%mi%s+)>1 <2Singular>2 1 <1gelmi%s+- go*rmu*s+- almis+- bulmus+->1 <1mi%s+i%m mu*s+u*m mis+im mus+um>1 2 <1gelmi%s+- go*rmu*s+- almis+- bulmus+->1 <1mi%s+si%n mu*s+su*n mis+sin mus+sun>1 <2Plural>2 3 <1gelmi%s+- go*rmu*s+- almis+- bulmus+->1 <1lermi%s+ lermi%s+ larmis+ larmis+>1 <1(gelmi%s+- (go*rmu*s+- (almis+- (bulmus+->1 <1mi%s+ler) mu*s+ler) mis+lar) mus+lar)>1 <2(d) Inferential conditional:>2 "if I am said to have come', etc. Here again the separate <1i%mi%s+sem,>1 etc., are commoner than the suffixed forms. <2Singular>2 1 <1gelmi%s+/go*rmu*s+/almis+/bulmus+ i%mi%s+sem>1 2 ,, ,, ,, ,, <1i%mi%s+sen>1 <2Plural>2 3 ,, ,, ,, ,, <1i%mi%s+seIer>1 <1(gelmi%s+ler/go*rmu*s+ler/almis+lar/bulmus+lar i%mi%s+se)>1 The rare suffixed forms are like the <1mi%s+->1past conditional (see <2(a)>2 of this section) but with -<1mi%s+mi%s+,>1 etc., replacing -<1mi%s+.>1 <2(e)>2 Negative.>2 -<1me>1 is added after the stem: <1gelmemi%s+, go*r- memi%s+, almamis+, bulmamis+.>1 To this negative base the endings are attached as to the positive base, except that as the negative -<1me>1 is subject only to the twofold harmony the suffixes following it appear only in two forms: <1gelmemi%s+i%m, bulma- mis+im>1 "I gather that I have not come/found'; <1gelmemi%s+lerdi%r, bulmamis+lardir>1 "they have not come/found'; <1gelmemi%s+ti%k, bulmamis+tik>1 "we had not come/found'; <1gelmemi%s+ i%mi%s+i%m, bulmamis+ i%mi%s+i%m>1 "I am said not to have come/found'. <2(f) Interrogative.>2 This and the interrogative-negative are as usual, with <1mi%>1 preceding the personal endings except -<1ler,>1 which it follows: <1gelmi%s+ mi%ydi%k>1 "had we come ?'; <1gelmemi%s+ mi%ydi%k>1 "had we not come?'; <1go*rmu*s+ i%mi%s+ler mi%>1 "are they said to have seen ?'; <1almamis+ i%mi%s+ler mi%>1 "are they said not to have taken ?' 30. Necessitative. The characteristic is -<1meli%,>1 which may be used impersonally: <1gelmeli%>1 "one ought to come'; <1almali>1 "one ought to take'. It may also be conjugated with the present, past, and inferential of "to be', but not with the conditional; see <2(f)>2 below. In origin it is the verbal noun suffix -<1me>1 with -<1li%>1 (IV, 5). <2(a) Present:>2 "I ought to come', "I ought to take': <2Singular>2 1 <1gelmeli%yi%m almaliyim>1 2 <1gelmeli%si%n almalisin>1 3 <1gelmeli%(di%r) almali(dir)>1 <2Plural>2 1 <1gelmeli%yi%z almaliyiz>1 2 <1gelmeIi%si%ni%z almalisiniz>1 3 <1geImeli%(di%r)ler aImali(dir)Iar>1 <2(b) Past:>2 "I had to come, "I had to take, should have come' should have taken' <2Singular>2 1 <1gelmeli% i%di%m almali i%di%m>1 2 <1gelmeli% i%di%n almali i%di%n>1 <2Plural>2 3 <1gelmeli% i%di%ler aImali i%di%Ier>1 <2Singular>2 1 <1gelmeliydi%m almaliydim>1 2 <1gelmeli%ydi%n almaliydin>1 <2Plural>2 3 <1gelmeIi%ydi%Ier almaliydilar>1 <1(gelmeli%Ierdi%) (almalilardi)>1 <2(c) Inferential:>2 "they say/said I ought to . . .'. The separate <1gelmeli% i%mi%s+i%m, almali i%mi%s+i%m>1 is rare. <2Singular>2 1 <1gelmeli%ymi%s+i%m aImaIiymis+im>1 2 <1gelmeli%ymi%s+si%n almaliymis+sin>1 <2Plural>2 3 <1geImeli%ymi%s+ler aImaliymis+lar>1 <1(gelmeli%lermi%s+) (almalilarmis+)>1 <2(d) Negative.>2 The negative base, <1gel-me-meli%, al-ma-mali,>1 like the positive base, is used impersonally, "one ought not to come/take', as well as with the present, past, and inferential endings: <1gel-me-meli%-si%ni%z>1 "you ought not to come'; <1gel-me- meli%-ydi%k>1 "we ought not to have come', <1gel-me-meli%-ymi%s+- si%ni%z>1 "they say/said you ought not to come'. <2(e) Interrogative:>2 <1gelmeli% mi%>1 "should one come?' or "should he come ?'; <1gelmeli% mi%ydi%ni%z>1 "should you have come ?'; <1gelme- meli% mi%ydi%k>1 "should we not have come ?' etc. <2(f) Conditional.>2 In place of the conditional forms of the neces- sitative, a periphrasis is used, with the conditional forms of the verbs <1gerekmek>1 or <1i%cabetmek>1 "to be necessary', or, particularly for the present conditional, the adjectives <1Ia=zm>1 or <1gerek>1 "necessary' and the conditional forms of "to be', following the -<1me>1 verbal noun of the required verb with the appropriate personal suffix : <1gelme-m gereki%rse>1 ,, <1i%cabederse>1 if I ought to come (lit "if my-coming ,, <1la=zim-sa>1 is necessary') ,, <1gerek-se>1 <1gelme-mi%z gerekti%yse>1 if we had to come (lit. "if our-coming ,, <1i%cabetti%yse>1 was necessary') The future necessitative is expressed by a similar periphrasis: <1gelme-si% gerekecek>1 "he will have to come' ("his-coming will- be-necessary')- 31. <1di%->1past. This tense corresponds to both the English simple past and perfect with "have'. Its characteristic is -<1di% (-ti%>1 after unvoiced consonants), to which are added the Type lI endings. <1"I came, "I saw, "I did, "I found, <1have come' have seen' have done' have found' <2Singular>2 1 <1geldi%m go*rdu*m yaptim buldum>1 2 <1geldi%n go*rdu*n yaptin buldun>1 3 <1geldi% go*rdu* yapti buldu>1 <2Plural>2 1 <1geldi%k go*rdu*k yapt6 bulduk>1 2 <1geldi%ni%z go*rdu*nu*z yaptiniz buldunuz>1 3 <1geldi%ler go*rdu*ler yaptilar buldular>1 32 Uses of the <1di%->1past. 'This is the tense used in speech when relating past events positively known to the speaker. If one has witnessed the arrival of a tourist-ship, one may report the event in the words <1bi%r turi%st vapuru geldi%.>1 The newspapers will say <1bi%r turi%st vapuru gelmi%s+ti%r,>1 although in the headline they will use the synonymous but shorter <1geldi%.>1 Someone who has learned of the event from an eyewitness or from the newspapers will report it as <1bi%r turi%st vapuru gelmi%s+.>1 33. Other paradigms of the <1di%->1past. <2(a) Pluperfect.>2 From the <1di%->1past two pluperfect tenses are made, on the pattern of the two past conditionals of the verb "to be'; see # 9- The first is commoner than the second, but not so common as the pluperfect in -<1mi%s+-ti%>1 (# 28). "I had come' "I had seen' <2Singular>2 1 <1geldi%ydi%m>1 or <1geldi%mdi% go*rdu*ydu*m>1 or <1go*rdu*mdu*>1 2 <1geldi%ydi%n geldi%ndi% go*rdu*ydu*n go*rdu*ndu*>1 3 <1geldi%ydi% go*rdu*ydu*>1 <2Plural>2 1 <1geldi%ydi%k geldi%kti% go*rdu*ydu*k go*rdu*ktu*>1 2 <1geldi%ydi%ni%z geldi%ni%zdi% go*rdu*ydu*nu*z go*rdu*nu*zdu*>1 3 <1geldi%ydi%ler geldi%Ierdi% go*rdu*ydu*Ier go*rdu*lerdi%>1 "I had done' "I had found' <2Singular>2 1 <1yaptiydim>1 or <1yaptimdi bulduydum>1 or <1buldumdu>1 2 <1yaptiydin yaptindi bulduydun buldundu>1 3 <1yaptiydi bulduydu>1 <2Plural>2 1 <1yaptiydik yaptikti bulduyduk bulduktu>1 2 <1yaptiydiniz yaptinizdi bulduydunuz buldunuzdu>1 3 <1yaptiydilar yaptilardi bulduydular buldulardi>1 <2(b) Conditional.>2 As in the <1di%->1pluperfect, there are two possible forms, the first being more frequent. Only the conjugation of stems with rounded vowels has been shown; for the conjugation of <1geldi%ysem/geldi%mse>1 and <1yaptiysam/yaptimsa,>1 cf. # 9. "if I saw, have seen' "if I found, have found' <2Singular>2 1 <1go*rdu*ysem>1 or <1go*rdu*mse bulduysam>1 or <1buldumsa>1 2 <1go*rdu*ysen go*rdu*nse bulduysan buldunsa>1 3 <1go*rdu*yse bulduysa>1 <2Plural>2 1 <1go*rdu*ysek go*rdu*kse buIduysak bulduksa>1 2 <1go*rdu*yseni%z go*rdu*nu*zse bulduysaniz buIdunuzsa>1 3 <1go*rdu*yseler go*rdu*lerse bulduysalar buldularsa>1 <2(c) Pluperfect conditional.>2 The separate <1i%di%ysem,>1 etc., and not the suffixed forms are used. "if I had come' <2Singular>2 1 <1geldi% i%di%ysem>1 or <1geldi%m i%di%yse>1 2 <1geldi% i%di%ysen geldi%n i%di%yse>1 <2Plural>2 3 <1geldi% i%di%yseIer geldi%ler i%di%yse>1 <2(d) Negative.>2 The same endings are attached to the negative stem: <1gelmedi%m>1 "I have not come', <1almadiniz>1 "you did not take', <1yapmadiydik>1 or <1yapmadikti>1 "we had not done', <1go*r- medi%yse>1 "if he has not seen', <1bulmadi i%di%yseler>1 "if they had not found', etc. <2(e) Interrogative.>2 As the <1di%->1past is conjugated with the Type II endings and not the present of "to be', the interrogative particle follows the whole word : <1geldi%m mi% ?>1 "did I come ?'; <1yaptiniz mi?>1 "did you do ?'; <1go*rdu*k mu*?>1 "didwe see ?'; <1buldular mi?>1 "did they find ?', etc. There are alternative forms for the interrogative of the plu- perfect : "had I come ?' <2Singular>2 1 <1geIdi% mi%ydi%m>1 or <1geldi%m mi%ydi%>1 2 <1geldi% mi%ydi%n geldi%n mi%ydi%>1 3 <1geldi% mi%ydi%>1 <2Plural>2 1 <1geldi% mi%ydi%k geldi%k mi%ydi%>1 2 <1geldi% mi%ydi%ni%z geldi%ni%z mi%ydi%>1 3 <1geIdi% mi%ydi%ler geldi%ler mi%ydi%>1 <2Negative-interrogative:>2 <1gelmedi%m mi%?>1 "did I not come ?'; <1yapmadiniz mi?>1 "did you not do ?'; <1go*rmedi%k mi%?>1 "did we not see ?'; <1bulmadilar mi?>1 "did they not find ?'; <1gelmedi% mi%ydi%m?>1 or <1gelmedi%m mi%ydi%?>1 "had I not come ?', etc. 34. Conditional. As we have seen, the various bases so far examined, except -<1meli%,>1 have conditional moods, formed by adding the conditional of "to be': <2(i)>2 To the base: <1geli%yorsam>1 if I am coming <1geleceksem>1 if I am going to come <1geIi%rsem>1 if I come <1gelmis+sem>1 if I have come <1geldi%ysem>1 if I came, have come <2(ii)>2 To the past or inferential forms of "to be' added to the base: <1geli%yorduysam>1 if I was coming <1geli%yormus+sam>1 if I am/was said to be coming <1gelecekti%ysem>1 if I was going to come etc. In addition, every verb has its own conditional base, the characteristic being -<1se,>1 which expresses <2(a)>2 remote condition: <1gelse>1 "if he were to come'; <2(b)>2 wish: <1gelse]>1 "if only he would come ]' As with the conditional of "to be', the Type Il endings are used. <2(a) Conditionalpresent:>2 "if I were to come', "if I were to take': <2Singular>2 1 <1gelsem alsam>1 2 <1gelsen aIsan>1 3 <1gelse alsa>1 <2Plural>2 1 <1gelsek alsak>1 2 <1gelseni%z alsaniz>1 3 <1gelseler alsalar>1 <2(b) Conditionalpast.>2 With the past endings of "to be', the con- ditional base expresses <2(a)>2 unfulfilled conditions: <1gelseydi%>1 "had he come'; <1(b)>1 hopeless wishes relating to past time: <1gelseydi%]>1 "if only he had come]' This must be carefully distinguished from the <1di%->1past conditional: past conditional: <1gel-di%-i%se>1 å <1geldi%yse>1 "if he came' conditional past: <1gel-se-i%di%>1 å <1gelseydi%>1 "if (only) he had come' <2Singular>2 1 <1gelseydi%m alsaydim>1 2 <1gelseydi%n alsaydin>1 3 <1gelseydi% alsaydi>1 <2Plural>2 1 <1gelseydi%k alsaydik>1 2 <1gelseydi%ni%z alsaydiniz>1 3 <1gelseydi%ler alsaydilar>1 <1(gelselerdi%) (alsalardi)>1 <2(c) Conditional inferential.>2 With the inferential endings of "to be', remote conditions and wishes can be quoted: <1gelseymi%s+>1 "they say that if he were to come' or "they are saying ""if only he would come ]''' <2Singular>2 1 <1gelseymi%s+i%m alsaymis+im>1 2 <1gelseymi%s+si%n alsaymis+sin>1 3 <1gelseymi%s+ alsaymis+>1 <2Plural>2 1 <1gelseymi%s+i%z alsaymis+iz>1 2 <1gelseymi%s+si%ni%z alsaymis+siniz>1 3 <1gelseymi%s+Ier alsaymis+lar>1 <1(gelselermi%s+) (alsalarmis+)>1 The separate forms <1gelse i%mi%s+i%m,>1 etc., are also found. <2(d) Negative>2 : <1gelmesem>1 "if I were not to come'; <1gelmeseydi%m>1 "if only I had not come]'; <1gelmeseymi%s+i%m>1 "they are saying of me ""if he were not to come'' <2or>2 ""if only he would not/had not come ]''' <2(e) Interrogative.>2 Besides asking for confirmation of what you think you have heard (cf. # 13 end)--<1gelse mi%?>1 """if he were to come ]'' do you say?'--the interrogative of the conditional may express indecision: <1gi%tsem mi%?>1 "should I go ?' See XX, lo. The interrogative of the conditional inferential has alternative forms : <2Singular>2 1 <1gelse mi%ymi%s+i%m>1 or <1gelsem mi%ymi%s+>1 2 <1gelse mi%ymi%s+si%n gelsen mi%ymi%s+>1 <2Plural>2 3 <1gelse mi%ymi%s+ler gelseler mi%ymi%s+>1 <2Negative-interrogative:>2 <1gelmese mi%ymi%s+i%m>1 or <1geImesem mi%ymi%s+,>1 etc., "are they saying of me ""if only he wouldn't come ]'' ?' 35. Subjunctive. This mood, which some grammarians prefer to call the subjunctive-optative, uses the Type III endings. It is not strictly correct to speak of the third-person singular as the base of this mood, as the elements of the first-person endings are inseparable. <2Present>2 - <2Singular>2 1 <1geleyi%m alayim>1 2 <1gelesi%n alasin>1 3 <1gele ala>1 <2Plural>2 1 <1geleli%m alalim>1 2 <1gelesi%ni%z alasiniz>1 3 <1geleler alalar>1 The accent is on the last syllable of the first persons and of the third-person plural. The other endings are accented on the -<1e/a.>1 The endings of the second persons are those of Type I. The final syllable of the first singular, though it looks like the "I am' ending, is not; this is evident from the fact that it is accented, which the "to be' endings never are. Historically, this ending seems to be a hybrid; in the sixteenth century the ending of the first singular of the subjunctive was -<1eyi%n,>1 and of the imperative -<1eyem.>1 The "I am' ending has, however, doubtless influenced its development. The first is historically part not of the sub- junctive but of the imperative, the old first-plural ending of the subjunctive being -<1evu*z.>1 The Anatolian forms of the first singular and plural sometimes find their way into print; they are in -<1em>1 and -<1ek>1 respectively: <1gi%dem>1 "let me go, I'll go'; <1gi%dek>1 or <1gi%deh>1 "let's go'. With vowel-stems, a <1y>1 is inserted before the Type III endings. This narrows the preceding vowel, but the phonetic change is not invariably reflected in writing. Thus the subjunctive of <1so*yle->1 "to tell' and <1bas+la->1 "to begin' is: <2Singular>2 1 <1so*yli%yeyi%m bas+liyayim>1 2 <1so*yli%yesi%n bas+liyasin>1 3 <1so*yli%ye bas+liya>1 <2Plural>2 1 <1so*yli%yeli%m bas+liyalim>1 2 <1so*yli%yesi%ni%z bas+liyasiniz>1 3 <1so*yli%yeler bas+liyalar>1 Note that the <1y>1 of the first-person ending -<1eyi%m/ayim>1 does not narrow the preceding vowel in writing. In the colloquial, however, the first singular of vowel-stems often loses the stem- vowel and the buffer <1y;>1 thus <1so*yli%yeyi%m, bas+liyayim>1 are heard as <1so*yleyi%m, bas+layim,>1 while <1yapayim>1 "let me do' is heard as <1yapi%i%m>1 or <1yapi%m.>1 36. Uses of the subjunctive." The subjunctive expresses concepts envisaged by the subject or the speaker; it makes no statement about facts, except that the first singular is used colloquially with future meaning : <1yarin geleyi%m>1 "let me come tomorrow' å "I may come tomorrow' å "I'll come tomorrow'. The first plural means "let us come', etc. The second persons are used in formal speech to relay requests and commands: <1babam dedi% ki%, yarin bi%ze>1 <1gelesi%ni%z>1 "my father said that you-should-come to us tomorrow'. The third singular is used colloquially to ask cautious questions-- <1evde mi% ola>1 "might he be at home?'--and in a few set expres- sions: from <1rasgel->1 "to chance', <1rasgele>1 "may it fall out well. good luck]'; <1kolay gele>1 "may it come easy', a form of greeting used when entering a place where someone is working; <1gec+mi%s+ ola>1 "may it be past', said when hearing of someone's illness. In these last two expressions, however, Istanbul idiom favours the imperative: <1kolay gelsi%n, gec+mi%s+ olsun.>1 The third plural is virtually obsolete. In subordinate clauses (see Chapter XIX) the third persons are almost invariably replaced nowadays by the third persons of the imperative. 37. Other paradigms of the subjunctive. <2(a) Subjunctive past.>2 Formed by suffixing to the third-person singular of the subjunctive the past endings of "to be': <2Singular>2 1 <1geleydi%m bas+liyaydim>1 2 <1geleydi%n bas+liyaydin>1 3 <1geIeydi% bas+liyaydi>1 <2Plural>2 1 <1geleydi%k bas+liyaydik>1 2 <1geleydi%ni%z bas+liyaydiniz>1 3 <1geleydi%ler bas+liyaydilar>1 <1(gelelerdi%) (bas+liyalardi)>1 It expresses unfulfillable past wishes: "would that I had come/ begun', usually reinforced by <1kes+ki%: kes+ki% bacag*i kirilaydi>1 "would that his leg had broken ]' It is also used (i) as an alternative to the conditional past and (ii) as the past tense of the imperative. EXAMPLES: <2(i)>2 <1bi%leydi%m buraya kadar gelmezdi%m>1 "had I known, I would not have come this far'. See, however, Chapter XXI, last paragraph. <2(ii)>2 <1so*yli%yeydi%ni%z>1 "you should have said'. There is an idiomatic use of the third-person singular imperative of <1var->1 "to come' with that of another verb in the negative, e.g. <1varsin demesi%n,>1 lit. "let him come let him not say', which means "he might as well not say; it doesn't matter whether he says or not'. One way of expressing the past tense of this is <1vara demi%yeydi%>1 "he might as well not have said'. Note the suspended affixation of the -<1ydi%,>1 which belongs both to <1vara>1 and <1demi%ye>1 For alternative way see # 4o and XXIV, 31 (the latter positive not negative)- (b) <2Subjunctive inferential>2 <2Singular>2 1 <1geleymi%s+i%m bas+liyaymis+im>1 2 <1geleymi%s+si%n bas+Iiyaymis+sin>1 3 <1geleymi%s+ bas+liyaymis+>1 <2Plural>2 1 <1geleymi%s+i%z bas+liyaymis+iz>1 2 <1geleymi%s+si%ni%z bas+liyaymis+siniz>1 3 <1geleymi%s+ler bas+liyaymis+lar>1 <1(gelelermi%s+) (bas+liyalarmis+)>1 These forms, which are not of frequent occurrence, are used to quote the present and past subjunctive--<1geleymi%s+>1 "people are/were saying ""would that he had/might come]'''--and as an alternative to the conditional inferential. <2(c) Negative.>2 The buffer <1y>1 narrows the -<1me/ma>1 to -<1mi%/mi: gelmi%ye, bas+lamiya, gelmi%yeydi%m, bas+lamiyaymis+,>1 etc. <2YIZK>2 recommends that this change should not be shown in writing. <2(d) Interrogative.>2 The particle <1mi%>1 follows the endings of the present. In practice, only the first persons are likely to be en- countered: <1geleyi%m mi%, geleli%m mi%>1 "should I/we come ?'; <1gelmi%yeyi%m mi%, gelmi%yeli%m mi%>1 "should I/we not come ?' The interrogative of the past is not in use. The interrogative of the inferential is rare, as one might expect from its meaning : "do/did they say ""would that he might come ]'' ?' <2Singular>2 1 <1gele mi%ymi%s+i%m bas+liya miymis+im>1 2 <1gele mi%ymi%s+si%n bas+liya miymis+sin>1 <2Plural>2 3 <1gele mi%ymi%s+ler bas+liya miymis+lar>1 <1(geleler mi%ymi%s+) (bas+liyalar miymis+)>1 38. Synopsis of the verb. The accompanying table shows the first-person singular of all tenses and moods of <1gelmek>1 "to come' except the imperative (for which see the next section), the present II(# 19), andthe future lI (#23' The participles and verbal nouns are also shown. See also the periphrastic tenses and moods in IX,ll. The Roman numerals in the table refer to the types of personal endings set out in # 15, which for convenience are repeated beneath the table. The Arabic numerals refer to the relevant sections of the present chapter. The suffixed forms of the verb "to be' have been shown except where literary usage has a strong preference for the separate forms. 39. Imperative. <2Singular>2 2 <1gel go*r aI bul>1 3 <1gelsi%n go*rsu*n alsin buIsun>1 <2Plural>2 2 <1geli%n go*ru*n alin buIun>1 <1geIi%ni%z go*ru*nu*z aliniz bulunuz>1 3 <1gelsi%nler go*rsu*nler alsinlar bulsunlar>1 It will be seen that the imperative of the second singular is identical with the stem; cf. the English imperative, which is identical with the infinitive without "to'. Of the second-person plural forms, the longer is the more polite. Care should be taken not to confuse the third-person suffix of this mood with the second-person singular of the Type I endings; if -<1si%n>1 is added to a stem, it makes the third-singular imperative: <1gel-si%n>1 "let him come'; if added to a base, it makes the second-singular present: <1gel-ecek-si%n>1 "you-are about-to-come'; <1gel-mi%s+-si%n>1 "you-are having-come'. An ancient suffix of the second person imperative was -<1gi%l: bi%lgi%l>1 "know]' The interjections <1haydi%>1 "come on ]', <1aman>1 "mercy ]' and <1destur>1 "mind out of the way ]' <2(dastu**r>2 (P) "permission') are some- times given one or other of the endings of the second-plural imperative when more than one person is being addressed: <1haydi%ni%z, amanin, desturun.>1 In the second-person plural of the imperative, the buffer <1y>1 does not narrow a preceding vowel: this rule applies to the second- person plural of the positive imperative of vowel-stems and of the negative imperative of all stems. Thus the positive imperative of <1so*yle->1 "to tell' and <1bas+la->1 "to begin' is as follows: <2Singular>2 2 <1so*yIe bas+la>1 3 <1so*ylesi%n bas+lasin>1 <2Plural>2 2 <1so*yleyi%n bas+layin>1 <1so*yleyi%ni%z bas+layiniz>1 3 <1so*ylesi%nler bas+lasinlar>1 The negative imperative of <1gel->1 and <1bul->1 : <2Singular>2 2 <1gelme bulma>1 3 <1gelmesi%n bulmasin>1 <2Plural>2 2 <1gelmeyi%n bulmayin>1 <1gelmeyi%ni%z bulmayiniz>1 3 <1gelmesi%nler bulmasinIar>1 The interrogative: <1gelsi%n mi%>1 "is he to come ?'; <1so*ylemesi%n mi%>1 "is he not to tell?' An idiomatic use of the third-person negative interrogative is to state a fact, with an implication of surprise: <1satici i%ki% gazete i%c+i%n benden on yeri%ne seki%z kurus+ almasin mi?>1 "would you believe it, for two newspapers the shopkeeper took eight piastres from me instead of ten' (lit. "is the seller not to take . . .?'). cf. # 26 <2(h)>2. Such colloquial imperatives as <1durundu>1 "hey, stop ]' and <1bakindi>1 "hey, look here ]' (accented on the first syllable and used as singular or plural) are compounded of the second-singular imperative--dur, bak--and the adverb <1i%mdi%>1 "now'. A less likely theory derives them from the second plural--durun, <1bakin-->1 and the interjection <1di%>1 seen in <1haydi%>1 "come on ]' 40. -<1si%ndi%.>1 This ending is the third-person imperative -<1si%n>1 with the third-person past of the verb "to be': <1onun gi%zli% fi%ki%rleri%ni% halk ne bi%lsi%ndi%?>1 "how should the common people know his secret thoughts?' <1bu yaziya Bakan kizmasin da, ki%m kiz- sindi?>1 "who should have been angry at this article, if not the Minister?' (for this form of conditional sentence seeXX, 2). Some Turkish grammarians reject this explanation and regard the -<1di%>1 as identical with the last syllable of <1haydi%.>1 This is because they will not admit the possibility of a past imperative, on the grounds that the function of the imperative is to give an order and one cannot give an order in the past. This somewhat mechanistic objection can be disposed of if we regard the -<1di%>1 as putting not the imperatives <1bi%lsi%n, kizsin,>1 but the whole sentences into the past. For another example see XXIV, 31. 41. -<1si%n i%c+i%n.>1 An uncommon method of expressing purpose is to use the postposition <1i%c+i%n>1 after the third-person imperative, as in <1bu go*mleg*i% ona gi%ysi%n i%c+i%n verdi%m>1 "I gave him this shirt for him to wear', where <1gi%ysi%n di%ye>1 (XI, 2) would be more normal. For an example where it has clearly been used to avoid the repetition of <1di%ye,>1 see XXIV. 25. 42. -<1di%r>1 suffixed to finite verbs. As we have seen in #4, -<1di%r>1 indicates supposition or, less commonly, emphasis when used as a third-person copula. It may also be suffixed to verbs (except the di%-past, conditional, subjunctive, and imperative) in any person, including the first and second persons of the verb "to be'. In such situations it generally does not so much emphasize the verb as weaken it, the implication being that the speaker is stating as a fact something of which he has no positive knowledge but only a strong feeling or impression: <1c+ocuk gi%bi%-y-i%m-di%r ya>1 . . . <1elbette c+ocuk gi%bi%-y-i%m>1 "I-really-think-I-am-Ifte a child, you know . . . indeed I am like a child'. Here the speaker begins by stating his feeling and then, his conviction becoming firmer, he states it as a fact. <1s+ai%r-i%m>1 I am a poet <1s+ai%r-i%m-di%r>1 I am surely a poet, I think I must be a poet <1s+i%i%r yaziyorum>1 I am writing poetry <1s+i%i%r yaziyorum-dur>1 surely I am writing poetry ] <2or>2 why, I must be writing poetry] <1bi%li%yorsunuz>1 you know <1bi%li%yorsunuzdur>1 you surely know, I presume you know <1uyu-mus+-um>1 I gather that I have slept <1uyu-mus+-um-dur>1 I must have slept <1oku-mus+-sunuz>1 you have read, I gather <1oku-mus+-sunuz-dur>1 you are bound to have read <1IZngi%li%z poli%si%ni%n methi%ni% hepi%mi%z duy-mus+-uz-dur>1 we have all certainly heard the praises of the English police It must be remembered, however, that the addition of -<1di%r>1 to the third person of the <1mi%s+->1past makes a definite past tense (# 27), while its addition to the third person of the future I makes a definite future (# 22). Note the differences between the three possible ways of trans- lating "I have written him a letter': <1ona bi%r mektup yazdim>1 <1ona bi%r mektup yazmis+im>1 <1ona bi%r mektup yazmis+imdir>1 The first is a statement of fact; I remember writing the letter. The second is an inference; I do not remember writing the letter, but I have found the carbon copy in my file. The third, which might be translated "I must have written . . .', suggests that I do not remember writing, nor have I any evidence that I wrote, but after all it is over three months since I received his letter and I presume I must have done something about it. The nuances in the three possible ways of saying "my friend is waiting for me' should also be noted: <1arkadas+im beni% bekli%yor>1 <1arkadas+im beni% bekli%yormus+>1 <1arkadas+im beni% bekli%yordur>1 The first states a fact; I can see him there at the corner. The second is based on hearsay; someone has seen him waiting and told me so. The third is a supposition--"I'm sure he is waiting'-- based on the knowledge that my friend is always punctual, that he said he would wait from five o'clock, and that it is now five past five. The context shows when -<1di%r>1 has the emphasizing function: <1c+ocug*a anlatin, mutlaka i%la=ci i%c+meli%di%r>1 "explain to the child, he really must drink the medicine'; <1babanin so*zu*nden c+ikmi->1 <1yacaksinizdir, deg*i%l mi% ?>1 'it-is-a-fact-that-you-will-not-depart from your father's word, is it not?' i.e. "you will positively not disobey your father, will you?' 43. -<1di%r>1 with a following verb. <1bi%r kiyamet-ti%r koptu,>1 literally "it is a resurrection broke out', may be translated "all hell broke loose'. In such sentences, in which the noun is always preceded by <1bi%r,>1 the -<1di%r>1 is the main verb, with the following verb subordi- nate. This is a vivid form of expression drawing attention to a sudden startling event or a remarkable state of affairs, the latter when the second verb is <1gi%t->1, denoting continuity (XI, 35 <2(g))>2- <1sol kulag*ima bi%r tokat-tir i%ndi%>1 "such a slap came down on my left ear ]' <1bu*tu*n gu*n evde bi%r konus+ma bi%r patirdi bi%r gu*ru*ltu*-du*r gi%der>1 "there is a perpetual talking and scurrying and noise in the house all day long'. Comparable is the colloquial use exemplified in: <1Adalarda yaz mevsi%mi% bi%r hayat-tir hi%c+ sorma>1 "on the Islands, the summer season is such a marvellous life ]' ("is a life don't ask ]'). 44. Summary of the forms of "to be'. The following summary of the forms of the verb <1olmak>1 "to become, be, happen, mature', and of the verb "to be', shows how the former supplements the deficiencies of the latter. -<1i%m>1 I am <1oluyorum>1 I am becoming, I tend to be <1olmaktayim>1 I am becoming <1olacag*im>1 I shall be, shall become <1olurum>1 I become, shall be <1i%mi%s+i%m>1 l am/was said to be <1olmus+um>1 I infer that I have become <1olmaliyim>1 I ought to be- come, ought to be <1i%di%m>1 I was <1oldum>1 I became, have become <1ii%em>1 if a m 1olsam>1 if I were, if I should be- come <1olayim>1 let me be, let me become <1ol, olun,>1 <1olunuz>1 be ] become ] <1olsun>1 let him be <1olasi>1 may he be <1olabi%li%ri%m>1 I can be, become (# 55 <2(a))>2 <1olamam>1 I cannot be, be- come (# 55 <2(b))>2 <1i%ken>1 while being <1olurken>1 while becoming (XI, 34) The stem <1ol->1 also supplies the participles and verbal nouns of "to be'. Particularly to be noted is the difference between <1i%di%m>1 and <1oldum.>1 Here is a pair of examples in the third person : <1bi%r zelzele i%di%>1 "it was an earthquake'; <1bi%r zelzele oldu>1 "an earthquake occurred'. 45. <1var, yok.>1 These words are adjectives meaning respectively "existent' and "non-existent'. They take the place of English "there is/are' and "there is/are not' and of the verb "to have'. <1ko*s+ede bi%r kahve var>1 "there is a cafe== on the corner'. <1bu ko*yde postahane var mi?>1 "is there a post-office in this village?' Answer: <1var>1 "there is' or <1yok>1 "there is not'. <1bic+ak var mi si%zde?>1 "have you a knife on you ?' Answer: <1var>1 "I have' or <1yok>1 "I have not'. <1bic+ag*iniz yok mu?>1 "do you not have a knife ?' ("your-knife non-existent?'). <1c+ocuk yeti%m deg*i%l, babasi var>1 "the child is not an orphan, he has a father'. The subject of English "have' is put in the genitive in Turkish: <1c+ocug*un babasi var>1 "the child has a father'. This is not an ordinary izafet group; it literally means not "the child's father exists' but "his father exists--the child's'. The distinction may seem slight but has practical consequences; see XVI, 6. <1i%m- paratorun elbi%sesi% yok>1 "the emperor has no clothes'; <1beni%m s+u*phem yok>1 "I have no doubt'. The present tense of "to be' and the forms based on <1i%->1 may be used in conjunction with <1var>1 and <1yok: Burada yalniz mi-y-iz? dedi%. Hayir, ben de var-im, dedi%m>1 """Are we alone here ?'' said he. ""No, I-am-present too'', I said'. <1ev-i%n bahc+e-si% var>1 the house has a garden ,, ,, <1vardi>1 the house had a garden ,, ,, <1vardir>1 <2formal:>2 the house has . . .; <2informal:>2 the house surely has . . . ,, ,, <1varsa>1 if the house has . . . ,, ,, <1varmis+>1 the house is said to have . . . ,, ,, <1varken>1 while the house has . . . For the negative of all these, <1var>1 is replaced by <1yok: yoktu, yoktur, yoksa, yokmus+, yokken.>1 For other verbal forms, i.e. for those missing from the left-hand column in #44, <1ol->1 and its negative <1olma->1 take the place of <1var>1 and <1yok:>1 <1evi%n bahc+esi% olacak>1 the house will have a garden ,, ,, <1olmiyacak>1 the house will not have a garden ,, ,, <1olsaydi>1 if the house had a garden ,, ,, <1olmasaydi>1 if the house had no garden ,, ,, <1olsun>1 let the house have a garden ,, ,, <1olmasin>1 let the house not have a garden ,, ,, <1olmaIi>1 the house ought to have a garden The attributive use of <1var>1 is confined to such expressions as <1var kuvvet-i%-yle dayandi>1 "he resisted with all his strength' ("with his existent strength') and of <1yok>1 to <1yok yere>1 "vainly' ("to non-existent place'). Care is necessary to distinguish <1vardi>1 Õ <1var-i%di%>1 from <1vardi>1 the third-singular <1di%->1past of <1varmak>1 "to arrive'. As the suffixes of "to be' are enclitic, no confusion is possible in speech; "there was' is <1va=rdi,>1 "he arrived' is <1vardi=*.>1 In writing, the context should obviate ambiguity: <1ko*yde bi%r mi%safi%r vardi>1 "there was a guest in the village'; <1ko*ye bi%r mi%safi%r vardi>1 "a guest arrived in the village'. 46. Extended stems. The suffixes treated in the next seven sections are used to make reciprocal, causative, repetitive, re- flexive, and passive verb-stems, to which are added the tense- and mood-endings set out above. 47. The reciprocal or co-operative verb. The addition of -<1i%s+->1 to a consonant- or of -<1s+->1 to a vowel-stem shows that the action is done by more than one subject, one with another or one to another : <1anla->1 to understand <1anlas+->1 to understand one another <1benze->1 to resemble <1benzes+->1 to resemble one another <1do*v->1 to beat <1do*vu*s+->1 to fight one another <1kos+->1 to run <1kos+us+->1 to make a concerted rush <2or>2 to run in all directions <1sev->1 to love <1sevi%s+->1 to love one another <1uc+->1 to fly <1uc+us+->1 to fly about together The precise meaning of such a verb cannot always be deduced logically; thus <1tutus+->1, from <1tut->1 "to hold', means not only "to hold each other' and "to hold mutually'--el <1tutus+tular>1 "they held hands'--but also "to catch fire'. <1yatis+->1 is not "to lie down together' but "to subside'; <1yapis+->1 is not "to do together' but "to adhere'; <1geli%s+->1 is not "to come together' but "to develop'; <1kalkis+->1 is not "to rise together' but "to attempt something beyond one's powers'. A grammar cannot be a substitute for a dictionary. 45. The causative verb. This is formed by adding one or other of the suffixes listed below to the stem, original or reciprocal. <2(a)>2 -<1di%r->1. This suffix is etymologically and functionally distinct from the suffix meaning "is', but is identical with it in its phonetic metamorphoses (see # 3). It is the commonest causative suffix, but is not used with polysyllabic stems ending in a vowel or <1I>1 or <1r.>1 <1don->1 to freeze (intr.) <1dondur->1 to freeze (tr.) <1do*n->1 to turn (intr.) <1do*ndu*r->1 to turn (tr.) <1i%nan->1 to believe <1i%nandir->1 to persuade <1o*l->1 to die <1o*ldu*r->1 to kill <1sev-i%s+->1 to love one another <1sevi%s+ti%r->1 to make to love one another <1ye->1 to eat <1yedi%r->1 to feed The final sentence of the previous section is applicable to this section too; e.g. <1al-dir->1 means "to cause to take' but also "to pay attention'; <1kos+-tur->1 is "to cause to run' but also "to run about in a panic'. See further # 5l. <2(b)>2 -<1i%r->1. This is used with some twenty monosyIlables of which the commonest are: <1as+->1 to pass, surpass <1as+ir->1 to cause to pass over <1bat->1 to sink (intr.) <1batir->1 to sink (tr.) <1bi%t->1 to finish (intr.) <1bi%ti%r->1 to finish (tr-) <1dog*->1 to be born <1dog*ur->1 to give birth to <1doy->1 to be satiated <1doyur->1 to satiate <1duy->1 to feel, hear <1duyur->1 to divulge <1du*s+->1 to fall <1du*s+u*r->1 to make fall, drop <1gec+->1 to pass (intr.) <1gec+i%r->1 to pass (tr.) <1go*c+->1 to migrate <1go*c+u*r->1 to cause to migrate <1i%c+->1 to drink <1i%c+i%r->1 to make drink <1kac+->1 to escape <1kac+ir->1 to let escape, lose <1pi%s+->1 to cook (intr.) <1pi%s+i%r->1 to cook (tr.) <1s+i%s+->1 to swell (intr.) <1s+i%s+i%r->1 to inflate <1tas+->1 to overflow <1tas+ir->1 to make overflow <1yat->1 to lie down <1yatir->1 to lay down, deposit <2(c)>2 -<1t->1 is used with polysyllabic stems ending in a vowel or <1I>1 or <1r:>1 <1anla->1 to understand <1anIat->1 to explain <1bekle->1 to wait <1beklet->1 to keep waiting <1du*zel->1 to be put in order <1du*zelt->1 to arrange <1ku*c+u*I->1 to become small <1ku*c+u*lt->1 to belittle <1otur->1 to sit <1oturt->1 to seat <1so*yle->1 to speak <1so*ylet->1 to make speak <2(d)>2 -<1i%t->1 is used after a few monosyllabic stems, mostly ending in <1k,>1 e.g.: <1ak->1 to flow <1akit->1 to shed <1kok->1 to smell (intr.) <1kokut->1 to make smell <1kork->1 to fear <1korkut->1 to frighten <1sap->1 to deviate <1sapit->1 to send astray <1sark->1 to lean down <1sarkit->1 to suspend <1u*rk->1 to start with fear <1u*rku*t->1 to startle <2(e)>2 -<1er->1 occurs only in these words: <1c+ik->1 to go out, go up <1c+ikar->1 to remove, raise <1c+o*k->1 to collapse <1c+o*ker->1 to cause to collapse, make kneel <1gi%t->1 to go <1gi%der->1 to remove <1kop->1 to break off, break out <1kopar->1 to break off (tr.), (intr.) cause to break out <1on->1 to prosper <1onar->1 to repair (also <1ondur->1 "to improve' (tr.)) <2(f)>2 Irregular are: <1em->1 to suck <1emzi%r->1 to suckle (also <1emdi%r->1 "to cause (e.g. a pump) to suck') <1gel->1 to come <1geti%r->1 to bring <1go*r->1 to see, perform (a <1go*ster->1 to show (also ty, task, etc.) <1go*rdu*r->1 "to make perform') <1kalk->1 to rise <1kaldir->1 to raise, remove 49. Doubly causative verbs. The causative -<1t->1 may be suffixed to -<1di%r-, -i%r->1, and -<1er->1; the causative -<1di%r->1 may be suffixed to -<1 t->1 and -<1i%t->1, sometimes with no change of meaning. Thus from <1de->1 "to say' the causative "to make say' is <1dedi%r->1 or <1dedi%rt->1; from <1kon->1 "to settle', <1kondur->1 or <1kondurt->1. More often, however, both suffixes have their full value: <1o*l->1 to die <1o*ldu*r->1 to kill <1o*ldu*rt->1 to have someone killed <1pi%s+->1 to cook (intr.) <1pi%s+i%r->1 to cook (tr.) <1pi%s+i%rt->1 to get something cooked Causatives of the third and fourth degree are theoretically possible but are rarely if ever found outside the pages of grammar- books, e.g. <1o*l-du*r-t-tu*r-t->1 "to get someone to get someone to get someone to make someone die', i.e. to kill through the agency of three intermediaries. 50. Syntax of the causative. When a transitive verb is made causative, the object of the basic verb remains in the accusative, while the object of the causative element of the verb is put in the dative : <1mektub-u i%mzala-dim>1 "I signed the letter'; <1mektub-u mu*du*r-e i%mzala-t-tim "I got the director to sign the letter' ("to-the-director I-was-the-cause-of-signing'). <1salon-un duvar- lar-i-n-i boya-y-acaktim>1 "I was going to paint the walls of the drawing-room'; <1salonun duvarlarini bi%r amele-y-e boya- t-acaktim>1 "I was going to get a workman to paint', etc. When the object of the causative element is not expressed, English idiom usually demands a passive participle: <1mektubu i%mzalattim>1 "I got the letter signed'; <1salonun duvarlarini boyatacaktim>1 "I was going to have the walls of the drawing- room painted'. When an intransitive verb is made causative, the subject of the basic verb becomes the object: <1raki%b->1i% <1o*l-du*>1 "his rival died'; <1raki%b-i%-n-i% o*l-du*r-du*>1 "he killed his rival'. This causative verb, having an object, can now be treated likc any other transitive verb: <1raki%bi%ni% ki%ralik bi%r kaati%l-e o*l-du*r-t-tu*>1 "he got a hired murderer to kill his rival' ("to a hired murderer he-was-the- cause-of-making-die his-rival'). <1c+ocuk dog*-du>1 "the child was born'; <1anne, c+ocug*-u dog*-ur-du>1 "the mother bore the child'; <1ebe, anne-y-e c+ocug*-u dog*-ur-t-tu>1 "the midwife helped the mother to bear the child'; <1ebe, anne-y-i% dog*-ur-t->1tu "the mid- wife brought the mother to birth'. When an originally transitive verb is made doubly causative, the second intermediary may be expressed with the help of <1vasita>1 (A) "means', or <1tavassut>1 (A) or the neologism <1aracilik>1 "mediation': <1mektub-u mu*du*r-e ka=ti%b-i%n vasitasi%yle/tavas- suti%yle/aracilig*i%yle i%mzala-t-tir-dim>1 "through the agency of the secretary, I got the director to sign the Ictter'. The second intermediary need not be mentioned: <1mektubu mu*du*re i%mza- lattirdim>1 "I got someone to get the director to sign the letter'. Verbs construed with the dative retain the dative when they are made causative, the object of the causative element being put in the accusative : <1so*z-u*m-u*n dog*ru-lug*-u-n-a i%nan-ir misiniz ?>1 "do you believe in the truth of my statement ?'; <1so*zu*mu*n dog*ru- lug*una si%z-i% nasil i%nan-dir-ayim?>1 "how am I to make you believe in the truth of my statement ?'. <1c+ocuk, okul-a bas+la-di>1 "the child started school'; <1c+ocug*-u okul-a bas+la-t-tik>1 "we made the child start school'. <1herkes kendi%si%-n-e acin-iyor>1 "everyone is sorry for him'; <1herkes-i% kendi%si%ne acin-dir-iyor>1 "he is making evcryone sorry for him'. The causative means not only "to make someone do something' but also, voluntarily or involuntarily, "to let someone do something' : <1orman-lar-imiz-i kec+i%-ler-e ye-di%r-i%yor-uz>1 "we are letting the goats eat our forests'. <1para-m-i tramvay-da c+al-dir-mis+- im "I have had my money stolen on the tram'. <1tren-i% kac+-ir-dik>1 "we missed the train' ("we let the train escape')- The negative of the causative is commonly used for "not to permit': <1bi%zi% so*yle-t-me-di%ler>1 "they did not let us speak'. 51. The repetitive verb. <2(a)>2 Stems extended by the suffixes -<1(i%)s+->1 and -<1ti%r->1 are not necessarily reciprocal and causative. In the following verbs the ending -<1(i%)s+ti%r->1 conveys repeated and intensive action: <1ara->1 to seek <1aras+tir->1 to research, investigate <1at->1 to throw <1atis+tir->1 to gobble up <1c+ek->1 to pull <1c+eki%s+ti%r->1 to slander <1serp->1 to sprinkle <1serpi%s+ti%r->1 to scatter about <1sor->1 to ask <1sorus+tur->1 to make inquiries <1su*r->1 to smear <1su*ru*s+tu*r->1 to put on make-up <1tak->1 to attach <1takis+tir->1 to dress up <1ver->1 to give <1veri%s+ti%r->1 to be abusive For additional emphasis the simple verb may be used before the repetitive verb: <1tak takis+tir, su*r su*ru*s+tu*r>1 (imperative second sing.) "doll yourself up in your best clothes and put on your full war-paint'. <2(b)>2 -<1(e)kle->1 can no longer be regarded as a live suffix (with the reservation that the language reformers may at any time decide to resurrect it) but is found in a small number of verbs, e.g.: <1du*rt->1 to prod <1du*rtu*kle->1 to keep prodding <1i%t->1 to push <1i%tekle->1 to manhandle <1su*r->1 to drive <1su*ru*kle->1 to drag <1uyu->1 to sleep <1uyukla->1 to keep dozing off <2(c)>2 -<1ele->1 his even rarer: <1s+as+->1 to be bewildered <1s+as+ala->1 to be bewildered <1gev->1 <2(obsolete)>2 to chew <1gevele->1 to chew over, beat about the bush <1bul->1 to find <1bulun->1 to find oneself, be do*v- to beat <1do*vu*n->1 to beat one's breast <1gi%y->1 to put on, wear <1gi%yi%n->1 to dress oneself <1sal->1 to throw <1salin->1 to oscillate <1so*yle->1 to speak <1so*ylen->1 to grumble to one- self <1yika->1 to wash <1yikan->1 to wash oneself Like the "middle voice' of ancient Greek, this suffix denotes action done not only to oneself but also for oneself: <1et->1 to do <1edi%n->1 to acquire <1gec+->1 to pass <1gec+i%n->1 to make a living, get along <1kac+->1 to run away <1kac+in->1 to abstain <1kalk->1 to rise <1kalkin->1 to progress, recover <1yap->1 to make <1yapin->1 to make for one- self <2or>2 to have (e.g. a suit) made Both senses may occur in the same verb: <1aran->1, from <1ara->1 "to seek', means "to search one's mind' and "to seek something for oneself': <1araniyorsun>1 "you're asking for it ]' (i.e. a good hiding). <1tas+in->1, from <1tas+i->1 "to carry', means both "to turn things over in one's mind' and "to move oneself, move house'. As with verbs in -<1i%s+ti%r->1, the meaning of the reflexive is not always guessable : e.g. <1go*r-u*n->1 is not "to see oneself' but "to seem, to appear'; <1sev-i%n->1 is not "to love oneself' but "to rejoice'. 53. The passive verb. This is formed by adding -<1i%l->1 after all consonants except <1I: sev-i%l->1 "to be loved'; <1go*r-u*l->1 "to be seen'; <1yap-il->1 "to be made'; <1tut-uI->1 "to be held'. Stems in <1I>1 or a vowel form their passive identically with the reflexive : <1al->1 to take, buy <1aI-in->1 to be taken, bought <1oku->1 to read <1oku-n->1 to be read <1kapa->1 to shut <1kapa-n->1 to be shut Thus, for example, <1so*ylen->1 is both the reflexive and the pas- sive of <1so*yle->1 and means either "to grumble' or "to be spoken'; <1yikan->1 is either "to wash oneself' or "to be washed'. <1In>1 cases where ambiguity might arise, the passive can be indicated by adding -<1i%l->1 to the -<1(i%)n,>1 or the reflexive can be shown by using the reflexive pronoun (V, 4): <1c+ocug*u yikadi>1 "she washed the child'; <1c+ocuk yika-n-di>1 "the child washed himself <2or>2 was washed'; <1c+ocuk yika-n-il-di>1 "the child was washed'; <1c+ocuk kendi% kendi%ni% yika-di>1 "the child washed himself'. Just as some verbs take a doubly causative suffix for no obvious reason, so some take a doubly passive suffix; e.g. the passive of <1de->1 "to say' is <1de-n-i%l->1 as well as <1de-n->1. The passive of <1anla->1 "to understand' is irregular: <1anla-s+-il->1 "to be understood'. 54. Uses of the passive. It is not used as much as its English equivalent for the sake of elegant variation; e.g. instead of "he was rebuked by his father', a Turk is more likely to say "his father rebuked him'. Another difference from English idiom is that when <1bas+la->1 "to begin' is construed with a passive verb it is put in the passive itself: <1bu i%s+-i% yap-ma-y-a bas+liyorlar>1 "they are beginning to do this job'; <1bu i%s+ yap-il-ma-y-a bas+la-n-iyor>1 "this job is beginning to be done' ("is-being-begun to-be-done')- But the most remarkable feature of the Turkish passive is its impersonal use: <1ni%c+i%n yalan so*yle-n-i%r?>1 "why are lies told ?', i.e. "why do people tell lies ?' In this example the passive verb appears to have a subject, but impersonal passives are also regularly formed from intransitive verbs and then have no conceivable grammatical subject; indeed, the example <1bu>1 . . . <1bas+laniyor>1 above may be explained under this head. <1bahs+i%s at-in di%s+-i%-n-e bak-il-maz>1 "one does not look at the teeth of a gift horse' ("looking-is-not-done to the tooth . . <1.'). o zamanlar Karako*y'- den Harbi%ye'ye taksi% i%le i%ki% li%ra-y-a gi%d-i%l-i%r-di%>1 "in those days, one used to go from K. to H. by taxi for two liras'. <1gi%di%li%rdi%>1 is the aorist past passive, lit. "going-used-to-be-done'; cf. <2Virgil's sic itur ad astra>2 "thus does one go to the stars' <1yildizlara bo*yle gi%di%li%r.>1 The sentence <1bu i%la=c+-la ki%mse i%yi% olmaz>1 "with this medicine no one becomes well' may be cxpressed impersonally thus: <1bu i%la=c+la i%yi% ol-un-maz,>1 using the aorist present negative passive of <1ol->1; "becoming-is-not-done'. <1yerli%-ler-le c+abuk arkadas+ ol-un-ur>1 "one quickly becomes friends with the natives'. This passive of <1ol->1 is used to form the passive of verbs com- pounded of <1et->1 "to do' and a verbal noun (see # 57) and is com- moner in this use than the passive of <1et->1: <1onu tenki%t edi%yorIar>1 "they are criticizing him'; <1tenki%t olunuyor>1 or <1tenki%t edi%li%yor>1 "he is being criticized'. 55. The potential verb. This might, on grounds of structure, have been treated together with compound verbs such as <1ol-a-gel->1 and <1gel-i%-ver->1 (see XI, 35) but is singled out here because of its great frequency and its anomalous negative. <2(a)>2 The positive is formed by adding the appropriate part of <1bi%l->1 "to know' to the required stem, original or extended, plus -<1e/a>1 (with the usual buffer <1y>1 after vowel-stems): <1gel-i%r-i%m>1 "I come'; <1gel-e-bi%l-i%r-i%m>1 "I can come'. <1gel-di%-yse>1 "if he came'; <1gel-e-bi%l-di%-yse>1 "if he was able to come'. <1anli-y-acak-mis+-im>1 "I gather that I shall understand'; <1anli-y-a-bi%l-ecek-mi%s+-i%m>1 "I gather that I shall be able to understand'. The verb in the next example is the aorist present interrogative of the potential passive of <1ol->1, used impersonally: <1haki%katen bedbaht ol-un-a-bi%l-i%r mi% ?>1 "is it possible to be truly unhappy?' <2(b)>2 The negative, i.e. the impotential, is formed by adding to the stem the suffix -<1eme/ama,>1 the first vowel of which is accented and the second may be narrowed to <1i%/i>1 by a following <1y.>1 This was originally the negative of a now obsolete verb <1umak>1 "to be power- ful, able'. <1gel-me-mek>1 "not to come', <1gel-eme-mek>1 "to be unable to come'; <1anla-ma-mak>1 "not to understand', <1anli-y- ama-mak>1 "to be unable to understand'. The aorist of the im- potential is conjugated like the aorist negative, its base being not -<1eme-r>1 but -<1emez.>1 It will be seen that the impotential of any verb-form can be made by inserting <1e/a>1 before the negative suffix: <1gelmedi%>1 "he did not come'; <1gelemedi%>1 "he could not come'. <1anlamiyor>1 "he does not understand'; <1anliyamiyor>1 "he cannot understand'. <1bi%lmezler>1 "they do not know'; <1bi%lemezler>1 "they cannot know'. <2(c)>2 The positive potential endings may be attached to a negative or even to an impotential stem: <1gel-mi%-y-ebi%l-i%r-i%m>1 "I am able not to come', i.e. "I may not come' or "I don't have to come if I don't want to'. <1gel-emi%-y-ebi%l-i%r-i%m>1 "I am able to be unable to come', i.e. "I may be unable to come'. 56. The order of extensions. The order in which the extensions to the stem are placed is as follows: 1. reflexive 2. reciprocal 3. causative 4. passive Examples of verbs containing both reflexive and reciprocal suffixes are hard to find; one such, a product of the language reform, is <1dayanis+->1 "to practise mutual aid', made up thus: simple: <1daya->1 to prop up -reflexive: <1daya-n->1 to prop oneself up -reciprocal: <1daya-n-is+->1 to engage with other people in propping oneself up We may continue the extensions to show the full possibilities of the verb: -causative: <1daya-n-is+-tir->1 to make to practise mutual aid -passive : <1daya-n-is+-tir-il->1 to be made to practise mutual aid The only departures from this order are apparent rather than real; i.e. the reciprocal suffix can follow the passive or causative suffix but only in the case of pseudo-passive or pseudo-causative verbs, that is, verbs which look like passives or causatives but whose original simple stems have gone out of use, e.g. : <1dag*il->1 'to disperse'; <1dag*iI-is+->1 "to disperse all in different directions'. <1seg*i%rt->1 "to hasten'; <1seg*i%rd-i%s+->1 "to hasten together'. Examples of the normal order : simple <1aci->1 to feel pain reflexive <1aci-n->1 to feel pain in oneself, to grieve causative <1aci-n-dir->1 to make grieve passive <1aci-n-dir-iI->1 to be made to grieve simple <1tani->1 to know reciprocal <1tani-s+->1 to know one another causative <1tani-s+-tir->1 to make to know one another, introduce passive <1tani-s+-tir-il->1 to be introduced to one another simple <1i%n->1 to descend causative <1i%n-di%r->1 to bring down passive <1i%n-di%r-i%l->1 to be brought down To summarize, the "extended stem' is the simple stem plus any or all of these four extensions, in this order: reflexive, reciprocal, causative, passive. Less commonly, "reflexive' and "causative' may be replaced by "repetitive'. To the extended stem, as to the simple stem, may be added any one of the following options: <2(a)>2 negative -<1me->1 <2(b)>2 potential -<1ebi%l->1 <2(c)>2 impotential -<1eme->1 <2(d)>2 negative-potential -<1mi%yebi%l->1 <2(e)>2 impotential-potential -<1emi%yebi%l->1 Then comes the tense and/or mood characteristic and finally the personal suffix, which, if Type I, may be preceded by the inter- rogative particle (the Type Il endings are followed by the in- terrogative particle). Using the stem <1daya->1, all four extensions, option <2(e),>2 the future characteristic, the interrogttive particle, the inferential suffix and the Type I ending of the first-person plural, we arrive at: <1dayanis+tirilamiyabi%lecek mi%ymi%s+i%z?>1 "is it said that we may not be able to be made to practise mutual aid ?' This example, though a little contrived, would not strike a Turk as unnatural. The three following examples are all taken from recent writings (the third from an article on anti-aircraft defences): <1acindirilmadik>1 "we were not made to grieve' (stem <1aci->1- reflexive- causative- passive-negative-first-person plural of di%-past). <1tanis+tirilamadiysaniz>1 "if you were not able to be introduced' (stem <1tani->1-reciprocal- causative- passive-im- potential-second-person plural of <1di%->1past conditional). <1i%ndi%r- i%lemi%yebi%lecekler>1 "it may be that they will not be able to be brought down' (stem <1i%n->1-causative-passive-impotential- potential-third-person plural of future). 57. Auxiliary verbs. <2(a)>2 <1etmek.>1 There is a handful of verbal phrases consisting of a Turkish noun and the verb <1etmek>1 "to do', on the pattern of the English 'to do honour to', e.g. <1yardim etmek>1 "to help'; <1alay etmek>1 "to mock'. These served as the model for a vast number of phrases <2in>2 which the first element was an Arabic verbal noun: <1kabul>1 acceptance <1kabul etmek>1 to accept <1mukayese>1 comparison <1mukayese etmek>1 to com- pare <1i%spat>1 proof <1i%spat etmek>1 to prove <1tes+ki%l>1 formation <1tes+ki%l etmek>1 to form The same device is used nowadays to make verbs from foreign words, especially French past participles : <2de=*sinfecte=*>2 <1dezenfekte etmek>1 to disinfect <2isole=*>2 <1i%zoIe etmek>1 to isolate, insulate <2adapte=:>2 <1adapte etmek>1 to adapt <2organize=*>2 <1organi%ze etmek>1 to organize <2knock-out>2 <1nakavt etmek>1 to knock out (in boxing) Nouns whose final syllable is subject to any of the changes described in I, 16, 17 <2(c)>2, 19 are usually written as one word with <1etmek,>1 especially if they are monosyllables : <1af>1 forgiveness <1affetmek>1 to forgive <1fi%ki%r>1 thought <1fi%kretmek>1 to ponder <1tehyi%c+>1 excitement <1tehyi%cetmek>1 to excite Exceptional is <1haketmek>1 'to deserve', with a single <1k>1 although it is from <1hak,>1 acc. <1hakki>1 (I, 16, last paragraph) ; <1hakketmek>1 "to engrave' is regular, Õ @akk (A). <2(b)>2 <1eylemek,>1 formerly an elegant alternative to <1etmek,>1 is now little used except (i) to avoid the constant repetition of <1etmek;>1 (ii) in <1Allah rahmet eylesi%n>1 and <1Mevla= rahmet eyleye>1 "God have mercy Õon him/herå'; (iii) in the stereotyped expression ne <1etseni%z ne eyleseni%z>1 "whatever you do, in spite of all your efforts' (for the syntax see XX, 7). <1(c) kilmak>1 was anciently another alternative to <1etmek,>1 but as an auxiliary verb it now occurs regularly only in <1namaz kilmak>1 "to perform the rites of Muslim prayer' and <1takla kilmak>1 "to do a somersault', though in this latter phrase it is often replaced by <1atmak>1 "to throw'. It is still fairly common in thc sense of "to make someone something', as in <1muharebe hari%c-i% kilmak "to render <2hors de combat'>2 ("to make war-outside') and <1mecbur kilmak>1 "to oblige' ("to make compelled'), with the dative of the -<1me>1 verbal noun: <1beni% bunu yap-ma-y-a mecbur kildilar>1 (or <1etti%ler)>1 "they have obliged me to do this'. <2(d)>2 <1buyurmak>1 properly means "to order' and was used in courtly speech as a substitute for other verbs, including <1etmek>1 and <1eylemek,>1 the underlying theory being that exalted persons do not perform any task themselves but simply command; thus "he forgave me' would be <1beni% affetti%>1 or <1beni% affeyIedi%>1 if the forgiver were an ordinary man, but <1beni% af buyurdular>1 (note the courtly plural) if he werc the Sultan. Nowadays, <1ne buyurdunuz>1 "what did you say ?' is mostly used ironically, but the imperative <1buyurun>1 is regularly used to mean "deign', in making courteous requests. It may be construed with an accusative when it stands for "take', or with a dative when it stands for "enter': <1buyurun kahve-ni%z-i%>1 "please take your coffee'; <1buyurun salon-a>1 "please enter the drawing-room'. <2(e)>2 <1yapmak>1 "to make, do', unlike <1etmek,>1 does not usually make transitive verbal phrases; one exception, officially sanctioned, though disliked by purists, is <1park yapmak>1 "to park (a car)'. It replaces <1etmek,>1 however, when a normally transitive verbal phrase is used without an object or when the noun element is defined; i.e. when the noun is really the object of "to do' and is not just part of a compound vcrb: <1bu i%ki% eser-i% mukayese edi%yor>1 "he is comparing these two works' but <1bu i%ki% eser-i%n mukayese-si%-n-i% yapiyor>1 "he is making a comparison <2("doing>2 the comparison') of these two works'; <1masraflarimi hesab- edi%yorum>1 "I am calculating my expenses' but <1hesap yapi- yorum>1 "I am calculating'. <2(f)>2 The passive and causative forms of <1etmek,>1 but not of <1eylemek,>1 are in full use: <1ko*pru*yu* tami%r edi%yorlar>1 "thcy are repairing the bridge'; <1ko*pru* tami%r ed-i%l-i%yor>1 "the bridge is being repaired'; <1ko*pru*yu* tami%r et-ti%r-i%yorlar>1 "they are having the bridge repaired'; <1ko*pru* tami%r et-ti%r-i%l-i%yor>1 "the repair of the bridge is being carried out' ("the bridge is-being-got-repaired')- For the use of <1ol-un-mak>1 instead of <1ed-i%l-mek>1 see #54, end. Some phrases with <1etmek>1 make their passive in <1olmak>1 instead of or as well as in <1edi%lmck>1 or <1olunmak.>1 This is easily explicable where the first element is not a noun but an adjective, e.g. in <1kaybetmek>1 "to lose', the <1kayb>1 being a corruption of the Arabic <2gha**'ib>2 "missing', so the passive <1kaybolmak>1 is literally "to be missing'. Similarly, from <1mahku=m>1 "condemned' comes <1mahku=m etmek>1 "to condemn', passive <1mahku=m olmak>1 or <1mahku=m edi%lmek.>1 But <1olmak>1 is also used to make the passive of a number of <1etmek>1 compounds whose first element is a noun, c.g.: <1tiras+ etmek>1 "to shave'; <1tiras+ olmak>1 "to be shaved, shave oneself'. <1mahvetmek>1 "to destroy'; <1mahvolmak>1 "to be de- stroyed'. <1defetmek>1 "to repel'; <1defol]>1 "buzz off ]' In such phrases, <1olmak>1 seems to mean "to undergo, be sub- jected to', as in the following examples too: <1o*ksu*ru*k olmak>1 to catch a cough <1ti%fo olmak>1 to catch typhoid <1ameli%yat olmak>1 to undergo an operation <1su*nnet olmak>1 to undergo circumcision <1i%mti%han olmak>1 to sit an examination <1cehennem ol ]>1 get to hell out of it ] <2(g)>2 Any Arabic verbal noun may itself govern an object in the absence of <1et->1: <1ac+iklama-y-i tekrar etmek i%stemi%yorum>1 "I do not wish to repeat the explanation'; <1ac+iklama-y-i tekrar- dan kac+in-il-mis+-tir>1 "repetition of the explanation has been avoided' ("avoidance-has-been-done from-repeating . . . ). <1Bursa '- yi zi%yaret etti%m>1 "I visited Bursa'; <1Bursa'yi zi%yareti%m>1 "my visiting Bursa, my visit to B.' <1saat-i% tahmi%n etti%m>1 "I guessed the time'; <1saat-i% tahmi%n-e c+alis+tim>1 "I tried to guess the time': <1onu tes+yi% edeli%m>1 "let us see him off ; <1onu tes+yi%e hazirlanalim>1 "let us prepare to see him off'. The Italian borrowing seen in the transitive verbal phrase <1protesto etmek>1 "to protest against' may similarly take a direct object even in the absence of the auxiliary verb : <1i%s+c+i%Ier, lokavt-i protesto etti%ler>1 "the workers protested-against the lockout'; <1lokavt-i protesto mi%ti%ng-i% i%c+i%n i%zi%n alindi>1 "permission has been obtained for the meeting of protest-against the lockout'. Note that whereas the <1i>1 suffixed to <1lokavt>1 is the mark of the accusative, the <1i%>1 after <1mi%ti%ng>1 is the suffix of the third person. The object may be in the dative; e.g. "to attend school' is <1okul-a devam etmek>1 ("to do continuance to school'): <1her c+ocuk, i%lk okula devam-a mecbur-dur>1 "every child is obliged to attend primary school' (". . . is compelled to-continuance to...'). IX PARTICIPLES 1. Present. The present participle is formed by adding -<1en>1 to the stem, original or extended: <1gelen>1 "coming'; <1olan>1 "being, becom- ing'; <1i%ndi%ri%len>1 "being brought down'; <1dag*ilis+an>1 "dispersing'. The usual <1y>1 is inserted after vowel-stems and narrows the pre- ceding vowel, although this narrowing is not always shown in writing: <1anla->1 "to understand', <1anliyan (anla-y-an)>1 "under- standing'; <1bekle>1 "to wait', <1bekli%yen (bekle-y-en)>1 "waiting'. The vowel of the negative -<1me>1 is similarly treated: <1anlamiyan (anla-ma-y-an)>1 "not understanding'; <1olmiyan (ol-ma-y-an)>1 "not being'; <1beklemi%yen (bekle-me-y-en)>1 "not waiting'; <1gelmi%yen (gel-me-y-en)>1 "not coming'. These words function as adjectives or nouns: <1bekli%yen mi%sa- fi%rler>1 "the guests who-are-waiting'; <1bekli%yenler>1 "those who are waiting'; <1oynamiyan c+ocuklar>1 "children who-do-not-play'; <1oynamiyanlar>1 "those who do not play'. Participles exercise the same governance as the corresponding finite verb; e.g. <1beklemek>1 is transitive, so its participle governs an accusative: <1bi%zi% bekli%yenler>1 "those who are awaiting us'. But <1bas+lamak>1 "to begin' takes a dative, so: <1bu i%s+-e bas+liyanlar>1 "those who are beginning this job'. The present participle may overlap the very recent past: <1yeni% dog*-an c+ocuk>1 "new-born child'; <1yeni% ac+il-an fabri%ka>1 "newly opened factory'; <1gec+-en hafta>1 "last week'. Such idiomatic uses must not be confused with situations where the present participle has to be translated by an English past tense because the main verb of the sentence is in the past: <1gu*l-en adam c+ikarildi>1 "the man who laughed (lit. "the laughing man') was thrown out'. The participle of the present Il is -<1mekte ol-an>1 or -<1mekte bulun-an.>1 2. Future I. The participle is identical with the base: <1olacak>1 "who/which will be'; <1olmiyacak>1 "who/which will not be'. In formal speech and writing, where the rules of word-order are strictly applied, confusion is unlikely betwecn the future partici le used as an attributive adjective and the third person of the future simple tense; an attributive adjective precedes its noun, whereas in formal language the subject precedes its predicate: <1i%yi% haber>1 "good news'; <1haber i%yi%>1 "the news is good'. <1gelecek haber>1 "news which will come'; <1haber gelecek>1 "the news will come'. In informal speech, however, and in the increasingly popular <1devri%k cu*mle>1 school of writing (XV, 3), the subject may follow its predicate: <1gelecek, haber>1 "it will come, the news'. To avoid ambiguity the future participle is often used together with the present participle of <1ol->1 or <1bulun->1 "to be'; <1gelecek olan haber>1 "the news which-is about-to-come'; <1bu i%s+i% yapacak bulunan amele>1 "the workman who-is going-to-do this job'. The future participle also functions as a noun: <1geIecek>1 "who/ which will come, the future'; <1gelecekler>1 "those who will come'; <1olacak olur>1 "what-is-to-be will-be'. There is a tendency, how- ever, to attach case-endings to <1olan>1 rather than directly to the future participle, especially in the singular: <1gelecek olanlarin>1 (rather than <1gelecekleri%n) c+og*u akrabamiz>1 "of-those-who-are about-to-come most are our relatives'; <1bunu okuyacak olana>1 "to-the-one-who-is going-to-read this' <1(okuyacag*a>1 is theoretically possible but most unlikely)- Apart from this sense of "who/which is about to . . .', the future participle has a quasi-passive use, as in <1yi%yecek bi%r s+ey alalim>1 "let us buy something to eat' ("a thing pertaining-to-future-eating' ; <1okuyacak bi%r ki%tap i%sti%yorum "I>1 want a book to read'; <1softaIar saldiracak adam ariyor>1 "the bigots are seeking someone to attack' ("man pertaining-to-future-attacking'). The future passive participle of intransitive verbs is used impersonally in the same way: <1otur-ul-mi-y-acak bi%r ev>1 "a house not to be lived in' ("pertaining-to-future-living's-not-being-done'). This use of the active and the impersonal passive future participle is possible only when the participle is attributive, never when it is predicative, whereas the future passive participle of transitive verbs can be used either way: <2Attributive: (a)>2 active: <1okuyacak bi%r ki%tap>1 "a book to read'; (b) transitive passive: <1oku-n-acak bi%r ki%tap>1 "a book which will be read'; (c) intransitive passive (impersonal) : <1s+as+ilacak bi%r s+ey "a thing at which surprise will be shown'. <2Predicative:>2 transitive passive: <1bu ki%tap oku-n-acak>1 "this book will be read, is to be read'. The active participle cannot be used predicatively in the quasi- passive sense: <1bu ki%tap okuyacak>1 could only mean "this book will read' and not "this book is one to read'. Nor can the im- personal passive participle be used predicatively: one can say <1bu evde oturulacak>1 "living-will-be-done in this house, one will live in this house', where <1oturulacak>1 is a finite verb, but not <1bu ev oturulacak.>1 In this sense of "pertaining-to-future-doing', the future par- ticiple may be followed by the postposition <1kadar,>1 e.g. <1i%sti%hsal, i%hti%yac+lara yeti%s+mi%yecek kadar az-dir>1 "production is in- adequate to meet requirements', lit. "is small the amount pertain- ing to future sufficing for needs'. Here the future participle might be thought to be an ordinary "which will not suffice', but such an 'explanation cannot be applied to <1do*nemi%yecek kadar yu*ru*- mu*s+tu*k>1 "we had walked too far to turn back'; lit. "amount pertaining to future inability to turn', not "the amount which will not be able to turn'. <1c+ocuk, okula gi%decek kadar bu*yu*ktu*r>1 "the child is big enough to go to school' ("the amount pertaining to future going - - -'). <1c+ocuk, okula gi%demi%yecek kadar ku*c+u*ktu*r>1 "the child is too small to go to school' ("the amount pertaining to future inability to go . . .'). Several future participles hav become common nouns, e.g.: <1gi%y->1 to put on <1gi%yecek>1 garment <1c+ek->1 to pull <1c+ekecek>1 shoe-horn <1oy->1 to drill a hole <1oyacak>1 drill <1yak->1 to burn <1yakacak>1 fuel <1ye->1 to eat <1yi%yecek>1 food The future participle of <1ol->1 often has the ironic sense of "who is supposed to be, so-called': <1damad-im oIacak o kumarbaz>1 "that gambler who is supposed to be my son-in-law'; <1di%s+c+i% olacak o kasap>1 "that butcher who calls himself a dentist'. The present participle of "to be' is not used after the future partiple in this use, so <1damadim olacak olan kumarbaz>1 can only mean "the gambler who is going to be my son-in-law'. This sense is sometimes found in the future participle of other verbs: <1gu*venli%k sag*liyacak i%nsanlar>1 "the people who-are- supposed-to-ensure security'. See also XX, 9. 3. Future lI. The restricted future base -<1esi%>1 may be used as an adjective: <1ko*r olasi heri%f>1 "the damned scoundrel' ("the may-he- become-blind scoundrel'); <1can-i c+ikasi kari>1 "the accursed woman' ("the may-her-soul-come-out woman'); <1ad-i batasi ka=fi%r>1 "the abhorred infidel'. In the colloquial it may occur in non-pejorative contexts, e.g. <1s+as+ilasi bi%r s+ey>1 is a sub-standard variant for <1s+as+ilacak bi%r s+ey>1 "an astonishing thing'. As a noun: <1ko*r olasi bunu yapti mi?>1 "has the damned-one done this ?'; <1cani c+ikasi-nin pi%c+-i% geldi%>1 "the accursed-one's bastard has come'. The suffix -<1ce>1 may be added without altering the meaning : <1ko*r olasica, cani c+ikasicanin.>1 <14.>1 Aorist. The aorist participles, positive and negative, are identical with the respective bases: <2Finite verb Participle>2 <1su akar>1 water flows <1akar su>1 flowing water <1su akmaz>1 water does not <1akmaz su>1 stagnant water flow <1s+ai%r o*lmez>1 the poet does <1o*lmez s+ai%r>1 the immortal not die poet Some aorist participles have become or are becoming common nouns : <1yaz-ar>1 writer <1oku-r yaz-ar>1 literate ("reader-writer') <1du*s+u*n-u*r>1 thinker <1c+ik-ar>1 profit, advantage ("what comes out') <1c+ikmaz>1 impasse (short for <1c+ikmaz yol>1 "road which does not come out') <1gel-i%r>1 revenue ("what comes') <1kes-er>1 adze ("cutter') All these can be fully declined: <1yazar-in>1 "the writer's; <1okur yazarIar>1 "literates'; <1c+ikmaz-dan>1 "from the impasse', etc. But aorist participles which usage has not fixed as nouns are not unusually declined. For example, "he is unreasonable' is <1so*z anla- maz,>1 lit. "he does not understand words'. If we wish to use this expression to translate "those who are unreasonable' we cannot simply add the plural suffix, since <1so*z anlamazlar>1 would naturally be taken as the third-person plural of the finite verb, "they are unreasonable'. Instead, we either add a noun, e.g. <1adam>1 "man' or <1ki%s+i%>1 "person', or use the present participle of <1anla-ma->1, or of <1ol->1 following <1anlamaz:>1 <1so*z anlamaz adamlar>1 <1so*z anlamaz ki%s+i%ler>1 <1so*z anlamiyanlar>1 <1so*z anlamaz olanlar>1 5. <1mi%s+->1past. The participle is identical in form with the base but has none of the inferential sense of the <1mi%s+->1past: <1pla=n hazirla- n-mis+>1 "I gather that the plan has been prepared'; <1hazirlanmis+ pla=n>1 "the plan which has been prepared'. Like the future par- ticiple in -<1ecek,>1 it is often used in conjunction with the present participle of "to be': <1gelmi%s+ olan/bulunan arkadas+lar>1 "the friends who have come'. So, for example, "of those who have sat down' may be translated : <1oturmus+larin>1 <1oturmus+ olarlarin>1 <1oturmus+ bulunanlarin>1 The following phrase contains the <1mi%s+->1past, present lI, and future I participles of <1oku->1 "to read, study': <1Avrupa'da>1 <1okumus+, okumakta ve okuyacak olan genc+ler>1 "young people who have studied, are in process of studying, and will study in Europe'. 6. <1di%->1past. The participle is identical in form not with the base but with the first-person plural, -<1di%k.>1 It appears mostly in frozen forms, of which these are the commonest: <1bi%ldi%k>1 acquaintance <1tanidik>1 ,, <1du*s+u*nu*lmedi%k>1 unthought-of <1i%s+i%ti%lmedi%k>1 unheard-of <1dedi%k>1 said <1go*ru*lmedi%k>1 extraordinary ("unseen') <1olmadik>1 unprecedented ("not-having-happened') <1umulmadik>1 unlooked-for <1beklenmedi%k>1 unexpected <1okumadik>1 unread <1okunmadik>1 <1yaratik>1 creature <1yapilmadik>1 not done It will be observed that most of these are negative and that <1bi%ldi%k, tanidik, okumadik, dedi%k,>1 and <1yaratik,>1 though active in form, are passive <2in>2 meaning. This is because the past participle in -<1di%k>1 really means not "having done' but "characterized by past doing'. So the active <1okumadik>1 "characterized-by-not-reading' comes to be synonymous with the passive <1okunmadik>1 "charac- terized-by-not-being-read'. The action may be present as well as past, or begun in the past and still continuing; the same ambiguity occurs in the English passive participle: compare "things done nowadays' with "things done fifty years ago'. Apart from the frozen forms listed above, any verb may appear in the negative with -<1di%k>1 in sentences of the type of "I have left no stone unturned': <1okumadik gazete kalmadi>1 "no newspaper is left unread' ("newspaper characterized-by-not-reading has-not- remained'); <1aramadik bi%r yer komadim>1 "I have left no place unsearched'; <1su*rmedi%k kara birakmadilar>1 "they have left no evil imputation unmade' ("they-have-not-left black characterized- by-not-smearing'). Care must be taken to distinguish this par- ticiple from the first-person plural of the <1di%->1past, as in <1gezmedi%k memleket birakmadik>1 "we have left no country unvisited'. 7. The personal participles. Of paramount syntactic importance are the forms made by adding a personal suffix to the participles in -<1di%k>1 and -<1ecek. bi%r tanidik>1 "an acquaintance' is literally "a characterized-by-knowing'; the addition of a personal suffix shows on whose part the knowing was or is, and the resulting word can be used as an adjective or noun: thus <1bi%r tanidig*im>1 is "an acquaintance of mine' and <1tanidiklarim>1 "my acquaintances'; <1tanidig*im bi%r adam>1 "a man I know' ("a man characterized-by- my-knowing'); <1tanidig*im adamlar>1 "the men I know'. Similarly, as <1okuyacak>1 means "pertaining to future reading', <1okuyacag*im>1 means "pertaining to my future reading', "which I shall read', while the plural <1okuyacaklarim>1 means "things which I shall read'. When the personal suffix is that of the third person, it may stand in izafet with a qualifier or possessor. The personal participle is used: <2(a)>2 As an adjective. <1okuyacag*im ki%tap>1 "the book which I shall read'; <1kardes+-i%m-i%n bekledi%g*i% mi%safi%r>1 "the guest whom my brother is/was awaiting' ("pertaining to my brother's awaiting') ; <1Tu*rki%ye'ye geldi%g*i%ni%z uc+ak>1 "the aircraft in which you come/ came to Turkey'; <1dog*dug*u s+ehi%r>1 "the city in which she was born'; <1oturacag*imiz ev>1 "the house in which we are going to live'; <1konus+acaklari meseleler>1 "the problems which they are going to discuss'; <1sevgi%, saygi duydug*umuz bi%r meslektas+>1 "a colleague for whom we feel affection, respect' ("pertaining-to- our-feeling affection . . .'); <1kiz-in oynamadig*i bebek>1 "the doll with which the girl is/was not playing'; <1mu*cevherleri%n c+alindig*i oda>1 "the room from which the jewels were stolen'; <1bunu aldig*im fi%ata satarim>1 "I shall sell this for the price at which I bought Õitå', It will be seen that from the point of view of the English translation these examples fall into two classes : those in which the noun qualified by the personal participle is translated as the direct object of the verb; and those in which the translation requires the insertion of a preposition before the relative pronoun ("in which, for whom, with which, from which, at which'). The device employed to distinguish between past and present time, when the context is insufficient guide, is exemplified in; <1du*n yaptig*im ve bugu*n yapmakta oldug*um i%s+ler>1 "the jobs which I did yesterday and am doing today' ("pertaining-to-my- doing yesterday and pertaining-to-my-being in-the-act-of-doing today'). <2(b)>2 As a noun meaning "that which I do', etc. <1Avrupa'da go*rdu*kleri%m>1 "the things I saw in Europe'; <1si%ze bi%r di%yeceg*i%m yok>1 "I have nothing to say to you' ("to-you a thing-of-my-future- saying is-not'); <1Beatles'leri%n her yaptig*i IZngi%ltere'de moda oluyor>1 "everything the Beatles do is becoming the fashion in England': <1her>1 "every' qualifies the noun <1yaptig*i>1 "thing of their doing'; <1halk bi%zi%m i%nanmadig*imiza i%nanabi%li%r>1 "the people may believe that which we do not believe': <1i%nan->1 is construed with a dative; <1i%nanmadig*imiz>1 means "that pertaining to our not believing'. <1oldug*undan bu*yu*k go*ru*nu*r>1 "it seems bigger than it is' (". . . than-that-of-its-being'). In the following phrase the adjectival and nominal uses are exemplified by <1baktig*i>1 and <1sevdi%g*i%ni%>1 respectively : <1her baktig*i kadinda sevdi%g*i%ni% go*ren s+ai%r>1 "the poet who sees his beloved in every woman he looks at' ("seeing in every woman pertaining- to-his-looking the-one-pertaining-to-his-loving'). <2(c)>2 As a noun meaning "(the fact of) my doing', etc.: <1bugu*n gi%deceg*i%m s+u*pheli%>1 "it is doubtful whether I shall go today' ("my-future-going is doubtful'); <1I2stanbul'a geldi%g*i%mi%n do*r- du*ncu* gu*nu*ydu*>1 "it was the fourth day after my arrival in Istanbul' (". . . of-my-coming to-Istanbul'); <1bi%r parti% kur- dug*unuz, i%smi%ni%n de Tu*rki%ye Adalet Parti%si% oldug*u dog*ru mu?>1 "is it true that you have founded a party and that its name is the Justice Party of Turkey?' ("your-founding . . . and its-name's being . . . is true?'); <1hazir bulundug*una go*re>1 "in view of its being ready' (lit. "according to-the-fact-of-its-being ready'). Cf. <1oldug*una go*re>1 in XXIV, 18. The third-singular personal participle of the ancient <1er->1 "to be' survives in the phrase <1ne i%du*g*u* beli%rsi%z>1 "of doubtful ante- cedents' ("his-being what, unclear, it being unclear what he is'; for the syntax see XVIII, 1), sometimes modernized to <1ne oldug*u beli%rsi%z.>1 8. -<1eceg*i% gel->1. The future personal participle is used with <1gel->1 "to come', as in <1ni%c+i%n di%yeceg*i%m geli%yor>1 "I begin to feel like saying ""why ?''', lit. "my-future-saying ""why ?'' is-coming'; cf. <1uykum geli%yor>1 "my-sleep is-coming', i.e. "I feel sleepy'. <1IZstan- bul'u go*receg*i%m geldi%>1 "I feel like seeing Istanbul' ("my-future- seeing Istanbul has-come')- 9. -<1esi% gel->1. The participle of the future Il is colloquially used in the same way : <1ni%c+i%n di%yesi%m geli%yor>1 ; <1IZstanbul'u go*resi%m geldi%.>1 The third-person suffix, however, is omitted; i.e. -<1esi%>1 may stand for -<1esi%-si%: i%nsan-in ni%c+i%n di%yesi% geli%yor>1 "one feels like saying ""why ?''' ("man's saying why comes'). 10. <1.eceg*i% tut->1. The future personal participle with <1tut->1 "to catch hold': <1kizini evlendi%receg*i% tuttu>1 "he was suddenly seized with the idea of getting his daughter married', lit. "his-future- causing-to-marry caught-hold' ; <1gi%tmi%yeceg*i%m tuttu>1 "I suddenly feel like not going', lit. "my-future-not-going has-caught-hold')- 11. Periphrastic tenses and moods. The verb <1ol->1 is used with the bases of the present I, the future I, and the <1mi%s+->1past, to give a greater suppleness to the tense-system. <1geli%yor olmalilar>1 "they must be coming' ; <1bakacak olursaniz>1 "if you will look' ("if-you-are about-to-look') ; <1gelmi%s+ olacag*iz>1 "we shall have come' ; <1topIanti- niza i%s+ti%rak edememi%s+ olmaktan mu*teessi%ri%m "I>1 regret not having been able to take part in your meeting' ("I-am-regretful from- being having-been-unable-to-do participation') ; <1unutmus+ olma- yin "I>1 hope you have not forgotten' ("do-not-be having-forgotten'). With the aorist participles, <1ol->1 gives an inchoative sense : <1bunu yapar oldu>1 "he started to do this' ("became doing'); <1bunu yap- maz oldu>1 "he stopped doing this' ("became not-doing'); <1bunu yapamaz oldu>1 "he became incapable of doing this'; <1bu tekli%fi% kabul etmez olur muyum hi%c+,>1 lit. "do I ever become not- accepting this suggestion ?', i.e. "am I ever likely not to accept . . . ?' The use of the future, aorist, and <1mi%s+->1past bases in such peri- phrases is readily understandable, as these bases are the participles of their respective tenses. The reason for the use of the present base is not so obvious. The fact that in origin it is itself an aorist (VIII, 16) may be the explanation. The use of <1deg*i%l>1 "not' instead of or as well as the negative verb also makes possible the expression of a number of shades of meaning: <1bu tehIi%ke sezi%lmi%yor deg*i%l>1 "this danger is not un- perceived'; <1bunu yapacak deg*i%li%m>1 "I do not intend to do this'; <1bunu bi%lmez deg*i%li%m>1 "I am not unaware of this' ("I-am-not not-knowing'); <1bi%r neti%ceye varmis+ deg*i%li%m>1 "I don't claim to have reached a conclusion' ("I-am-not having-reached'); <1bunu anlamamis+ deg*i%li%m>1 "I have not failed to understand this' ("I-am-not having-not-understood') ; <1zor kullanmadi deg*i%l, kullandi>1 "it's not that he didn't use force; he did' ("force he-did- not-use not, he-used') ; <1ben, yazinizi okudum deg*i%l, go*rme- di%m bi%le>1 "I have not <2read>2 your article; I haven't even seen Õitå'; <1ben, yazinizi okudum deg*il, ezberledi%m>1 "I have not Õmerelyå read your article; I have learned (it) by heart'. VERBAL NOUNS I. Introductory. The principal suffixes which make verbal nouns are: -<1mek,>1 -<1mekli%k,>1 -<1me,>1 and -<1i%s+.>1 Primarily, -<1mek>1 denotes pure undefined action, -<1mekIi%k>1 the fact of action, -<1me>1 the action or result of action, -<1i%s+>1 the manner of action; there is, how- ever, a certain blurring of the boundaries of their functions. 2. -<1mek.>1 This is usually termed the suffix of the infinitive (cf. VIII, 1). It has two peculiarities of accidence: it never takes the personal suffixes or the suffix of the genitive case (see p. 173, <2Addendum).>2 The other cases are in full use: <2Absolute: (a)>2 As subject: <1bunu bi%lmek ka=fi%di%r>1 "to know this is sufficient'; <1eski%den kopmak kolay i%s+ deg*i%l>1 "to break away from the old is no easy task'. <2(b)>2 As object of <1i%stemek>1 "to want' and <1bi%lmek>1 "to know': <1c+alis+mak i%sti%yor>1 "he wants to work'; <1susmak bi%lmez>1 "he does not know Õhowå to keep quiet'. <2(c)>2 As qualifier in izafet groups: <1yazmak arzu-su>1 "the desire to write'; <1konus+mak ni%yet-i%>1 "the intention to speak' ; <1eg*lenmek>1 <1i%hti%yac-i>1 "the need to amuse oneself'. <2(d)>2 As object of the postpositions <1i%c+i%n>1 and <1u*zere: du*nyayi deg*i%s+ti%rmek i%c+i%n ne la=zim?>1 "in order to change the world, what is necessary ?' This is the usual way of expressing purpose. <1u*zere>1 "on, on the basis of' is siniilarly used: <1c+ars+iya gi%tmek u*zere otobu*se bi%ndi%>1 "she got on the bus to go to the market'. It also translates "on condition of, on the understanding that': <1yarin geri% vermek u*zere bana on li%ra veri%r mi%si%ni%z?>1 "will you give me ten liras on the understanding that I give it back tomorrow ?' ("on-the-basis-of to-give back')- <1olmak u*zere,>1 lit. "on-the-basis-of to-be', may sometimes be translated by "being' or "as being' but can often be left un- translated: <1bu mektepte on bes+ ayri mi%llet-i%n, ekseri%si% albay olmak u*zere, yu*ksek ru*tbcli% subay-i okumaktadir>1 "in this school, high-ranking officers of fifteen different nations are studying the majority of them being colonels'; <1alti-si kiz, do*rd- u* erkek olmak u*zere, on talebe-m var>1 "I have ten pupils, six- of-them girls, four-of-them boys'. -<1mek>1 followed by <1u*zere>1 and part of the verb "to be' means "to be on the point of': <1tren, hareket etmek u*zere-ydi%>1 "the train was on the point of starting'. <2Accusative>2 as object of verbs other than <1i%ste->1 and <1bi%l-: evIen- meg*-i% du*s+u*nu*yorlar>1 "they are contemplating getting-married'; <1ay-da i%ki% yu*z li%ra vermeg*-i% taahhu*t eder>1 "he undertakes to pay 2oo liras a month' ("in-the-month'); <1devletten yardim g-o*rmeg*-i% umuyoruz>1 "we are hoping to receive help from the State'; <1atlamag*-i nasil becerecekti%?>1 "how would he manage to jump ?'; <1ekmek almag*-i unuttu>1 "he forgot to buy bread'. In front-vowel verbs, the accusatives of -<1mek>1 and the verbal noun in -<1me>1 (# 7) are phonetically identical: <1gi%tmeg*-i%, gi%tme- y-i%.>1 In back-vowel verbs, the accusative and dative of -<1mak>1 are phonetically identical, <1almag*-i>1 and <1almag*-a>1 both being pro- nounced alma**. Consequently, the accusative of -<1mek/mak>1 is rapidly being supplanted in writing, as it has long been in speech, by the accusative of -<1me/ma>1 ; in all the examples in the preceding paragraph -<1meg*i%/mag*i>1 can be replaced by -<1meyi%jmayi.>1 <2Dative:>2 <1yu*ru*meg*-e bas+ladik>1 "we began to walk'; <1i%stedi%g*i%ni% yapmag*-a alis+iktir>1 <2"she>2 is accustomed to-doing what-she- wants'; <1borcumu o*demeg*-e geldi%m>1 "I have come to-pay my debt'; <1si%gara almag*-a gi%tti%>1 "he has gone to buy cigarettes'. Here too -<1meye/maya>1 is taking the place of -<1meg*e/mag*a,>1 though for the expression of purpose, as in the last two examples, -<1meg*e/mag*a>1 seems to be holding its own in the written language for the moment. <2Locative:>2 <1bunu yapmak-ta bei%s go*rmedi%>1 "he saw no harm in-doing this'. The locative of -<1me>1 can replace that of -<1mek>1 in such a sentence, but not so frequently in the present II tense <1gi%tmekteyi%m,>1 etc. <2Ablative:>2 <1haki%kat-i% yazmak-tan kendi%mi% alamamis+tim>1 "I had-not-been-able-to-restrain myself from-writing the-truth'; <1poli%s-e haber vermek-ten bas+ka c+aremi%z yok>1 'we have no remedy other than-to-give information to-the-police' ; <1a=r c+ekmek- ten ba=r c+ekmek evla=dir>1 "to-bear burdens is-better than-to-bear shame'. See also -<1mektense,>1 XI, 30. 3. The infinitive with subject. In the older language, the infinitive in -<1mek>1 could regularly have a subject: <1sen bo*yle za'm u* pi%ndar sahi%b-i% olmak nedendi%r>1 "why are you so puffed up and conceited?' (lit. "you to-be possessor of such pretension and conceit is-from-what ?')." Modern usage replaces <1sen olmak>1 "you to be' by <1seni%n olma-n>1 "your being'. The old usage survives, however : <2(a)>2 In proverbial expressions : <1bo*yle og*ul olmaktan olmamak yeg*di%r>1 "better no son than such a son' ("than Õforå such a son to be, not-to-be is-better'). <2(b)>2 In dictionary definitions: <1bulas+mak: bi%r nesne, u*zeri%ne su*ru*len bi%r s+ey yu*zu*nden ki%rlenmek>1 "to be defiled: Õforå a thing to be dirtied because of something smeared on it', where <1nesne>1 is the subject of the infinitive <1ki%rlenmek.>1 <2(c)>2 In headlines: <1Nurculuk aleyhi%nde konus+an bi%r mu*ftu* susturulmak i%stendi%>1 "it was desired that a mufti who spoke against the Nurcu doctrine should be silenced'; the subject of <1i%stendi%>1 "was wanted' is <1bi%r mu*ftu* susturulmak>1 "Õforå a mufti to be silenced'. The text of the story avoids giving the infinitive a subject by making the verb active: 200 <1ki%s+i%li%k bi%r grup, mu*ftu*yu* susturmak i%stemi%s+ti%r>1 "a 2oo-person group- wanted to silence the mufti'. It may be noted, incidentally, that whereas the text employs the past tense in -<1mi%s+ti%r,>1 the headline has the synonymous but shorter -<1di%.>1 <2(d)>2 Rarely in other contexts, e.g. <1parasi c+aIinmak mi ko*tu*, Harpagon olmak mi?>1 "is it worse to have one's money stolen or to be a miser?', lit. "his-money to-be-stolen is bad? to be a miser ?' 4. -<1mekli%.>1 The adjectival suffix -<1li%>1 is occasionally added to the infinitive, as in <1i%nsan ag*lamakli oluyor vallahi%>1 "honestly, one feels like crying' ("man becomes characterized-by-weeping, by- Allah')- On the other hand, -<1si%z>1 "without' is not added to -<1mek, -si%zi%n>1 being used instead; see XI, 31. 5. Common nouns in -<1mek.>1 In contrast to the many common nouns which are in origin -<1me>1 verbal nouns, very few -<1mek>1 infinitives have acquired concrete meaning: <1yemek>1 "food' (as an infinitive, "to eat') ; <1c+akmak>1 "cigarette-lighter' ("to strike') ; <1tok- mak>1 "door-knocker' (from the obsolete infinitive <1tokimak>1 "to knock'). The noun <1ekmek>1 "bread' and the infinitive <1ekmek "to>1 sow' are not etymologically connected. 6. -<1mekli%k.>1 Unlike the bare -<1mek,>1 -<1mekli%k>1 can take personal suffixes and all case-endings. It is nothing like so frequent as -<1me,>1 but is rather more precise in its sense of "the act of doing'; it also has one advantage over -<1me,>1 namely that -<1me>1 with the first-singular personal <1suffix--gi%t-me-m>1 "my going'--is indis- tinguishable in spelling and pronunciation from the first-singular negative of the aorist present tense--gi%t-<1mem>1 "I do not go'; any possible ambiguity can be eliminated by using <1gi%tmekli%g*i%m>1 for the former. Thus <1gi%tmem la=zim mi?>1 "is my-going necessary, must I go ?' might, if we ignore punctuation, be read as "I'm not going; must I?', whereas there is no such ambiguity about <1gi%t- mekli%g*i%m Ia=zim mi?>1 7. -<1me.>1 Verbal nouns formed with this suffix, unlike those in -<1mek,>1 appear in every case and with the personal suffixes. In the absolute case they are identical in writing with the negative of the second-person singular imperative, but differ in accentua- tion : <1gelmg>1 coming <1ge=*lme>1 do not come <1yapma=*>1 doing <1ya=*pma>1 do not do In the dative the buffer <1y>1 narrows the preceding vowel: <1sor- mi%ya ne lu*zum vardir?>1 "what need is there for-asking?' han- <1c+eresi%ni% yirtan hic+kiriklari di%ndi%rmi%ye ug*ras+iyordu>1 "she was striving to still the sobs which tore her throat': <1sormiya>1 Õ <1sor-ma-y-a; di%ndi%rmi%ye>1 Õ <1di%ndi%r-me-y-e,>1 though the un- narrowed spellings are more frequent in writing. The -<1me>1 and not the -<1mek>1 forms are used in phrases like "waiting-room, reading-book, working-hours': <1bekleme salon-u, okuma ki%tab-i, c+alis+ma saatler-i%,>1 since, for example, <1bekle- mek>1 means the undefined concept of waiting, whereas what goes on in a waiting-room is <1bekleme,>1 the act of waiting. The -<1me>1 forms are therefore used in indirect commands- <1bu yaziyi okuma-m-i so*yledi%>1 "he told me to read this article' ("he-stated my-action-of-reading') ; see XVII, 1. Forms like <1tanimamama>1 in the following sentence can be confusing when first encountered : <1yaptig*im hatayi memleketi% tanimamama verebi%li%rsi%ni%z>1 "you may ascribe the mistake I made to-my-not-knowing the country'. The word is built up thus: stem <1tani->1-negative -<1ma->1verbal noun -<1ma->1"my' -<1m->1 dative -<1a.>1 If the negative is replaced by the impotential -<1ama>1 we get <1taniyamamama>1 "to my inability to know'. The English verbal noun may have active or passive meaning; compare "the singing of the choir' with "the singing of the song'. Turkish can make passive verbal nouns by adding -<1me>1 to the passive stem: <1bu a=let-i% kullan-ma-si>1 "his-using this instru- ment'; <1bu a=let-i%n kullan-il-ma-si>1 "the use (""the being-used'') of this instrument'. Although phrases like <1bunun yapmasi kolay>1 "the doing of this is easy' do occur, the passive <1bunun yapilmasi kolay>1 is more usual. 8. Common nouns in -<1me.>1 The sense of "result of action' appears in the use of a great many -<1me>1 verbal nouns as common nouns, e.g. : <1as->1 to hang <1asma>1 vine <1devs+i%r->1 to levy <1devs+i%rme>1 levy, i.e. recruitment <2or>2 recruit <1dol->1 to be filled <1dolma>1 stuffed vine- or cabbage-leaf, embankment <1dondur->1 to freeze <1dondurma>1 ice-cream <1do*n->1 to turn <1do*nme>1 convert <1ez->1 to crush <1ezme>1 pure=*e <1yaz->1 to write <1yazma>1 manuscript Many are used as adjectives, e.g.: <1asma ko*pru*>1 "suspension- bridge'; <1asma kat>1 "mezzanine floor'; <1yazma ki%tap>1 "manuscript book'; <1dolma kalem>1 "fountain-pen'. <1dog*->1 "to be born', <1bu*yu*->1 "to grow up': <1dog*ma bu*yu*me bi%r IZstanbullu>1 "a born and bred Istanbul man'; <1anadan dog*ma ko*r bi%r adam>1 "a man blind from birth' ("from-mother birth blind'). <1kal->1 "to remain': <1baba- dan kalma emla=k>1 "inherited estates' ("from-father remnant'); Osmanli IZmparatorlug*undan kalma bi%ri%si%>1 "someone left over from the Ottoman Empire'. <1yap->1 "to make': <1yapma c+i%c+ekler>1 "artificial flowers'. The passive verbal noun is also possible in this adjectival use: <1IZngi%li%z kumas+indan yapilma bi%r ceket>1 "a jacket made of English cloth'. 9. -<1meli%.>1 For the specialized function of this ending see VIII, 30. Descriptive adjectives of this form are few, e.g. <1asmali>1 "having a vine' <1(Asmali Mesci%t>1 "Mosque of the Vine' is the name of a <1mahalle,>1 quarter, of Istanbul) ; <1ag*lamali>1 "tearful'. 10. -<1masyon.>1 The ending of such French borrowings as <1organi%- zasyon, adaptasyon,>1 and <1telekomu*ni%kasyon>1 is jocularly conflated with the -<1me>1 verbal nouns of <1uydur->1 "to invent' and <1at->1 "to boast', giving <1uydurmasyon>1 "concoction, fabrication' and <1atmasyon>1 "line-shooting'. 11. -<1i%s+.>1 This denotes not only the manner but also the fact of action, e.g. from <1yu*ru*->1 "to walk': <1bu yu*ru*-y-u*s+-le kasabaya aks+ama kadar varmis+ olacag*iz>1 "with this way of walking, at this rate, we shall have reached the town by evening'. <1her gu*n bi%r saat yu*ru*yu*s+ yapmalisiniz>1 "you ought to do an hour's walking every day' <1(bi%r saat>1 is adverbial). Note that the English verbal noun "walk' has the same two senses. When this suffix is added to vowel-stems the buffer <1y>1 does not usually narrow the preceding vowel; thus from <1anla->1 "to under- stand', <1anlayis+;>1 from <1de->1 "to say', <1deyi%s+.>1 But from <1ye->1 "to e at', <1yi%yi%s+>1 is more common than <1yeyi%s+,>1 probably because of the cumulative narrowing effect of the two y's: <1her yi%g*i%d-i%n bi%r>1 <1yog*urt yi%yi%s+-i% var>1 "every young man has a way-of-eating yoghurt', i.e. everyone has his own way of doing things. The -<1i%s+>1 verbal noun can also be made from passive stems: <1bu ev-i%n yap-il-is+-i>1 "the structure of this house' ("way-of-being- made'). A limited number of -<1i%s+>1 verbal nouns form adjectives with -<1li%,>1 e.g.: <1elver->1 to be suitable <1elveri%s+li%>1 suitable <1go*ster->1 to show <1go*steri%s+li%>1 ostentatious <1kuIlan->1 to use <1kullanis+li>1 serviceable <1yag*->1 to rain <1yag*is+li>1 rainy 12. -<1mezli%k,>1 -<1memezli%k.>1 The addition of -<1li%k>1 (IV, g) to the negative aorist base makes a few abstract nouns such as <1anlas+- mazlik>1 "misunderstanding', <1saldirmazlik>1 "non-aggression', <1doymazlik>1 "insatiability'. From this form comes a reduplicated negative in -<1me-mez-li%k,>1 denoting persistent non-doing, failure to do: <1poli%ti%kacilarin uzag*i>1 go*r-<1e-memezli%g*-i%>1 "the short- sightedness of the politicians' ("their-persistent-inability-to-see the-distant'); <1gelmemezli%k etme, seni% bekleri%z>1 "don't fail to come; we expect you'; <1tati%llerde c+alis+mamazlik etme>1 "don't fail to work in the vacation'; <1ona seIa=m vermemezli%k edemez- di%m, c+u*nku* o bana "merhaba' dedi%>1 "I couldn't not greet him, for he said ""hello'' to me'. The ablative, less commonly the dative, of -<1memezli%k>1 with <1gelmek>1 "to come', or the dative of -<1mezIi%k>1 with <1vurmak>1 "to strike', means "to pretend not to': <1bi%lmemezli%kten gelemezsi%ni%z>1 <1bi%lmemezli%g*e gelemezsi%ni%z>1 you cannot pretend not to <1bi%lmezli%g*e vuramazsiniz know There is some fluctuation of usage; -<1memezIi%g*e vurmak>1 is used by some speakers of standard Turkish, but -<1mezli%kten gelmek>1 is a provincialism. <2Addendum to #2. In transliterated Ottoman texts, forms in -<1meg*i%n>1 will be found; this is not the genitive but the instru- mental of -<1mek.>1 For example, <1olmag*in>1 means "by being', "be- cause of being', "with being', or "when being'. 1. Introductory, This chapter deals with the many adverbial forms of the verb. The term "gerunds' has been chosen from among the several terms in use, which include "deverbal adverbs', "adverbials', "gerundives', "gerundia', and "converbs', as it has the merit of brevity. Those who are familiar with the gerund in Latin, however, will find little in common between it and most of the forms here described. Indeed, the only point of approach is that one sense of the adverbial form of the verb -<1erek,>1 "by doing', is like that of the ablative case of the Latin gerund, e.g. <2faciendo.>2 The forms treated in ##2-12 are made by adding suffixes to verb-stems, with the usual <1y>1 as buffer where necessary and the usual fluctuation of usage about the narrowing or otherwise of a preceding vowel; e.g. <1anla->1 with the suffix -<1erek>1 may be found spelled as <1anlayarak>1 or <1anliyarak.>1 The forms treated in sections ## 13-33 are formed from par- ticiples, tense-bases, or verbal nouns. 2. -e. We have already met this suffix in the formation of the potential verb. It occurs also in a few frozen forms, made from thc stems <1gec+->1 "to pass', <1kal->1 "to remain', <1rasgel->1 "to meet by chance', <1ortaklas+->1 "to enter into partnership', <1sap->1 "to deviate', <1de->1 "to say', and <1c+al->1 "to strike, throw'. Cf. <1go*re,>1 VII, 4. <1gec+-e, kal-a>1 are used to indicate the hour of the clock at which something happens : <1saat u*c+-u* yi%rmi% gec+e geldi%>1 "he came at twenty past three' ("twenty passing hour three'); <1saat do*rd-e bes+ kala gi%tti%>1 "he went at five to four' ("five remaining to hour four'). The <1saat>1 may be omitted: <1u*c+u* yi%rmi% gec+e; do*rde bes+ kala. kala>1 is also used in expressions of distance like <1eve bi%r ki%lometre kala benzi%n bi%tmi%s+>1 "a kilometre from home we ran out of petrol' ("to-the-house one kilometre remaining, the petrol finished'). <1rasgele>1 "haphazardly': <1rasgele bi%r tanesi%ni% aldim>1 "I took ne of them haphazardly, at random'. <1ortaklas+a>1 "jointly, in common': <1bu*tu*n bu servi%sler, Comet>1 4B <1jet uc+aklariyla ve OIympi%c Ai%rways i%le ortaklas+a yapilir>1 "all these services are carried out with Comet 4B jet aircraft and in conjunction with O.A.' <1sapa>1 is an adjective meaning "out of the way, off the beaten track'. <1di%ye>1 "saying': <1evet di%ye cevap verdi%>1 "he answered ""yes''' ("he gave answer saying yes'). Its use has been greatly extended: <2(a)>2 To saying in writing: <1yarin geI di%ye bi%r telgraf c+ekti%>1 "he sent a telegram saying ""come tomorrow'''. <1GIZRIZLMEZ di%ye bi%r levha>1 "a sign saying NO ADMITTANCE''' (note the impersonal passive <1gi%ri%lmez,>1 lit. "entering is not done'). <2(b)>2 To unspoken thoughts: <1ki%m bunu yapti di%ye du*s+u*nu*- yordum>1 "I was wondering who had done this' ("I was thinking, saying ""who has done this ?'''). <1(c)>1 To expressions of purpose and intention: <1Allah seni% du*nya bos+ kalmasin di%ye yaratmamis+>1 "God did not create you just to take up room' ("saying ""let the world not remain empty'''). Hence the common interrogative <1ne di%ye ?>1 "with what intention ?' ("saying what?'): <1ne di%ye yemek yemi%yorsun>1 ? "what's the idea of not eating?'; <1ne di%ye erken geldi%n?--si%zi% bekletmi%yeyi%m di%ye>1 "why have you come early?'--"in order not to keep you waiting' ("saying-what have you come early?'-- "saying let me not make you wait'). <2(d)>2 Colloquially it is used for "named': <1Bes+ S+ehi%r di%ye bi%r ki%tap>1 "a book named <2Five Cities';>2 <1Li%va di%ye bi%r dostum var>1 "I have a friend named Liva'. In formal language, the place of <1di%ye>1 in these two examples would be taken by <1adli, i%si%mli%,>1 or <1i%smi%nde.>1 <2(e)>2 In the sense of <1namina>1 (VII, 7): <1ehli%yet i%mti%hani di%ye bi%r s+ey yok Belc+i%ka'da>1 "there is nothing you could call a driving-test in Belgium'. <1c+ala>1 occurs in some compound adverbs, e.g.: <1c+alakalem yazmak>1 "to write busily' (lit. "throwing-pen') ; <1c+aIakas+ik yemek>1 "to gobble greedily' ("throwing-spoon'); <1c+alaku*rek ac+ilmak>1 "to row away at full speed' ("to recede throwing-oar'). These frozen forms apart, the -<1e>1 gerund does not occur singly; either <2(a)>2 the -<1e>1 gerund of one verb is repeated or <2(b)>2 the -<1e>1 gerunds of two verbs are used side by side, indicating repeated action contemporaneous with that of the main verb. The accent falls on the first -<1e>1 of the pair: <2(a)>2 <1leylek zipliya zipliya uzakIas+mis+ti>1 "the stork had hopped away' <1(zipla->1 "to hop'; lit. "the stork hopping hopping had receded'); <1i%nsan belki% do*g*u*le do*g*u*Ie uslanir>1 "perhaps one grows well-behaved with being constantly beaten' <1(do*g*u*I->1 passi%ve of <1do*g*->1 "to beat'); <1her keli%me i%c+i%n kalemi%ni% do*rt bes+ kere hokkasina batira batira uzun uzun yazdi>1 "dipping his pen into his ink-well four or five times for each word, he wrote at great length' <1(batir->1 "to dip', causative of <1bat->1 "to sink'). Another example is seen in the formula of farewell: <1gu*le gu*le]>1 "Õgoå happily ]' <1(gu*l->1 "to laugh'). With phrases formed from a verbal noun and an auxiliary verb, there is no need to repeat the verbal noun; thus from <1taki%b- etmek>1 "to follow': <1i%zleri%ni% taki%bede ede yu*ru*du*k>1 "we walked, following their tracks'. From <1feth-etmek>1 "to conquer': <1mem- leketler fethede ede i%lerledi%ler>1 "they advanced, conquering country after country'. <2(b)>2 <1yu*ru*kler kona go*c+e yayIaya gi%tti%ler>1 "the nomads went to the plateau, camping and moving on, camping and moving on' <1(kon->1 "to settle', reflexive of <1ko->1 "to put'; <1go*c+->1 "to migrate'); <1bo*yle gelmi%s+ bo*yle gi%decek du*nyamiz: bozula du*zele, deg*i%s+e geIi%s+e, yeni% eski%yi%, eski% yeni%yi% vura vura>1 "thus our world has come Õdown to uså and thus willit go Õonå: being-spoilt and put-right, changing and developing, the new constantly- striking the old, the old the new'. Other examples: <1hopliya zipliya>1 "hopping and skipping'; <1gu*le oyniya>1 "laughing and dancing'; <1i%te kaka>1 "pushing and shoving'; <1du*s+e kaIka>1 "falling and rising', i.e. with great difficulty. The repeated -<1e>1 gerund has an idiomatic use, exemplified in: <1gi%de gi%de si%nemaya mi gi%tti%n ?>1 lit. "going and going was it to the cinema you went?', i.e. with all that going, after all that, couldn't you find anywhere better to go than the cinema? <1gele gele bi%r ku*c+u*k paket geldi%>1 "after all that, one little parcel came'. <1bana da kala kala c+i%rki%n bi%r kadinin kars+isinda bos+ bi%r yer kalmis+>1 lit. "and to me, remaining and remaining, an empty place remained opposite an ugly woman', i.e. after all that waiting for a seat, all that was left for me was . . . . 3. -<1erek.>1 Whereas -e -e denotes repeated activity contemporaneous with the main verb, -<1erek>1 denotes a single act or continued acti- vity contemporaneous with or slightly prior to the main verb." The first vowel of this suffix is accented, except <2(a)>2 with negative stems, where, as usual, the syllable before the negative -<1me>1 is accented, thus <1bi%le=*rek>1 "knowingly' but <1bi%=*Imi%yerek>1 "unknowingly'; <2(b)>2 in <1o=*Iarak>1 "being', which has the initial accent usual in adverbs (see # 4)- <1gu*lerek cevap verdi%>1 "laughingly he answered'; <1kapiyi ac+arak sokag*a firIadi>1 "opening the door, he rushed into the street'; <1go*rmezli%g*e vurarak gec+ti%>1 "pretending not to see, he passed by'. It often corresponds to the English "by doing' or "with doing': <1bi%r okuyucu bu yaziya dayanarak hataya du*s+ebi%li%r>1 "a reader, by-relying on this article, may-fall into error'; <1geceyi% konus+arak gec+i%rdi%k>1 "we passed the night with-talking'. As repeated actions can merge into continuous action, the senses of -<1e>1 -<1e>1 and -<1erek>1 overlap to some extent; for "he came running', <1kos+a kos+a geldi%>1 and <1kos+arak geldi%>1 are both possible, and "you did this deliberately' may be <1bunu bi%le bi%le yaptin>1 or <1bunu bi%lerek yaptin.>1 In the next example, the main verb is modified by two -<1erek>1 gerunds, the second of which is itself modified by an -<1e>1 -<1e>1 gerund: <1her yaptig*ini bana ac+iklayarak,>1 <1a=letleri%ni% seve seve kullanarak i%ki% saat kadar c+alis+ti>1 "explaining to me everything he did, using his instruments lovingly, he worked for some two hours'. 4. olarak.>1 The -<1erek>1 form of <1ol->1 more often than that of other verbs, has a different subject from the main verb : <1bu sene i%lk defa olarak Ameri%ka'ya gi%tti%k>1 "this year, for the first time (lit. "Õitå being the first time'), we went to America'. <1yemek olarak bi%r ki%lo elma aldim>1 "as food (""being food'') I bought a kilo of apples'. In the next example, the subject of <1olarak>1 could be "I' or "you' (it is in fact "I'): <1si%ze bi%r dost olarak bunu so*ylu*yorum>1 "I am telling you this as a friend'. This word therefore becomes a useful device for creating adverbial phrases: <1neti%ce oIarak>1 ("it being the result') "consequently'; <1kat'i= olarak>1 or <1kesi%n olarak>1 " definitely'. 5. -<1i%p.>1 Instead of using two verb-stems with identical suffixes side by side or joined by "and', such as <1kalktik gi%tti%k>1 "we rose, we went' or <1okumaz ve yazamaz>1 "he cannot read and he cannot write', -<1i%p>1 may be added to the first verb-stem: <1kaIk-ip gi%tti%k; oku-y-up yaz-a-maz.>1 For "let me go and work in the city', there is no need to say <1gi%deyi%m (ve) s+ehi%rde c+alis+-ayim; gi%d-i%p s+ehi%rde c+alis+-ayim>1 is sufficient. Instead of <1oyna-mak ve s+arki so*yle-mek>1 "to dance and to sing', <1oyna-y-ip s+arki so*yle-mek. otur-up konus+-uyorlar>1 "they are sitting and talking'; <1ara- y-ip bul-madi>1 "he did not seek and find'; <1i%c+-i%p yi%-y-eceg*i%z>1 "we shall drink and eat'; <1otur-up di%nlen-i%ni%z>1 "sit and rest]'; <1gi%d-ip go*r-meli%yi%z>1 "we ought to go and see'; <1sec+-i%p al-irsam>1 "if I choose and buy'; <1gel-i%p gi%d-enler>1 "those who come and go' (note that this is not synonymous with <1gelenler ve gi%denler>1 "those who come and those who go'). If a positive stem with -<1i%p>1 is followed by the same verb's negative stem with the suffix of a verbal noun or personal par- ticiple, the sense is of a choice between the positive and the negative: <1li%der'i% beg*en-i%p beg*en-me-mek, sanki% da=va=ya i%nan-ip i%nan-ma-ma o*lc+u*su* olmus+tur>1 "approval or dis- approval of the leader has become as it were the criterion of belief or disbelief in the cause' (lit. "to-approve-and not-to-approve . . . has become the measure of to-believe-and not-to-believe . . .'); <1kendi%si%ni% sev-i%p sev-me-di%g*i%mi% bi%lmi%yorum>1 "I do not know whether I love her or not' (". . . my-loving-and my-not-loving'); <1davetleri%ni%n kabul ed-i%p et-mi%-y-eceg*i%me karar vermeli%- yi%m>1 "I ought to decide whether or not to accept their invitation' ("I-ought-to-give decision to-my-future-doing acceptance and my-future-not-doing'); <1geleIi%m beni%m bi%r eles+ti%rmeci% ol-up ol-ma-dig*ima>1 "let us come to the question of whether or not I am a critic' ("let-us-come to-my-being-and my-not-being . . .')- <1beni%m sor-ul-up sor-ul-mi-y-acag*indan endi%s+e etti%g*i%m sual s+uydu>1 "the question about which I was anxious whether it would be asked or not was this' ("the question pertaining-to-my- doing anxiety from-its-future-being-asked-and not-asked was- this'; <1s+uydu>1 == <1s+u-i%di%)->1 The use of <1de>1 "and' (see XIII, 2) after -<1i%p>1 marks a break be- tween the action of the two verbs; this is particularly common when the second verb is negative but the first is not: <1Zengo'yu go*r-u*p de kork-ma-mak i%mka=nsizdi>1 "it was impossible to see Zengo Õthe name of a banditå and not be afraid'. Without the <1de,>1 the meaning would be ". . . not to see and not to be afraid' <1bi%l-i%p de so*ylemek i%stemi%yenleri%n tavri%yle dedi% ki%>1 . . . "with the air of those who know and do not want to tell, he said . . .'. Here the <1de>1 separates <1bi%l->1 from <1so*ylemek>1 and also from the negative element in <1i%stemi%yenleri%n;>1 i.e. the suffixes which are replaced by the -<1i%p>1 are -<1en-ler-i%n>1 "of those who'. Without the <1de,>1 the -<1i%p>1 would link <1bi%l->1 to <1so*ylemek:>1 ". . . those who do not want to know and to tell'. <1ne yapacaksin, eve gi%di%p de ?>1 "what will you do when you have gone home?' (in reply to <1eve gi%di%->1 <1yorum>1 "I am going home'). Here the <1de>1 marks a time-lag be- tween the going and the doing. In this example there may be detected a trace of the original function of -<1i%p,>1 which was to create past participles. There is a clear survival of this use in the traditional joke about Nasrettin Hoja's planting a tree, making water on it and saying <1go*ru*p go*receg*i%n rahmet bu kadar]>1 "that's all the rain you're ever going to see ]' ("the rain you-have- seen-and will-see is this much'). Modern writers tend to avoid using more than one -<1i%p>1 in a sentence, except for some stereotyped phrases: <1ne yapip yapip bu i%s+i% bas+armaIi>1 "at all costs (""doing-and doing what'') one must make a success of this task'; <1du*s+u*nu*p du*s+u*nu*p s+u tekli%fte bulunuyorIar>1 "after thinking and thinking they are making this proposal'. Other set expressions involving -<1i%p>1 include : <1durup dururken>1 "without provocation', lit. "while standing and standing': <1durup dururken bana hu*cum etti%>1 "he attacked me unprovoked', i.e. while I was just standing and minding my own business. <1olup bi%tmek>1 ("to occur and finish') "to happen', of which the past tense <1olup bi%tti%>1 is used as a noun, "event, <2fait accompli'.>2 <1so*vu*p saymak>1 ("to swear and recount') "to curse and swear'. 6. -<1i%nce.>1 This denotes action just prior to that of the main verb. The accent is on the first syllable of this suffix. <1o geli%nce kal- karim>1 "when he comes I shall gct up'. <1bo*yle yaz de-y-i%nce yaz-an, sus deyi%nce sus-an haber mu*essese-si% olur mu?>1 "can therc be an organ of the press like this, which writes when it is told to write and is silent when told to be silent?' ("thus, on-Õsomeone'så-saying ""write ]'' writing, on-Õsomeone'så-saying ""be-silent ]'' being-silent news-institution occurs ?'). <1yaninda bic+ag*-i varsa u*zeri%me hu*cum ed-i%nce ne yaparim ben ?>1 "if he has his knife on him, when he attacks me what do I do?' <1otobu*s gel-me-y-i%nce bi%r taksi%ye bi%ndi%m>1 "as the bus did not come I got into a taxi'. <1hoca ol-ma-y-inca talebe olmaz ya]>1 "if there is no teacher there is no pupil, you know ]' ("teacher not- being, pupil does-not-occur')- <1geli%nce>1 "on coming' is frequently used after a dative to mean "as for': <1bana geli%nce>1 "as for me'; <1paraya geli%nce, o c+ok zor bi%r mesele>1 "as for money, that's a very difficult problem'. In the older language, -<1i%nce>1 meant "until'; the sense of "on doing' was then expressed by the now defunct -<1i%cek.>1 The older meaning of -<1i%nce>1 survives only in proverbs: <1Arap doy-unca ye-r, Acem c+atla-y-inca>1 "the Arab eats until he is satisfied, the Persian until he bursts'. 7. -<1i%nceye kadar, -i%nceyedek, -i%nceye deg*i%n>1 "until'. This is simply the dative of -<1i%nce>1 with a postposition meaning "as far as': <1rapor nes+r-ol-uncaya kadar hi%c+ bi%r s+ey yapamayiz>1 "we can- not do anything until the report is published'; <1o*l-u*nceyedek beka=r kalacak>1 "he will remain a bachelor until he dies'. 8. -<1ene kadar,>1 -<1enedek,>1 -<1ene deg*i%n>1 "until'. This use of the dative of the present participle with a postposition meaning "as far as' is no longer confined to the popular language; though more informal than -<1i%nceye kadar,>1 it has a respectable recent literary past and is especially frequent in newspapers : <1hu*ku*met, abluka altina alinan yerlerdeki% Tu*rkler ac+lik tehli%kesi%yle kars+ilas+-ana kadar pasi%f kalmis+tir>1 "the government has remained passive until the Turks in the blockaded areas (""the places taken under blockade'') are faced with the danger of hunger'. <1bugu*n-e gel-ene kadar bunun farkinda deg*i%ldi%m>1 "until Õcoming toå today I was not aware of this' ("I-was-not in- the-discernment-of this'). <1bi%z gi%d-ene kadar orada hapi%s kalacaktir>1 "until we go, he will remain imprisoned there'. 9. -<1esi%ye>1 "to the point of'. This dative of the participle of the future lI occurs mostly in set expressions: <1c+ildir-asiya sevmek>1 "to love to the point of going mad'; <1onu o*ldu*r-esi%ye do*vdu*m>1 "I beat him to the point of killing'; <1bu elbi%seyi% ver-esi%ye yap- tir-dim>1 "I have had this suit made on credit' ("for future giving'; the uninflected <1veresi%>1 is also used in this sense); <1bayil-asiya gu*ldu*ler>1 "they laughed to the point of fainting'; <1kendi%leri%nden gec+-esi%ye hora teperlerdi>1 "they used to dance the <2hora>2 (a cyclic dance) to the point of losing consciousness' ("to-the-point-of- passing from-themselves'). The negative is rare, except for <1durmamasiya>1 "unceasingly'. -<1esi%ye kadar>1 in the sense of -<1i%nceye kadar>1 "until' is a pro- vincialism. 10. -<1eli%, -eli% beri%, -eli%den beri%, -di%m -eli% "since'. The -<1di%m>1 in this last is the first-person singular of the past tense, which changes as appropriate : <1geleli%>1 <1bi%z buraya geleli% beri% hi%c+ yag*mur yag*madi>1 "since <1geleli%den beri%>1 <1geldi%k geleli%>1 we came here it has not rained'. <1si%z geldi%ni%z geleli%>1 "since you came'; <1o geldi% geleli%>1 "since he came'. <1bi%z buraya geleli% i%ki% yil oldu olmadi>1 "it is scarcely two years since we came here' ("two years have-been have-not-been'). In the older language, -<1eli%den>1 was used without <1beri%>1 for "since'. -<1eli%>1 suffixed to a negative stem means "during the time that . . . not', but is best translated "since': <1ben go*rmi%yeli% bi%rkac+ ki%lo vermi%s+si%ni%z>1 "since I saw Õyouå, you have lost some weight'. 11. <1oldum olasi>1 or <1oldum olasiya.>1 This expression means "ever since the beginning of things, for as long as anyone can remember'. It is a corruption of <1oldu olali>1 "since it has been'; in spite of appearing to contain the first-person singular <1oldum,>1 it does not mean "for as long as I can remember'. <1bu durum bugu*n olmus+ deg*i%ldi%r; oldum olasi bo*yledi%r>1 "this situation has not come into existence today; it has always been thus'. 12. -<1meden>1 or -<1mezden>1 "before, without'; -<1meden>1 or -<1mezden evvel/o*nce>1 "before'. The forms in -<1mezden>1 are much less com- mon in writing than those in -<1meden. ben gelmeden evvel i%s+e bas+lamayiniz>1 "don't start work before I come'; <1mektubu okumadan atti>1 "he threw the letter away without reading Õitå'; <1"Para bulunmazdan ki%mse c+ikainaz' di%yor poli%s>1 """Before the money is found no one can go out'', says the policeman'. An adverb may be introduced before the <1evvel>1 or <1o*nce: 0 o*lmeden az o*nce>1 "a little before he died'; <1bi%z ayrilmadan i%ki% gu*n evvel>1 "two days before we left'. <1c+ok gec+meden>1 ("before much passes') means "bcfore long'. To avoid suffixing -<1si%z>1 "without' to <1si%z>1 "you', "without you' is ex- pressed, in contexts where <1sensi%z>1 would be too familiar, by <1si%z olmadan>1 "without your being'. This ending -<1meden>1 looks like the ablative of the -<1me>1 verbal noun; hence indeed its use with <1evvel>1 and <1o*nce.>1 Historically, however, it is not so, as is shown by the accentuation, for the ending is enclitic, the accent falling on the verb-stem: <1ge=*lmeden, oku=*adan,>1 whereas in the ablative of -<1me>1 it is the -<1den>1 that is accented. Because of the risk of ambiguity, the ablative of -<1me>1 is not used as often as it might be; e.g. <1ki%tap okumadan c+ok eg*leni%yorum>1 could be taken to mean "I get a lot of fun without reading books', so to express "I get a lot of fun from reading books' one uses the ablative of -<1mek>1 rather than of -<1me>1 : <1ki%tap okumak- tan,>1 etc. 13. -<1r>1 -<1mez.>1 The juxtaposition of the positive and negative aorist bases denotes "as soon as': <1ben oturur oturmaz telefon c+aldi>1 "as soon as I sat down, the telephone rang' (i.e. just as I was on the border-line between not-sitting and sitting); <1geri%l- la=*cilar, karanlik basar basmaz go*rev i%c+i%n derhal toplanir- lar>1 "the guerillas assemble at once for duty as soon as darkness falls'. Colloquially, the positive and negative of the <1di%->1past are similarly used: <1oturdum oturmadim telefon c+aldi.>1 A similar colloquial use is exemplified in <1o geldi% mi% geldi% bana haber ver>1 "let me know the moment he comes' (lit. "has he come ? he has come; Õin that caseå tell me'). Three exceptions : <1i%ster i%stemez>1 is an adverbial phrase meaning "whether one wants it or not, willy-nilly'; <1olur olmaz>1 and <1bi%li%r bi%lmez>1 are adjectival phrases meaning respectively "ordinary, chosen at random' and "half-knowing, with a little knowledge'. 14. -<1di%kc+e.>1 The suffix -<1ce>1 (XII, 2) added to the participle in -<1di%k >1 denotes "so long as, the more': <1ben konus+-tukc+a konus+acag*im geli%r>1 "the more I talk, the more I feel like talking' ("as I talk, my-future-talking comes'). <1o gu*l-du*kc+e ben de gu*ldu*m>1 "the more she laughed, the more I laughed'. <1sen o mektubu yazmag*-i geci%kti%r-di%kc+e bas+lamasi gu*c+ oIacak>1 "the more you delay writing that letter, the harder it will be to begin' ("its beginning will become hard'). <1dedem koynunda yat-tikc+a beni%m-si%n ey gu*zel toprak>1 "so long as my ancestors lie in your bosom you are mine, o lovely land'. <1dog*u, i%nsan-in pi%s+-ti%kc+e sustug*u, sus-tukc+a pi%s+ti%g*i% yer>1 "the east is the place where the more one matures the more one is silent; the more silent one is the more one matures' ("the place pertaining to his--man's--being silent as-he-matures' and vice versa). The negative means much the same as -<1me-y-i%nce: devlet yardim et-me-di%kc+e fert ne yapabi%li%r?>1 "so long as the State does not help, what can the individual do ?' The use of <1her>1 "every' before -<1di%kc+e>1 gives the sense of "when- ever': <1bi%ze her geldi%kc+e c+i%c+ek geti%ri%yor>1 "every time he comes to us he brings flowers'. Particularly common are <1gi%tti%kc+e>1 "gradually' (lit. "as it goes'); <1gu*n gec+ti%kc+e>1 "as the days pass'; <1oldukc+a>1 "rather': <1o aks+am oldukc+a az yedi%>1 "that evening he ate rather little'. 15. -<1di%g*i%nce.>1 The suffix -<1ce>1 can also be added to the personal participle; this was an old Anatolian equivalent of -<1di%kc+e>1 but is sometimes used nowadays in the sense of "in the measure of his doing' or "inasmuch as he does': <1herkes, elden geldi%g*i%nce, faki%rIere yardim etmeli%>1 "everyone ought to help the poor as much as he can afford' ("in-the-measure-of-its-coming from- hand'). <1uzag*i go*remedi%g*i%mi%zce, manzara hakkinda bi%r fi%kri%mi%z yoktu>1 "inasmuch-as-we-could-not-see far, we had no idea about the landscape'. 16. -<1di%kte>1 "on doing, at the moment of doing'. This is not very frequent. It may be reinforced by <1her: her mektup aldikta yu*zu* gu*ler>1 "every time he gets a letter his face lights up'; <1her geldi%kte kavga eder>1 "every time he comes hc quarrels'. 17. -<1di%kten sonra>1 "after doing'. This is the regular converse of -<1meden evvel/o*nce- roman-i oku-duktan sonra fi%kri%mi% so*yli%yeyi%m>1 "let me state my opinion after reading the novel'. Expressions of time may be inserted: <1yeni% vazi%fe-m-e bas+la- diktan bi%r hafta sonra tuhaf bi%r s+ey oldu>1 "a week after Õmyå beginning my new duty, a queer thing happened'. 18. -<1di%kten bas+ka>1 "apart from doing, in addition to doing'; <1o, bu s+i%i%ri% oku-duktan bas+ka ezberlemi%s+ de>1 "apart from reading this poem he has learned it by heart too'; <1i%ngi%li%zce konus+-ama-diktan bas+ka, tu*rkc+e de bi%lmez-si%n>1 "apart from not being able to speak English, you don't know Turkish either'. 19. -<1di%g*i%nden bas+ka.>1 The personal participles are similarly used in the ablative with <1bas+ka: konus+amadig*indan bas+ka>1 "apart from the fact that you cannot speak'; ev <1parasini o*di%yemi%yece- g*i%nden (o*de->1 "to pay') <1bas+ka>1 "apart from the fact that he is not going to be able to pay the rent'. 20. Gerund-equivalents. The personal participles form the basis of a number of gerund-equivalents (i.e. phrases equivalent in meaning to a gerund) about which one important general observa- tion must be made : if they have a third-person subject expressed, it is in the absolute case. Consider first these three sentences: <2(a)>2 <1o gu*n yag*mur yag*di>1 "that day, it rained'. <2(b)>2 <1o gu*nlerde c+ok yag*mur yag*di>1 "in those days it rained a lot'. In <2(a)>2, <1o gu*n>1 is an adverb modifying <1yag*di;>1 in <2(c)>2 it is a n oun- phrase, subject of <1i%di%. o gu*nlerde>1 in <2(b)>2 is, in Turkish termino- logy, a locative complement to the verb (in English we should call it an adverbial phrase of time). Now if <1o>1 is replaced by a personal participle whose subject is a noun, that noun stays in the absolute form in <2(a)>2 but goes into the genitive in the other two sentences: <2(a)>2 <1Orhan geIdi%g*i% gu*n yag*mur yag*di>1 "the day Orhan came, it rained'. <2(b)>2 <1Orhan'in Ri%ze'de kaIdig*i gu*nlerde c+ok yag*mur yag*di>1 in the days Orhan stayed at Rize, it rained a lot'. <2(c)>2 <1Orhan'in geldi%g*i% gu*n yag*murlu i%di%>1 "the Orhan came was rainy'. The words <1Orhan geldi%g*i% gu*n>1 in <2(a)>2 are a gerund-equivalent; i.e. they could be replaced by <1Orhan geli%nce>1 or <1Orhan geldi%kte,>1 and so <1Orhan>1 remains in the absolute case. But <1Orhan'in kal- dig*i>1 in <2(b)>2 and <1Orhan'in geldi%g*i%>1 in <2(c)>2 are adjectival phrases , qualifying <1gu*nlerde>1 and <1gu*n>1 respectively, and as their subject <1Orhan>1 is definite it is put in the genitive. The same distinction is seen in these examples : <1soyadi kanunu c+ikacag*i zaman ben Avrupaya gi%tmi%s+ti%m>1 "when the surname-law was about to be promulgated, I had gone to Europe'; <1soyadi kanununun c+ika- cag*i gu*nlerde bi%r aks+am yemeg*i%nde Atatu*rk'u*n sofrasinda i%di%m>1 "in the days when the surname-law was about to be promul- gated, at one evening meal I was at Atatu*rk's table'. In the first example, <1zaman>1 is an adverb and the phrase <1soyadi>1 . . . <1zaman>1 is a gerund-equivalent; in the second, <1gu*nlerde>1 is a noun and <1soyadi>1 . . . <1c+ikacag*i>1 an adjectival phrase qualifying it. <1i%nsan vasi%yetnamesi%ni% yazacag*i zaman avukatini c+ag*ir- mali>1 "when a man is about to write his will he should call his lawyer'; here again <1zaman>1 is an adverb and <1i%nsan>1 . . . <1zaman>1 a gerund-equivalent. But in <1i%nsanin vasi%yetnamesi%ni% yazacag*i zaman olur>1 "the time occurs when a man is about to write his will', <1zaman>1 is the subject, qualified by <1i%nsanin . . . yazacag*i.>1 Such gerund-equivalents, containing the words <1zaman>1 or <1vaki%t>1 "time', <1gu*n>1 "day', <1an>1 "instant', <1sira>1 "moment', used ad- verbially in the absolute form and qualified by a personal par- ticiple, correspond to English adverbial clauses of time. <1gi%tti%g*i%mi%z zaman o kaldi>1 when we went, he stayed <1gi%tti%g*i%mi%z zaman o kalir>1 when we go, he stays <1gi%tti%g*i%miz zaman o kalacak>1 when we go, he will stay <1gi%deceg*i%mi%z zaman o geldi%>1 when we were about to go, he came <1gi%deceg*i%mi%z zaman o geli%r>1 when we are about to go, he comes <1gi%deceg*i%mi%z zaman o gelecek>1 when we are about to go, he will come 21. -<1di%g*i% mu*ddetc+e>1 "as long as': <1Osman bahc+ede c+alis+tig*i mu*ddetc+e s+arki so*yler>1 "Osman sings all the time he works in the garden'. In this gerund-equivalent, <1mu*ddetc+e>1 may be re- placed by the neologism <1su*rece.>1 22. -<1di%g*i% halde.>1 The most frequent sense of this gerund- equivalent is "although': <1"ve' edat-i o kadar yaygin kul- lanis+li oIdug*u halde di%Ii%mi%zdeki% yer-i% sanildig*indan c+ok daha az o*nemli%di%r>1 "although the particle <1ve>1 is so widely used, its place in our language is much less important than is thought'. <1bag*irdig*im halde ki%mse yardima gelmedi%>1 "although I shouted, no one came to help'. It is, however, also found in its literal sense of "in a state of ...ing': <1bacag*i aIc+ida oldug*u halde eve do*ndu*>1 "she returned home with her leg in plaster' ("in a state of being her-leg in- plaster'; for the construction, see XVIII, 1). 23. -<1di%g*i% takdi%rde>1 lit. "in-the-assumption pertaining-to-his- ...ing' is still used to mean "in the event of his ...ing', though disapproved by modernists, who prefer a simple "if'-clause: <1hazir bulunamadig*iniz takdi%rde toplantiyi tehi%r ederi%z>1 "in the event of your being unable to be present, we shall postpone the meeting'. 24. -<1di%g*i% i%c+i%n>1 or -<1di%g*i%nden.>1 The personal participle followed b y <1i%c+i%n>1 or in the ablative case means "because of his ...ing': <1bi%r mu*slu*man-Ia evIendi%g*i% i%c+i%n>1 (or <1evlendi%g*i%nden) ki%li%seden atilmis+tir>1 "because she married Õwithå a Muslim she has been expelled from the church'; <1bu aks+am ti%yatroya gi%deceg*i%mi%z i%c+i%n>1 (or <1gi%deceg*i%mi%zden) yemek erken yi%yeceg*i%z>1 "because we are going to go to the theatre this evening, we shall dine early'. 25. -<1di%g*i% ni%spette>1 "in proportion to his ...ing'. This is a little antiquated, and most writers nowadays would prefer -<1di%kc+e: annem, kendi%ni% mu*dafaaya c+alis+tig*i ni%spette fazla ezi%li%rdi%>1 "my mother used to be all the more bullied as she tried to defend herself' (". . . used to be more crushed in the proportion of her trying . . .')- 26. -<1di%g*i% kadar.>1 The personal participle followed by <1kadar>1 "amount' means "as much as': <1i%stedi%g*i%ni%z kadar kalabi%li%r- si%ni%z>1 "you can stay as long as you want'; <1doyacag*imiz kadar>1 <1yi%veceg*i%z>1 "we shall eat as much as will fill us' (". . . the amount pertaining-to-our-future-being-satiated'). 27. -<1di%g*i% gi%bi%>1 "as soon as he does/did' or "as he does/did'. In the first of these two uses the -<1di%g*i% gi%bi%>1 is a gerund-equivalent. The two uses are paralleled in English; cf. "I left as he came in' and "I think as he thinks'. -<1eceg*i% gi%bi%,>1 however, is not a gerund-equivalent but is <1used>1 only in the literal sense of "as he will . . .': <1o*g*retmen, dersi% o*g*renci%-ni%n anliyacag*i gi%bi% anIatmali>1 "the teacher should explain the lesson in a way the pupil will understand' ("like what-he-will-understand')- 28. -<1eceg*i%ne>1 or -<1ecek yerde>1 "instead of ...ing': <1heri%f benden o*zu*r di%leyeceg*i%ne>1 (or <1di%leyecek yerde) ku*fu*re, hakarete 1bas+ladi>1 "the scoundrel, instead of begging pardon from me, began swearing and insulting'. <1bas+kasi yu*z vereceg*i%ne>1 (or <1verecek yerde) si%z yi%rmi% veri%n>1 "instead of someone else giving a hundred, you give twenty' (the speaker is offering a bargain)- <1kis+in burada kal-ip yu*k oIacag*ima>1 (or <1olacak yerde) s+ehre gi%d-i%p ekmeg*i%mi% ararim>1 "instead of staying here in winter and being a burden, I shall go to the city and seek my bread'. 29. -<1mekle.>1 This and the next two gerunds are based on the infinitive. <1'mekle>1 is frequent in its literal sense of "with/by ...ing': <1gi%tmekle aptallik etti%m>1 "I did a silly thing by going'; <1gu*nu*- mu* hep c+alis+makla gec+i%rdi%m>1 "I spent my day entirely with working'. As the infinitive could regularly have a subject in the older language (see X, 3), -<1mekle>1 used to occur with a subject different from that of the main verb, as in <1IZstanbul'da bu*yu*k bi%r yangin zuhur etmekle, Sultan Seli%m Edi%rne'ye gi%tti%>1 "with a great fire occurring in Istanbul, Sultan Selim went to Edirne'. This now sounds highly archaic; the modern idiom would be <1zuhur etti%g*i% i%c+i%n>1 or <1c+iktig*i i%c+i%n>1 "because . . . occurred'. -<1mekle beraber>1 or -<1mekle bi%rli%kte>1 "together with ...ing' is common in the sense of "although': <1pek zengi%n olmamakla beraber her zaman ni%kbi%ndi%r>1 "although he is not very rich he is always optimistic'. In this construction the subject of -<1mekle>1 can still be different from that of the main verb. 30. -<1mektense>1 or -<1mekten i%se>1 "rather than': <1s+ehri%n yakici havasi altinda bunalmaktansa Sari%yer'e gi%tmi%ye karar verdlm>1 "rather than be suffocated under the scorching air of the city, I decided to go to Sariyer' <1(gi%tmi%ye>1 is the dative of <1gi%tme,>1 the verbal noun of <1gi%t->1). <1onu bu halde go*rmektense o*lu*mu* bi%n defa terci%h ederi%m>1 "rather than see him in this state I would a thousand times prefer death'. The explanation of this form is that the -<1ten>1 is comparative, so, for example, <1go*rmektense>1 means "if it is by comparison with seeing, if it is from the starting-point of seeing'. An alternative explanation would make it a corruption of <1go*rmekten eyi%si%>1 (the modern <1i%yi%-si%>1 "its good'), so that the original sense would have been "that which is better than seeing'. This is unlikely, as the <1eyi%si%>1 would have been too obviously redundant in such pro- verbial expressions as <1na=da=n i%le konus+maktan i%se ehl-i% i%rfan u*e tas+ tas+imak yeg*di%r>1 "rather than converse with the ignorant it is better to carry stones with the learned' <1(ehl-i% i%rfan>1 is a Persian izafet group). An older alternative is -<1medense: ag*lamadansa ag*latmak i%la=hi= bi%r kanundur>1 "to-make-weep rather-than-to-weep is a divine law'. This use of the ablative followed by -<1se>1 is not confined to the verbal nouns; cf. <1hi%c+ yoktansa ona da razi olduk>1 "we agreed to that as being better than nothing', lit. "if it is by comparison with nothing'. 31. -<1meksi%zi%n>1 "without ...ing'. This is less frequent than -<1meden. i%nsan c+alis+maksizin para kazanmaz>1 "one cannot earn money without working'; <1demi%ndenberi% sebebi%ni% bi%lmek- si%zi%n rahatsiz oluyordum>1 "recently I have been getting unwell without knowing the-cause-of-it'. 32. Equivalents of "as if'. <2(a)>2 -<1cesi%ne.>1 This suffix is used with nouns (see XII, 2 <2(h))>2 and with the base of the aorist and <1mi%s+->1past and with the third-person singular inferential of the aorist, present I, future I, and <1mi%s+->1past : <1yag*mur, bardaktan bos+an-ir-casina yag*iyordu>1 "the rain was falling as-if-being-emptied out-of-glasses'; <1maki%neni%n bi%r parc+asi ol-mus+-c+asina, sag*a sola bakmadan c+alis+iyorlardi>1 "they were working without-looking to right Õorå to left as-if- having-become a part of the machine'; <1pek eski%den tanis+-ir- mis+-c+asina el sikis+tik>1 "we shook hands as-if-being acquainted long-since', i.e. as if we had known each other for years; <1kendi% kendi%ne so*ylu*-yor-mus+-c+asina mirildandi>1 "he murmured as-if-talking to himself'; <1o*l-ecek-mi%s+-c+esi%ne sik sik soluyordu>1 "he was breathing rapidly as-if-about-to-die'; <1i%yi% bi%r so*z so*yle- mi%s+-mi%s+-c+esi%ne bo*bu*rleni%yordu>1 "he was showing off as if he had said something worth saying' (lit. "as-if-having-said a good saying')- An example of the suspended affixation of this suffix: <1hi%c+ bi%r s+ey go*rmu*yor ve duymuyormus+c+asina go*zu*nu* kapadi>1 "he closed his eyes as if seeing and hearing nothing', i.e. <1go*r-mu*- yor-mus+-c+asina ve duy-mu-yor-mus+-c+asina.>1 <2(b)>2 The same sense is conveyed by <1gi%bi%>1 "like': <1bos+anir gi%bi%, olmus+ gi%bi%, tanis+irmis+ gi%bi%,>1 etc.; the whole phrase can be introduced by <1sanki%>1 (see XIII, 3o)., <2(c)>2 The dative of the base of the <1mi%s+->1past is often used with <1benzemek>1 "to resemble', as in <1timarhaneden kac+-mis+-a benzi%yorsun>1 "you look as if you had escaped from the asylum' (lit. "you resemble having-escaped . . .'). The same construction may be found with other bases, even that of the present ("even', because this base is not a participle): <1uyuyor'a benzi%yor>1 "he looks as if he is sleeping'. This is not a normal literary construc- tion; hence the apostrophe to separate the verb from the dative suffix. The closest English equivalent is "he looks like he's sleeping'. 33. -<1mecesi%ne.>1 The addition of -<1cesi%ne>1 to the verbal noun in -<1me>1 makes a form meaning "on condition of', used colloquially to express the terms of a wager: <1sali gu*nu*ne kadar i%s+i% bi%ti%r- mecesi%ne bahse gi%rdi%k>1 "we made a bet (""we entered wager'') to finish the job by Tuesday'. This form cannot be made to refer to a particular person, nor, in this meaning, can it be made negative. For example, for "we bet that you would not be able to finish the job by Tuesday', the dative of the future personal par- ticiple is used (with the impotential -<1eme->1) : <1sali gu*nu*ne kadar i%s+i% bi%ti%remi%yeceg*i%ne bahse gi%rdi%k.>1 The negative appears in <1durmamacasina>1 "ceaselessly'. Synonymous are <1durmamasina>1 and <1durmamasiya.>1 34 <1i%k>1 Originally a participle of the obsolete <1er->1 "to be', this now means "while being'. Like the other surviving forms of that stem, it may be used as an independent word or a suffix. The <1e>1 being invariable, the suffixed forms are -<1ken>1 after consonants and -<1yken>1 after vowels: <1bu keli%me aslinda i%si%mken, edat olarak da kullanilir>1 "while this word is originally a noun, it is also used as a particle' ("this word in-its-origin noun-while-being, it is also used being a particle'); <1kendi%si% c+ocukken babasi o*lmu*s+tu*>1 "while he was a child (""himself child-while-being''), his father had died'; <1ben oradayken (orada i%ken) o*yle bi%r ni%yeti% yoktu>1 "while I was there he had no such intention'. It may be suffixed to any tense-base, positive or negative, singular or plural, except the <1di%->1past, but is most frequent with the aorist: <1o gi%derken muhakkak beni% uyandir>1 "when he is going, be sure to wake me'; <1c+ocuklar parkta oynarIarken bi%z c+ars+iya gi%tti%k>1 "while the children were playing in the park, we went to the market' ; <1bi%zde kanunlarin c+og*u tatbi%k edi%lmezken acaba bu kanun neden kemal-i% ci%ddi%yetle tatbi%k edi%li%r>1 ? "amongst us while most of the laws are not applied, why, I won- der, is this law applied in real earnest ?' <1(kemal-i% ci%ddi%yetle>1 is a Persian izafet : "with perfection-of seriousness')- With bases other than the aorist: <1kapici bana anahtari veri%yor-ken zil o*ttu*>1 "while the janitor was giving me the key, the bell rang'; <1bi%z hana gi%rmekte-yken gu*nes+ batti>1 "while we were entering the inn, the sun set'; <1gu*ru*ltu*den nes+emi%z kac+mis+-ken hepi%mi%z gene gu*ldu*k>1 "while our pleasure had fled (""our-pleasure while-being-having-fled'') because of the noise, we all laughed again'; <1sirasi gelmi%s+-ken s+unu da so*yli%yeyi%m>1 "as the time for it has come (""its-time while-being-having-come''), let me say this too'; <1ka=g*idi alacak-ken durdu>1 "while-about-to- take the paper, he stopped'; <1tam go*mecek-ler-ken o*lmekten cayiyor>1 "just as-they-are-about-to-bury Õhimå he changes his mind about (""swerves away from'') dying'. With the future participle in the depreciatory sense (IX, 2, end): <1marangoz olacak-ken gu*zeli%m dolabimizi berbat etti%>1 "while he is supposed to be a carpenter, he has ruined our lovely cupboard'. Like the English "while', <1i%ken>1 may be used concessively: <1o deli%kanli, c+ok i%ri% yapili i%ken>1 (or <1yapiliyken) gu*rbu*z sayilamaz>1 "that young man, while of very large build, cannot be considered robust'. In the next example, <1i%ken>1 is followed by the ablative suffix: <1seni%n kadarkendenberi% pul topluyorum>1 "I have been collect- ing stamps since I was your age' <1(-ken-den-berl>1 "since while being'; <1seni%n kadar>1 "as big as you')- 35. Compound verbs. <2(a)>2 The addition of <1durmak>1 to the -<1e>1 or -<1i%p>1 gerunds denotes continuous action: <1so*ylenedurmak>1 or <1so*yleni%p durmak>1 "to keep grumbling'. Less commonly, a finite tense may be followed by the same tense of <1durmak: so*yleni%r durur>1 "he keeps grumbling'; <1so*ylendi% durdu>1 "he kept grumbling'. A colloquial alternative is -e <1komak>1 or -<1e koymak: c+alis+ako>1 or <1c+alis+akoy>1 "keep on working I' <2(b)>2 The addition of <1gelmek>1 to the -<1e>1 gerund has the same effect: <1neler c+ek-e-geIdi%>1 "what things he-has-always-suffered ]'; <1bo*yle i%s+ler ol-a-geldi%>1 "such things have always happened'; <1kullan-a-geldi%g*i%mi%z Arapc+a ve Farsc+a keli%meler>1 "the Arabic and Persian words which we have always used'; <1okun-a- gelen ki%taplar>1 "books which are always being read'. The <1gel->1 is sometimes written separately: <1bu hata yi%ne yapila gelmektedi%r>1 "this mistake is still being constantly made'. Exceptional is <1c+ik-a-gelmek,>1 meaning not "to keep coming up' but "to come up suddenly'. <2(c)>2 -<1e-kalmak>1 "to remain, be left ...ing': <1don-a-kaldim>1 "I was left freezing, was petrified'; <1bak-a-kaldilar>1 "they re- mained staring'. <2(d)>2 The imperative of <1go*rmek>1 placed after the negative of the -<1e>1 gerund of other verbs means "mind you don't', or, if the i%mperative be that of the third person, "beware, lest . . .': <1oraya gi%t-mi%-y-e-go*r>1 "mind you don't go there'; <1harp ates+-i% yan- mi-y-a go*r-su*n>1 "beware lest the fire of war be kindled'. <2(e)>2 Until the nineteenth century, the <1mi%s+->1 or <1di%->1past of <1yaz- mak,>1 added to an -<1e>1 gerund, indicated that the action of the first verb was narrowly averted. Even as an archaism, the only example one might see now is <1du*s+-e-yazdi>1 "he well-nigh fell'. The modern expression for this is <1az kaldi du*s+u*yordu,>1 lit. "little remained he-was-falling'. <2(f)>2 Rapid or sudden action is conveyed by suffixing to a verb- stem an <1i%>1 (or, after a vowel, <1yi%),>1 which changes with vowel- harmony, and <1vermek: onu kaldir-i-vereli%m>1 "let us quickly removee it'; <1Abdurrahman'in i%c+i%nden s+u heri%fi% deni%ze uc+ur- u-vermek gec+ti%>1 "Abdurrahman felt like chucking that fellow into the sea' ("to-suddenly-make-to-fly that fellow to-the-sea passed through-his-inside'); <1ko*pru* c+o*k-u*-verdi%>1 "the bridge suddenly collapsed'. Colloquially, the first element may be re- peated : <1ko*pru* c+o*ku* c+o*ku*verdi%.>1 The passive suffix is attached to the <1ver->1, not to the first verb- stem: <1kapidan dis+ariya koy-u-ver-i%l-di%>1 "he-was-rapidly-put outside the door'. There are alternative forms of the negative. If the <1ver->1 is negated, it means that the rapid or sudden action was not done: <1gi%d-i%-vermek>1 "to go quickly, to dash'; <1c+ars+iya kadar gi%di%verdi%>1 "he dashed as far as the market'; <1c+ars+iya kadar ni%c+i%n gi%di%ver- me-di%?>1 "why did he not dash as far as the market?' If the mai%n stem is negated, it means "to stop abruptly': <1c+ars+iya kadar ni%c+i%n gi%t-me-y-i%-verdi% ?>1 "why has he suddenly stopped going as far as the market?' <2(g)>2 The addition of <1gi%tmek>1 to the -<1e>1 gerund denotes con- tinuity or finality according to context: <1i%yi%li%g*e kemli%k ol-a- gelmi%s+ ol-a-gi%der>1 (proverb) "kindness has always been requited with evil and always will be' ("for-good, bad has-always-happened, always-will-go-on-happening'). <1kadinlarimizin yu*zu*nden ati- lan pec+e bu*tu*n gerc+ekleri%mi%zi%n yu*zu*nden at-il-a-gi%decek- ti%r>1 "the veil cast away from the face of our women will-be-cast- away-and-done-with from the face of all our realities'. See also the use of -<1di%r gi%der>1 in VIII, 43. <2(h)>2 Colloquially, finality is expressed by the use of the third- person past <1gi%tti%>1 after any person of the <1di%->1past of another verb: <1bi%r tu*rlu* isinamadim gi%tti% s+u koltug*a>1 "I just haven't been able to get used to this ministerial post, and that's all there is to it' (said in false modesty by a "man of the people'). <1bo*yle kapandi gi%tti% hirsizliktan c+ok daha bu*yu*k bi%r suc+, i%nsanlari yok yere suc+landirma suc+u>1 "thus was a crime much graver than theft covered up and done with, the crime of accusing people falsely'. Altematively, the base of the <1mi%s+->1past may be followed by <1gi%tmi%s+>1 with the appropriate personal ending: <1o*Imu*s+ gi%tmi%s+- ler>1 "they're dead and gone'; <1unutmus+ gi%tmi%s+i%m>1 "I've totally forgotten'. 1. General observations. Almost any "adjective' may modify a verb: <1i%yi%>1 good <1i%yi% c+alis+ir>1 he works well <1dog*ru>1 straight <1yol dog*ru gi%der>1 the road goes straight <1heyecanli>1 excited <1heyecanIi konus+uyor>1 he is talking excitedly <1ac+ik>1 open <1ac+ik konus+alim>1 let us speak openly <1ag*ir>1 heavy <1ag*ir basti>1 it pressed heavily <1yavas+>1 slow <1yavas+ gi%t>1 go slowly A repeated adjective or noun may serve as an adverb: <1yavas+ yavas+ yu*ru*yorduk>1 we were walking slowly <1hi%ka=yeyi% gu*zel gu*zel anlatti>1 he told the story beautifully <1kapi kapi dolas+tim>1 I wandered (fromå door Õtoå door <1ev ev aradilar>1 they conducted a house-to-house search <1efendi% efendi% davrandi>1 he behaved in a gentlemanly way Cf. <1hanim hanimcik oturdu>1 "she sat like a proper little lady'. There are a host of reduplicated adverbial expressions, includ- ing onomatopoeic words like <1horul horul;>1 see XIV, 29. Some verbs have reduplicated cognate adverbs ending in <1m: su*ru*m su*ru*m su*ru*nmek>1 "to grovel grovellingly', i.e. to drag out a wretched existence; <1burum burum burulmak "to>1 be con- torted gripingly'; <1kivrim kivrim kivrilmak>1 "to writhe con- vulsively'. The adverb <1i%c+i%n i%c+i%n>1 "inwardly' must not be confused with the postposition <1i%c+i%n>1 "for'. The distributive numerals when repeated serve as adverbs: <1i%ki%s+er i%ki%s+er gi%rdi%ler>1 "they entered two by two' ; <1do*rder do*rder >1 "in fours'; <1i%ki%s+er u*c+er>1 "in twos and threes'. For "one by one', however, <1bi%r bi%r>1 or <1teker teker>1 is preferred to <1bi%rer bi%rer.>1 "Little by little' is <1azar azar.>1 Adjectives can be made into adverbs with the help of <1suret>1 (A) "shape' and <1hal>1 (A) "condition': <1hafi%fsurette>1 "lightly' ("in light shape') ; <1ag*ir surette>1 "heavily'; <1fena halde>1 "badly unpleasanth ' The same is done for adjectives and nouns with the help of <1olarak>1 (XI, 4): <1azami= olarak>1 "at most' ("being maximal'); <1s+aka oIarak>1 "jokingly' ("it being ajoke'). 2. -<1ce.>1 This enclitic suffix makes adverbs from substantives. <2(a)>2 From adjectives it makes adverbs of manner: <1i%yi%>1 "good', <1i%yi%ce>1 "well'; <1gu*zel>1 "beautiful', <1gu*zelce>1 "beautifully, properly' ; <1dog*ru>1 "straight', <1dog*ruca>1 "directly'. <2(b)>2 The pronominal <1n>1 which appears before the case-endings of third-person pronouns appears also before this suffix: <1bu>1 "this', <1bunca>1 "this much, so much'; <1o>1 or <1kendi%si%>1 "he', <1onca>1 or <1kendi %- si%nce>1 "according to him'; <1baziIari>1 "some people', <1bazilarinca>1 "on the part of some people'. <2(c)>2 The translation of the adverbs it makes from nouns depends on the context, as with the pronouns in the preceding paragraph. In the next two examples we have plain adverbs of manner: <1c+ocukc+a konus+uyorsun>1 "you are talking childishly'; <1ordumuz, du*s+mana aslanca saldirdi>1 "our army attacked the enemy like lions'. Sometimes it means "in respect of' and corresponds to the American use of "-wise': <1adanin arazi%si% toprakc+a zayiftir>1 "the island's land is weak in respect of soil'; <1karisi kendi%si%nden yas+c+a bu*yu*ak ve zeka=ca u*stu*ndu*r>1 "his wife is older than he (""bigger age-wise'') and intellectually superior'; <1karinca karar- i-n-ca>1 lit. "the ant according to its assessment', i.e. "one contri- butes to the extent of one's modest ability'. <2(d)>2 In the sense of "on the part of', it is rapidly superseding <1tarafindan>1 as an indicator of the agent of a passive verb: <1Mi%lli= Savunma Bakanlig*i-n-ca hazirlanan teklif, Mali%ye-ce reddedi%lmi%s+ti%r>1 "the proposal prepared by the Ministry of National Defence has been rejected by the Finance Department'. <1du*nyaca mes+hur>1 "world-famous' ("famed on-the-part-of-the- world'). <2(e)>2 The adverbs it makes when attached to names of peoples come to be used as names of their languages and then as adjectives : <1tu*rkc+e konus+mak>1 "to speak like-the-Turks, to speak Turkish'; <1akici bi%r tu*rkc+e i%le dedi% ki%>1 . . . "in a fluent Turkish, he said <1tu*rkc+e so*zlu*k>1 "Turkish dictionary'; <1i%ngi%li%zce konus+mak>1 "to speak English'; <1i%ngi%li%zceni%z nasil?>1 "how is your English ?'; <1i%ngi%li%zce bi%r keli%me>1 "an English word'. Hence, with the inter- rogative <1ne: nece ?>1 "(in) what language ?' <2(f)>2 In numerical expressions: <1ki%lometrelerce uzak>1 "kilo- metres away' ("distant kilometres-wise') ; <1haftalarca o*nce>1 "weeks before'; <1uc+aklarin mi%ktari 10.000 lercedi%r>1 (read <1on bi%n- lercedi%r)>1 "the number of aircraft is in the tens of thousands'; <1bu mi%llet, beni%m gi%bi% daha bi%nlerce Mustafa Kemal c+ikarir>1 "this nation will produce thousands more Mustafa Kemals like me'. <2(g)>2 Added to the demonstratives <1bo*yle, s+o*yle,>1 and <1o*yle. bo*ylece>1 and the far rarer <1o*ylece>1 have the sense of "therefore' as well as "thus': <1i%s+ bo*yle tamamlandi>1 "the job was completed in this way'; <1bo*ylece i%s+ tamamlandi>1 "that's how the job came to be completed'. <1s+o*ylece>1 <2is>2 synonymous with <1s+o*yle>1 "thus'. <2(h)>2 Extensions of -<1ce. (i)>1 -<1cene: bo*ylecene, i%yi%cene>1 are colloquial alternatives for <1bo*ylece, i%yi%ce.>1 <2(ii)>2 -<1cesi%ne.>1 This is occasionally used to make adverbs from nouns: <1domuz-casina>1 "piggishly'; <1canavar-casina>1 "like a monster'; <1es+ek-c+esi%ne>1 "like a donkey'. See XI, 32. 3. Nouns used adverbially. <2(a)>2 In the absolute case: <1sabah aks+am c+alis+iyorum>1 "I am working morning Õandå evening'; <1hava alani, s+ehi%rden on bes+ ki%lometre uzaktir>1 "the airfield is 15 km. distant from the city'; <1si%zden bi%r bas+ uzundur>1 "he is a head taller than you'; <1i%ki% hafta evvel>1 "two weeks ago'. Note, however, that <1bi%r an evvel>1 does not mean "a moment before' but "as soon as possible'. <2(b)>2 In the dative and ablative cases (cf. # 13 <2(e)):>2 <1dog*rudan dog*ruya>1 "directly, without intermediary'; <1i%nce-den i%nce-ye>1 "in fine detail'; <1dar-a dar>1 "narrowly, only just'; <1bas+-a bas+>1 "on equal terms'; <1bas+ bas+-a>1 <2"te=te a*= te=te';>2 <1bas+-tan bas+-a>1 "entire ly'; <1bi%r-den-bi%r-e>1 (written as one word) "immediately'; <1gu*n-den gu*n-e>1 "from day to day'; <1gu*nu* gu*nu*-n->1e "to the very day', "by return of post', (lit. "its-day to-its-day')- <2(c)>2 In the old instrument-al case. See # 13 <2(f)>2 and I, 39 <2(d)>2, and note the widely used neologism <1o*rneg*i%n>1 "for example', this being the instrumental of <1o*rnek>1 "pattern'. 4. Foreign adverbs. Arabic substantives with the Arabic accusative ending -<2an>2 (unaccented) are used as adverbs, e.g.: <1i%kti%sat>1 economics <1i%kti%saden>1 economically <1kaza>1 accident <1kazaen>1 accidentally <1muvakkat>1 temporary <1muvakkaten>1 temporarily <1ni%spet>1 proportio <1ni%speten>1 relatively <1si%yaset>1 politics <1si%yaseten>1 politically <1s+eri%>1 religious law <1s+er'an>1 canonically Possibly because the two adjacent vowels of <1kazaen>1 (originally separated by a glottal stop) are hard to pronounce, the Persian synonym <1kazara>1 is more usual. It is not unknown for people of limited education to coin analogous adverbs from non-Arabic words, such as <1ku*ltu*ren>1 for "culturally', properly <1ku*ltu*rce>1 or <1ku*ltu*r bakimindan>1 "from the point of view of culture'. In a number of commonly used adverbs of this formation the original -<2an>2 came to be pronounced as long <1a;>1 e.g. <1evvela=>1 "first of all'; <1asla>1 "never'; <1acaba>1 "I wonder' (lit. "wonderingly'); <1mutlaka>1 "absolutely'; <1faraza>1 "hypothetically, for argument's sake'- <1mesela=>1 "for example'- <1ha=la=>1 "still' (which exists side by side with <1ha=len>1 "at present', both from <2@a**lan).>2 The final <1a>1 of <1acaba>1 is now pronounced short. From the Arabic <2a**n>2 "moment' and <2sa**"at->2 "hour' were formed, with the Persian preposition <2ba>2 "by', <1anbean>1 "from moment to moment', and <1saatbesaat>1 "from hour to hour'. Analogous formations with the Turkish <1yil>1 and <1gu*n>1 are <1yilbeyil>1 "year by year' and <1gu*nbegu*n>1 "day by day'. These are disapproved by purists (just as English purists disapprove "per day'), as is <1o*zbe- o*z>1 "one hundred per cent genuine', similarly formed from <1the>1 Turkish <1o*z>1 "self, essence', which has a firm place <2in>2 the colloquial. French has recently contributed <1otomati%kman>1 "automatically', though purists prefer <1otomati%k olarak.>1 From the dialectal Italian <2giaba>2 comes <1caba>1 "gratis, into the bargain'. 5. Comparison of adverbs. This follows the pattern of com- parison of adjectives (Ill, 4) : <1sen benden i%yi% bi%li%rsi%n>1 "you know better than I'; <1uc+ak, sesten su*ratli% gi%di%yor>1 "the aircraft is going faster than sound'. <1c+ok>1 "much' when following an ablative translates "more, rather than': <1annesi%nden c+ok babasina benzi%yor>1 "he resembles his father more than his mother'. The Arabic <1zi%yade>1 ("increase') is similarly used: <1speleoloji%, bi%r spordan zi%yade bi%r i%li%mdi%r>1 "speleology is a science rather than a sport'. In negative sentences "much' is translated by <1pek>1 (which as an adjective means "strong'): <1pek sevmi%yorum>1 "I don't much like'; <1pek gelmez>1 "he doesn't come much'. "Most' is <1en c+ok: en c+ok teyzesi%ne benzi%yor>1 "he most resembles his aunt'. In the presence of another adverb, however, <1c+ok>1 is unnecessary: <1en su*ratli% gi%den uc+ak, jet uc+ag*idir>1 "the aircraft which goes most quickly is the jet aircraft'. 6. <1bi%r.>1 Besides meaning "one' and "a', <1bi%r>1 is used adverbially to mean "once' and "only': <1her hafta bi%r geli%yor>1 "he comes once every week'; <1bi%r go*ru*rse ne yapabi%li%ri%z ?>1 "if once he sees, what can we do?'; <1bi%r ona, bi%r bana bakti>1 "he gave a look at him, a look at me'; <1her s+ey bi%tti%, bi%r bu kaldi>1 "everything is finished, only this is left'; <1bi%r ben, bi%r de AIlah bi%li%r>1 "only God and I know' (said when hinting at a dark secret); <1bunu bi%r sen>1 <1yapabi%li%rsi%n, bi%r de o>1 "only you and he can do this'. <1bi%r de>1 "and another thing, moreover' (for <1de>1 see XIII, 2): <1sen geI, bi%r de arkadas+in gelsi%n>1 "come, and let your friend come too'. In the locution <1bi%r de ne go*reyi%m>1 it conveys surprise; "and all of a sudden': <1pencereden baktim bi%r de ne go*reyi%m, bi%r poli%s kapiya dog*ru yu*ru*yor>1 "I looked through the window and <1all>1 of a sudden what should I see--a policeman is walking towards the door'. 7. <1bi%r tu*rlu*>1 "by no means' (in negative sentences). As a noun, <1tu*rlu*>1 means "kind, category'; as an adjective, "various'. <1bi%r tu*rlu* onu kandiramadim>1 "Ijust could not convince him'. 8. . . . <1bu*e>1 or <1hatta=>1 . . . "even'. <1sirrini benden bi%le sakladi>1 " he concealed his secret even from me'. <1hatta=>1 (A), though less common than <1bi%le,>1 is standing its ground : <1cami%yi% kac+ defa gezdi%m hatta= mi%nareleri%ne c+iktim>1 "how many times have I gone round the mosque; I have even been up its minarets'. Colloquially, it may be repeated, or preceded by <1daha,>1 for emphasis : <1i%yi% futbolcuIar, kla=s adamlar, hatta= hatta= yildizlar>1 <1vardi aralarinda>1 "there were good footballers among them, men of class, even stars'. <1bugu*nu*n i%nsani lu*ks aramiyor, hatta= i%stemi%yor, daha hatta=, lu*ks'den kac+iyor>1 "the man of today is not looking for luxury, he does not even want it; he even runs away from luxury'. It may reinforce <1bi%le>1 : <1hatta= onu sevmi%yenler bi%le cesareti%ni% i%nka=r edemi%yorlar>1 "even those who do not like him cannot deny his courage'. 9. <1a=deta>1 "virtually, as it were'. The <20TD>2 defines the word thus: "as usual; simply; merely; sort of; nearly; as good as: walk] <2(riding command).'>2 This, though all true, obscures the fact that ninety-nine times out of a hundred <1a=deta>1 is used to tone down an exaggeration or to apologize for a metaphor: <1bu ki%tap, a=deta si%zi%n i%c+i%n yazilmis+ gi%bi%di%r>1 "this book seems virtually to have been written for you'. <1bu dar ve uzun va=di%, a=deta bi%r korkulu ru*yaya benzi%yordu>1 "this narrow and long valley resembled, as it were, a dreadful dream'. 10. Adverbs of place : <1i%c+eri%>1 inside <1dis+ari>1 outside <1yukari>1 up <1as+ag*i>1 down <1i%leri%>1 forward <1geri%>1 backward <1o*te>1 yonder <1beri%>1 hither <1kars+i>1 opposite <2(a)>2 All these can be used as nouns: <1ev-i%n yukari-si ki%ralik>1 "the upper part of the house is to let'; <1kuyu-nun as+ag*i-si karanlikti>1 "the bottom of the well was dark'; <1i%s+-i%n o*te-si%ni% bana birak>1 "leave the rest of the business to me'. <2(b)>2 Or as adjectives: <1i%leri% fi%ki%rler>1 "progressive ideas'; <1saati% m bes+ daki%ka geri%>1 "my watch is five minutes slow'; <1kars+i yaka>1 "the opposite shore'. For "inside' and "outside' as adjectives, how- ever, <1i%c+>1 and <1dis+>1 (VII, 6) are commoner than <1i%c+eri%>1 and <1dis+ar i.>1 <2(c)>2 All but <1o*te>1 and <1kars+i>1 can be used as postpositions with the ablative. <2(d)>2 As adverbs, they indicate motion towards, either in the absolute form or in the dative, except that <1o*te-ye>1 and <1kars+i-ya>1 went inside'; <1dis+ari>1 or <1dis+ariya gi%tti%>1 "he went outside'; <1o*teye gi%tti%>1 "he went further on'; <1kars+iya gi%tti%>1 "he went to the opposite side'. The earthy expression for being on the horns of a dilemma is: <1as+ag*i tu*ku*rsem sakalim, yukari tu*ku*rsem biyig*im>1 "if I spit down, my beard ; if I spit up, my moustache'. To indicate rest in or motion from, they are put in the locative or ablative respectively ; in these cases <1i%c+eri%, dis+ari, yukari,>1 and <1i%leri%>1 generally lose their final vowel: <1i%c+erden>1 "from inside'; <1dis+arda>1 "on the outside'; <1i%lerde>1 "in front, in the forefront, in future'; <1yukardan>1 "from above, from upstairs'; <1as+ag*ida>1 "down below, downstairs'. 11. <1as+iri.>1 As an adjective or adverb this word means "excessive(ly)'. With a noun preceding, it means "beyond, at an interval of': <1deni%z as+iri bi%r memleket>1 "an overseas country'; <1gu*n as+iri>1 "every other day'; <1bi%zden bi%r ev as+iri oturuyorlar>1 "they are living one house Õbeyondå from us, next door but one'. It is not a post- position; the construction is as in <1ko*yden bi%r ki%lometre uzak>1 "one kilometre distant from the village'. 12. -<1re.>1 The addition of this unaccented suffix to <1bu, s+u, o,>1 and <1ne>1 turns them into nouns of place, of which the dative, locative, and ablative cases make the equivalents of English adverbs of place : <1buraya>1 hither <1s+uraya, oraya>1 thither <1nereye>1 whither ? <1burada>1 here <1s+urada, orada>1 there <1nerede>1 where ? <1buradan>1 hence <1s+uradan, oradan>1 thence <1nereden>1 whence ? The locative and ablative forms may lose their first <1a>1 or <1e: burda, nerden,>1 etc. The absolute forms <1bura, s+ura,>1 etc., can theoretically occur as subject of a sentence but seem never to do so <2in>2 standard Turkish; i%nstead, they take the third-person suffix (lI, 22 <2(d))>2 : <1orasi gu*zel>1 "that place is beautiful'; <1burasi neresi% ?>1 "what place is this ?' It must be emphasized that when "here' means "this place' and not "in this place' <1burasi>1 and not <1burada>1 must be used: <1burasi>1 <1Ankara Radyo'su>1 "Here is Ankara Radio'. So with <1s+urasi>1 and <1orasi;>1 for example, in this extract from a description of darkest Africa : <1Vahs+i= hayvanlar orada i%di%. Yamyamlar, pi%gmeler orada i%di%. Si%yah irkin anavatani orasi i%di%>1 "Wild animals were there. Cannibals and pygmies were there. The motherland of the black race was there'. <1bura,>1 etc., can be the first or second element of izafet groups: <1bura halk-i kuzu gi%bi%>1 "the people of this place are like lambs'; <1ora-nin hava-si gu*zel>1 "the weather of that place is beautiful'; <1s+ehr-i%n ora-si c+ok pahali>1 "that part of the city is very expensive'; <1s+ehr-i%n nere-si%-n-de oturuyorsun?>1 "in what part of the city are you living ?'; <1bura-si-n-da>1 "in this part of it'. <1orasi>1 and <1s+urasi>1 may mean "that/this aspect of the matter under discussion': <1ne i%sti%yorlar senden ?--orasini bi%lmi%->i 1 "what do they want of you ?'--"I don't know that part of it'; <1s+urasi da var>1 "there is the following point about it too'; <1s+urasini unutmiyalim>1 "let us not forget the following fact'. <1burac'a, oraca>1 (#2) mean "on the part of this/that place, institution', etc.: <1buraca veri%lecek bi%lgi% yok>1 "there is no information to be given by-this-department'; <1Senato'ya arzo- lunan faku*lte karari, oraca kabul edi%lmi%s+ti%r>1 "the faculty decision submitted to the Senate has been accepted by-that-body', The diminutive of <1s+urada>1 is quite common: <1s+uracikta>1 "just over there'; <1buracikta>1 and <1oracikta>1 are rarer. In the plural: <1oralari gezdi%ni%z mi% ?>1 "have you toured those parts?'; <1buralarin yabancisiyim>1 "I am a stranger in these parts' (lit. "the stranger of these parts') ; <1buralarda otel var mi ?>1 "is there an hotel hereabouts ?' With -<1li%: burali deg*i%li%m>1 "I am not a native of this place'; <1nereli%si%ni%z ?>1 "of what place are you a native?' <1neredeyse>1 or <1nerdeyse>1 (i.e. <1nerede i%se,>1 lit. "wherever it is'), means "soon' or "almost'. <1Ahmet nerede, Mehmet nerede>1 (lit. "where is A., where is M.?') means "how can you compare Ahmet and Mehmet?' Cf, the colloquial use of a single <1nerede>1 for "far from it ]', "not likely ]' 13. Adverbs of time. <2(a)>2 Nouns used as adverbs of time usually appear in the absolute case: <1ne zaman oldu ?>1 "when did it happen?' ("what time ?' in the broad sense, not "at what o'clock?', for which see the next today'; <1yarin aks+am gelecek>1 "he will come tomorrow evening'; <1gec+en yil>1 "last year'; <1du*n sabah>1 "yesterday morning'; <1bi%r gu*n>1 "one day' (but <1gu*nu*n bi%ri%nde>1 "some day'); <1sabah sabah>1 "early in the morning'; <1sabah aks+am>1 "all day long' (lit. "morning evening') ; <1o saat>1 "straight away' (see I, 16). Izafet groups in the absolute case : <1aks+amu*stu*,>1 less commonly <1aks+amu*zeri%,>1 means "at sunset', lit. "evening-top', i.e. "on even- i%ng'; cf. <1yemeku*stu*>1 "at dinner-time', <1suc+u*stu*>1 "redhanded' ("on guilt'). Names of days of the week are mostly used in izafet with <1gu*n>1 "day': <1c+ars+amba gu*nu* geIdi%>1 "he came on Wednesday'. <2(b)>2 Some adverbs consist in plural nouns with the third-person suffix, which has the defining function mentioned in Il, 22: <1aks+amlari>1 "in the evenings, of an evening'; <1geceleri%>1 "by night'; <1sabahlari>1 "of a morning'. The adverbs <1sonra>1 "after' and <1o*nce>1 "before' are similarly treated : <1sonralari>1 "afterwards'; <1o*nceleri%>1 "previously'. <2(c)>2 The locative occurs in, for example, <1i%lkbaharda>1 "in spring', <1sonbaharda>1 "in autumn'; <1bu esnada, o esnada>1 "meanwhile'; <1bu/o sirada>1 "at this/that time'; <1gec+enlerde>1 "recently'; <1si%mdi%- lerde>1 "round about now'; <1bayramda>1 "at the festival'. With names of months: <1hazi%randa>1 "in June'; <1hazi%ran ayinda>1 "in the month of June'; <1yi%rmi% alti temmuzda>1 "on 26 July'. With years: <11453 te (bi%n do*rt yu*z elli% u*c+te)>1 "in 1453'; <11453 yilinda>1 or <1senesi%nde> 1 "in the year 1453'. <2(d)>2 The dative: <1haftaya go*ru*s+u*ru*z>1 "we'll meet next week'; <1aks+ama geli%r>1 "he'll come this evening'. <2(e)>2 <1c+oktan>1 ("from much') means "for a long time, long since', but the meaning of other adverbs formed in the ablative case is not so readily apparent: <1bugu*nden yarini du*s+u*nmeli%>1 means "one should think about tomorrow today', not "from today on- ward' but "from the standpoint of today'. Similarly, <1s+i%mdi%den>1 means "already now', not "from now'; <1eski%den>1 "in the old days'; <1o*nceden>1 "at first'; <1sonradan>1 "subsequently'. <2(f)>2 The old instrumental case appears in: <1yazin>1 "in summer'; <1kis+in>1 "in winter'; <1gu*zu*n>1 "in autumn' (for which <1sonbaharda>1 is much commoner); <1gu*ndu*zu*n>1 "in the daytime'; <1i%lki%n>1 "first of all'; <1do*nu*s+u*n>1 "on the return journey'. It is also the last element in the invariable suffix -<1leyi%n: sabahleyi%n>1 "in the morning', <1aks+amleyi%n>1 "at evening' (see p. 205, <2Addendum).>2 14. Telling the time. <2(a)>2 <1saat kac+?>1 what is the time ? <1saat bi%r>1 one o'clock <1saat bi%ri% bes+ gec+i%yor>1 five past one ("five is pass- ing hour one') <1saat bi%ri% c+eyrek gec+i%yor>1 quarter past one <1saat bi%ri% yi%rmi% bes+ gec+i%yor>1 five-and-twenty past one <1saat bi%r buc+uk>1 half past one ("hour one and a half') <1saat i%ki%ye yi%rmi% bes+ var>1 five-and-twenty to two ("there are twenty-five to hour two') <1saat i%ki%ye c+eyrek var>1 quarter to two <2(b)>2 <1saat kac+ta?>1 at what time ? <1saat birde>1 at one o'clock <1saat bi%ri% bes+ gec+e>1 (XI,2) at five past one <1saat bi%ri% c+eyrek gec+e>1 at a quarter past one <1saat bi%r buc+ukta>1 at half past one <1saat i%ki%ye yi%rmi% bes+ kala>1 at five-and-twenty to two <1saat i%ki%ye c+eyrek kala>1 at a quarter to two <1saat>1 may be omitted in the answers though not in the questions : <1bi%r buc+uk>1 "half past one'; <1bi%r buc+ukta>1 "at half past one'. 15. ertesi%.>1 The bare <1erte>1 "the morrow' is no longer used, but the form with the third-person suffix appears in izafet in, for example, <1bayram ertesi%>1 "the day after the festival', <1savas+ ertesi%>1 "the day after the battle' and, somewhat abraded, in <1cumartesi%>1 "Saturday' <1(Õ cuma ertesi%>1 "the morrow of Friday') and <1pazartesi%>1 "Monday' <1(pazar>1 "Sunday'). As an adjective, <1ertesi%>1 means "the following' and occurs in such adverbial phrases as <1ertesi% gu*n>1 "(on) the following day', <1ertesi% ay>1 "(in) the follow- ing month'. <1ertesi% ve daha ertesi% gu*nler "(on)>1 the two following days'. 16. <1evvelsi%, evvelki%. evvelsi%>1 "previous' is for an earlier <1evvel- -i%-si%>1 (for the doubled suffix cf. V, 7). It is far commoner than the synonymous <1evvelki%.>1 Despite its third-person suffixes, it is used only adjectivally: <1evvelsi% gu*n>1 "the previous day, the day before yesterday', <1evvelsi% yil>1 "the previous year, the year before last'. The spellings <1evelsi%, evelki%,>1 are common but not recommended. 17. evvel>1 and <1sonra,>1 "before' and "after', both used as post- positions with the ablative, are also adverbs: <1bi%r hafta evvel oldu>1 "it happened a week ago'; <1u*c+ gu*n sonra gelecek>1 "he will come three days later, three days from now'; <1on seneden az bi%r zaman evvel>1 "Õa timeå less than ten years ago'. Note <1bi%r hafta evvel-i%-n-e kadar,>1 "until a week ago'; <1on sene evveli%ne kadar>1 "until ten years ago'. 18. <1s+i%mdi%>1 "now'. Colloquially it may take the diminutive suffix: <1s+i%mdi%ci%k,>1 also <1s+i%mci%k>1 and <1s+i%mdi%k,>1 "just now, right away'. In the dative : <1s+i%mdi%ye kadar>1 "until now'. In the ablative : <1s+i%mdi%den sonra>1 "after now, henceforth'. Colloquial in the same sense is <1s+i%mdengeri%.>1 For <1s+i%mdi%den>1 see also # 13 <2(e)>2; a colloquial varia nt is <1s+i%mden.>1 19. <1artik, bundan bo*yle, gayri. artik>1 means "at last' or "hence- forth', i.e. it marks a turning-point: <1artik gi%deli%m>1 "that's enough of that; let's go'; <1artik yaz geldi%>1 "summer has come at last'; <1biktim artik>1 "Õl've stood it long enough andå now I'm fed up'; <1artik bunu yapmaz>1 "he won't do this any more'. Synonymous in the sense of "henceforth' are <1bundan bo*yle>1 and the provincial <1gayri: bundan bo*yle oraya gi%tmem>1 "I'm not going there any more'; <1i%nsaf gayri ]>1 (lit. "justice henceforth') "it's time we had a bit of fair play]' 20. <1daha>1 "still, more, (not) yet' partly overlaps the senses of <1ha=la=>1 (A) "still, (not) yet' and <1henu*z>1 (P) "just, (not) yet': <1daha>1 (or <1ha=la=) burada misin>1 "are you still here?'; <1ha=la= daha burda misin>1 (coll.) "are you <2still>2 here?'; <1daha>1 (or <1ha=la=>1 or <1henu*z) gi%tmedi% mi%>1 "hasn't he gone yet?'; <1daha okuyacak bi%r s+ey almadi>1 "there is nothing more left to read'; <1daha du*n geldi%>1 "he came only yesterday'; <1mektubu henu*z aldim, daha>1 (or <1ha=la=) okuyamadim>1 "I have just received the letter; I haven't yet been able to read it'; <1daha bi%r hafta bekledi%k>1 "we have already waited a week'; <1daha bi%r hafta beklemeli%yi%z>1 "we must still wait a week'; <1bi%r hafta daha beklemeli%yi%z>1 "we must wait one more week'. <1bi%r daha>1 in negative sentences means "no more, not again': <1oraya bi%r daha gi%tme>1 "don't go there any more'. 21. <1hemen>1 (P) "at once, just about' : <1gu*nes+ dog*unca hemen yola c+iktilar>1 "the sun having risen, they at once set out'; <1hemen o siralarda tanis+mis+tik>1 "we had become acquainted just about that time'. <1hemencek>1 and <1hemenceci%k>1 (both coll.) "instantly': <1beni% go*ru*nce hemenceci%k duvardan atladi>1 "seeing me, he instantly leaped over the wall'. <1hemen hemen>1 "almost, very soon': <1hemen hemen i%ki% yil oldu>1 "it has been almost two years' (lit. "almost two years have happened') ; <1muamma hemen hemen halledi%lecek>1 "the riddle will very soon be solved'. Cf. <1neredeyse,>1 # 12. 22. <1gene, yi%ne>1 "again, still': <1gene o adam>1 "it's that man again'; <1hi%c+ telefon etmedi%, gene i%yi%>1 ; <1konus+acak vakti%m yok>1 "he has not telephoned at all; still, that's all right; I have no time to talk', 23. The verb "to be' in temporal expressions: <1elli% seneden fazladir s+u evde oturuyor>1 "she has been living in that house for over fifty years' ("it is more than fifty years she is living . . -'); <1bi%r buc+uk saatti%r seni% ariyorum>1 "I have been looking for you for an hour and a half'; <1kac+ zamandir konus+madik>1 "we haven't talked for quite some time' ("how much time it is we have not talked'); <1i%ki% yil oluyor Pari%s'e gi%tti%>1 "getting on for two years ago he went to Paris' ("two years are coming into being he went - - -'); <1Ahmet ko*yden ayrilali>1 (XI, 10) <1alti ay oldu>1 "it has been six months since Ahmet left the village' ("six months have happened since . . .'). The adverb <1bildir>1 "a year ago, a year before' (which is not very common in writing) appears to be a phonetic simplification of <1bi%r yil-dir>1 "it is a year'. 24. derken>1 (i.e. the aorist of <1demek>1--<1ken,>1 lit. "while saying') is used for: <2(a)>2 "while everyone is saying . . .': <1yeni% yol bi%tti% bi%ti%yor derken ha=la= bi%tmedi%>1 "while everyone is saying the new road is just about finished (lit. ""has finished is finishing''), it still is not finished'. <2(b)>2 "at that precise moment': <1sokag*a c+ikiyordu, derken telefon c+aldi>1 "he was going out and at that precise moment the telephone rang'. <2(c)>2 "while attempting to', with a first-person subjunctive: <1onu kurtarayim derken ben de du*s+tu*m>1 "while attempting to save him, I fell too' (lit. "while saying ""let me save him'' . . ') <2Addendum to>2 # 13. The same suffix is seen in -<1ci%leyi%n,>1 meaning "-like'. Though otherwise obsolete, it survives in <1benci%leyi%n>1 and <1bi%zci%leyi%n,>1 sometimes used (especially by Yakup Kadri Kara- osmanog*lu) in mock humility for "like poor old me' and "like us ordinary mortals' respectively. CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES 1. <1ve>1 (A) "and' is little used in speech and many Turks contrive to dispense with it entirely in writing, employing the native resources of the language instead: <1i%le,>1 -<1i%p, de>1 (see next section), or simple juxtaposition. That is to say, co-ordinate words and clauses may be put one after the other with no conjunction at all, on the pattern of Caesar's <2veNi vidi vici.>2 Thus "he came into the room and sat down on a chair' may be <1odaya gi%rdi% ve bi%r sandalyeye oturdu>1 or <1odaya gi%ri%p bi%r sandalyeye oturdu or odaya gi%rdi%, bi%r sandalyeye oturdu.>1 "You and I' may be <1sen ve ben>1 or <1seni%nle ben.>1 "You, I, and your brother' may be <1sen,>1 <1ben, ve kardes+i%n>1 or <1sen, ben, kardes+i%n de>1 or just <1sen,>1 <1ben, kardes+i%n.>1 The Persian for "and', o**, came into Ottoman as <1u>1 or <1u*>1 after consonants, vu or <1vu*>1 after vowels, forms which survive in some compound nouns: <1abuhava>1 "climate' <2(a**b>2 (P) "water', <2hawa**'>2 (A) "air') ; <1hercu*merc>1 "turmoil, Armageddon' <2(h" arj wa-marj>2 (A), with Persian o** replacing Arabic wa). Similar Ottoman expressions which have not attained the status of Turkish words are now written separately: <1yar u* ag*yar>1 "friend and foe'; <1kaza vu* kader>1 "fate and destiny'. 2. <1de>1 "and, also, too' never begins a sentence and, though written as a separate word, is enclitic and changes to <1da>1 after back- vowels. It also changes to <1te>1 or <1ta>1 after unvoiced consonants, although the modern tendency, supported by <2YIZK,>2 is not to show this change in writing. <2(a)>2 When it means "too', it follows the word it modifies: <1oraya ben de gi%tti%m>1 "I too went there'; <1ben oraya da gi%tti%m>1 "I went there too' (as well as elsewhere); <1ben oraya gi%tti%m de>1 "I ,22 - there too' (I did not only read about it); <1s+apka-n-i, palto-n-u>1 <1da gi%y>1 "wear your hat and your coat too'. <2(b)>2 Repeated, it equals "both . . . and . . .': <1s+apkanida paltonu da gi%y>1 "wear both your hat and your coat'; <1ben de sen de kar- des+i%n de>1 "both I and you and your brother'. <2(c)>2 When it comes between two words which it connects, it can usually be translated "and', but often it has an overtone: "and then', "and so', or even "but': <1c+alis+mis+ da kazanmis+>1 "he worked and he won'; <1evi%me kadar gi%deyi%m>1 de <1si%ze geleyi%m>1 "let me go as far as my house and then come to you'; <1bi%zi% go*rdu* de sela=m vermedi%>1 "he saw us but did not give us greeting'; <1nasil oldu da sec+i%lmedi%ni%z>1 ? "how was it that you were not chosen ?' ("how did it happen and so you were not chosen?'); <1ne yapti da kurtuldu ?>1 "how did he manage to escape ?' ("what did he do and so was saved?'); <1ne i%yi% etti%n de geldi%n>1 "how well you did to come ]' (". . . and came'); <1so*yle de gelsi%n>1 "tell him to come' ("say, and so let him come'); <1o*lu*r de so*ylemez>1 "he will die rather than tell' ("he will die and will not tell')- <2(d)>2 A common elliptical use is seen in: <1ni%c+i%n sormadin?-- utandim da>1 . . . "why didn't you ask ?'--"I was ashamed, that's why', lit. "I was ashamed and Õtherefore did not askå'. A fuller form is: <1utandim da ondan>1 "I was ashamed and therefore . . .' (lit. "and from-that'). <2(e)>2 After a repeated verb, <1de>1 indicates sudden action after a long delay: <1mi%safi%r gelmez gelmez de, bi%rden geIi%r>1 "the guest does not come, does not come, and suddenly he comes'; <1durdu durdu da, turnayi go*zu*nden vurdu>1 "he stood, stood, then shot thc crane in the eye' (i.e. after a long spell of apparent indecision he acted with great speed and efficiency). <2(f)>2 It has an emphasizing function after pronouns and adverbs: <1i%ki%si% de>1 "both of them'; <1u*c+u*mu*z de>1 "allthree of us'; <1sus, sen d e ]>1 "quiet, you ]'; <1ne de gu*zel s+ey]>1 <2"what>2 a pretty thing ]'; <1o fi%li%m c+ok da gu*zel i%mi%s+>1 "that film is said to be <2very>2 good'; <1bu so*ylenti % hi%c+ de dog*ru deg*i%l>1 "this rumour is not at all true'; <1durum, daha da ag*irlas+mis+tir>1 "the position has become even more serious'. <2(g)>2 <1dahi%>1 "too, also', from which <1de>1 is derived, is seldom used by the younger generation of writers. 3. <1ne>1 .. . <1ne>1 .. . or <1ne>1 . . <1.ne de>1 .. ."neither .. . nor ...'. The number of <1nes>1 is not restricted to two. Whether to use a positive or a negative verb with <1ne>1 is to some extent a matter of taste. The following rules sum up the general literary usage. The verb is positive: <2(a)>2 When each <1ne>1 introduces a separate verb or separate clause: <1ki%tabi ne aldim ne de okudum "I>1 neither bought the book nor read it'; <1ne ti%yatroya gi%der ne radyoyu di%nler>1 "he neither goes to the theatre nor listens to the radio'. <2(b)>2 When one verb, in the non-initial position, covers both or all clauses: <1bu sabah ne c+ay ne kahve i%c+ti%m>1 "this morning I drank neither tea nor coffee'; <1ne s+i%s+ yansin ne kebap>1 "let neither the spit burn nor the meat' (i.e. I hope no harm comes to either party); <1ne Tu*rkc+e, ne Arapc+a, ne Farsc+a bi%li%yor>1 "he knows neither Turkish nor Arabic nor Persian'. The verb is negative: <2(a)>2 When one verb covers and precedes both or all the elements introduced by <1ne: gelmez ne dost ne du*s+man>1 "there does not come either friend or foe'; <1bugu*n c+ikmadim ne bahc+eye ne sokag*a>1 "today I have not gone out either to the garden or to the street'. <2(b)>2 When it is conditional: <1ne sen, ne ben bu i%s+e karis+masa- ydik bo*yle olmazdi>1 "if neither you nor I had interfered in this business, it would not be like this'. For the first-person plural verb see XVI, 3 <2(d)->2 <2(c)>2 If the negative nature of the sentence is emphasized by an adverb or particle : <1ne tu*tu*ne, ne i%c+ki%ye sakin alis+mayin>1 "mind you don't become accustomed to tobacco or drink' (lit. "beware do not')- <2(d)>2 If the subjects or complements introduced by <1ne>1 are resumed by another subject or complement before the verb: <1ne IZstanbul'a ne Konya'ya, bi%r yere gi%tmi%yor>1 "neither to Istan- bul nor Konya, he does not go anywhere'; <1ne sen, ne o, i%ki%ni%z de bi%lmedi%ni%z>1 "neither you nor he, both of you did not know'. <2(e)>2 If the verbal element is a gerund other than -<1i%p, -erek,>1 or <1i%ken: ne memlekette konus+ulan di%li%, ne oranin a=detleri%ni% bi%lmedi%g*i%nden c+ok zahmet c+ekti%>1 "because he did not know either the language spoken in the country or the customs of that place, he had a lot of trouble'; <1ondan ne bi%r sela=m ne bi%r mektup almadikc+a adini bi%le anmiyacag*im>1 "so long as I do not receive from him either a greeting or a letter, I shall not mention even his name'. <2(f)>2l If a number of words or a pause intervene between the second <1ne>1 and the verb, so that the negati%ve nature of the sentence needs to be reasserted: <1ne s+apka almak, ne de s+apkasiz gezmek--bi%lhassa kis+ aylarinda--i%stemi%yorum>1 lit. "neither to buy a hat nor to go about hatless--especially in the winter months--I do not want'; <1bu sabah ne c+ay, ne kahve>1 . . . <1i%c+- medi%m>1 "this morning neither tea nor coffee . . . I did not drink'. 4. gerek>1 . . . <1gerek>1 . . . or <1gerek>1 . . . <1gerekse>1 . . . "both . . . and . . .': <1bu haber, gerek Ankara'da gerekse Vas+i%ngton'da fena bi%r hava yaratmis+tir>1 "this news has created a bad atmo- sphere both in Ankara and in Washington'. In some contexts the translation "whether . . . or . . .' is possible but may be misleading, as the words introduced by <1gerek>1 are not mutually exclusive, e.g. <1gerek ben gi%deyi%m, gerek si%z gi%di%n, gerek o gi%tsi%n, i%s+i%n sonu deg*i%s+mez>1 "whether I go or you go or he goes, the end of the affair will not change' (lit. "both let me go and you go and let him go . . .')- 5. <1hem>1 . . . <1hem>1 . . . or <1hem>1 . . . <1hem de>1 . . ."both . . . and . . .': <1hem-zi%yaret hem ti%caret>1 "both pilgrimage and trade' (a pro- verbial expression, cf. our "combining business and pleasure'). A single <1hem>1 or <1hem de>1 means "and indeed, moreover': <1sicak, hem ne sicak>1 or <1hem de ne sicak>1 "it's hot, and how hot ]' 6. <1ha>1 . . . <1ha>1 . . . "both . . . and . . .': <1ha bag*, ha bahc+e, ha ta rla>1 "both orchard and garden and field'. 7. <1i%ster>1 . . . <1i%ster>1 . . . "(either . . <1.)>1 or . . .'. In origin, < 1i%ster>1 is the aorist participle of <1i%ste->1 "to want'; its use is not confined to the third person: <1i%ster gi%t, i%ster kal, bana ne ?>1 "go or stay; what is it to me ?'; <1i%ster gi%tsi%n, i%ster kalsin, bana ne ?>1 "let him go or let him stay; what is it to me?' 8. . . . <1olsun>1 . . . <1olsun>1 "both . . . and . . .', "whether . . . or . . .'. This is the third-person imperative of <1ol->1, lit. "let it be', repeated: <1lokanta olsun, otel olsun, her s+ey var orada>1 "let it be restaurants, let it be hotels, there's everything there'. A single <1olsun>1 means "if only', as in: <1yu*zu*nu* bi%r ker olsun go*rmek i%sti%yorum "I>1 want to see his face, if only once' (lit. "let it be one time'); <1bi%r daki%ka olsun i%sti%rahat edeli%m>1 "let us rest, if only for a minute'. 9. <1ya>1 . . . <1ya>1 . . . <1veya>1 . . . "either ... or ... or <1...':ya ben, ya sen, veya Mehmet>1 "either you, or I, or Mehmet'. The third choice can be introduced by <1ya da>1 (occasionally written <1yada)>1 or <1yahut>1 (P) instead of <1veya. veya, yahut,>1 and <1veyahut>1 all mean "or': <1elma veya>1 (or <1yahut>1 or <1veyahut) s+eftali%, ne i%stersen al>1 "apples or peaches, buy whatever you want'. <1yahut>1 is decreasingly used in this sense, but is current in the sense of "or indeed', offering a total change of plan: <1bu aks+am bi%ze geli%n yahut bi%z size geleli%m>1 "come to us this evening--or let us come to you'; <1bu mektubu postaya ver, yahut dursun, ben kendi%m go*tu*ru*ru*m>1 "post this letter--or let it stay, I shall take it myself'. Cf. the use of <1yoksa>1 in #34- <1veyahut>1 is distinctly old-fashioned. 10. ama, fakat, la=ki%n>1 "but'. All three words are Arabic in origin, but <1ama,>1 being the least alien in shape and having many idiomatic uses, is the most assured of survival: <1sen de gel, ama>1 <1gel>1 "you come, but come ]' (i.e. be sure to come). <1gu*zel ama]>1 is a slightly surprised <2"it's>2 good, mind you ]' At the end of a sentence it may convey a slight reproof: <1bu so*z so*ylenmez ama]>1 "one does not say this, though ]' For emphasis it reverts to its original form <1amma,>1 with the second <1a>1 long: <1amma>1 (or <1amma da) yaptin ha]>1 "now you've done it ]' It is sometimes preceded, sometimes followed, by a comma; the latter if it introduces a change of subject or if for any other reason there is a slight pause after it: <1kiz gu*zel, ama benci%l>1 "the girlis beautiful but selfish'; <1yarin gelmek i%sti%yor ama, ben evde buIunmiyacag*im>1 "he wants to come tomorrow but I shall not be at home'; <1ben de ona yardim etti%m ama, pi%s+man oldum>1 "I too helped him--but I repented Õof itå'. Between simple adversative clauses, "but' need not be expressed at all (cf. <1ve): yalancinin evi% yanmis+, ki%mse i%nanmamis+>1 (proverb) "the liar's house burned, Õbutå no one believed'. The purist expression for "but' is <1ne var ki%.>1 11. <1ancak, yalniz>1 "only'. Both, like English "only', are orinally adverbs but also have an adversative use : <1ancak i%ki% buc+uk li%ram var>1 "I have only two and a half liras'; <1yalniz s+unu demek i%sti%yorum>1 "I want to say only this'; <1ku*tu*phanede c+alis+mam la=zim, ancak bugu*n gi%demem>1 "I have to work in the library, only I cannot go today'; <1geldi%, yalniz bi%raz gec+ kaldi>1 "he came, only he was a bit late'. 12. mamafi%h (maamafi%h), bununla beraber, bununla i%rli%kte>1 "however, nevertheless'. The first is from <2ma"a ma** fi**h>2 (A) "with what is in it' and the first two syllables are long, despite the modern spelling with a single <1a;>1 the <1i%,>1 however, is short and the final <1h>1 is often omitted in pronunciation. The other two equivalents mean literally "together with this'. 13. madem, mademki%, deg*i%l mi%, deg*i%I mi% ki%>1 "since'. The <1a>1 of <1madem(ki%)>1 is long Õ <2ma** da**m>2 (A) "as long as'; for the <1ki%>1 see # 15. <1madem(ki%) anlamiyorsun, ni%c+i%n karis+iyorsun ?>1 "since you do not understand, why do you interfere ?' <1deg*i%l mi% (ki%)>1 is a provincialism now being groomed to succeed <1madem(ki%): deg*i%l mi%>1 or <1deg*i%l mi% ki% dedi%g*i%mi% yapmadin, yu*zu*me bakma>1 "since you have not done what I said, do not look at my face'. 14. meg*er, meg*erse>1 "it secms that, apparently'. This introduces inferences and is consequently used with an inferential verb : <1ben de seni% arkadas+ sanirdim>1 ; <1meg*erse aldanmis+im>1 "I thought you a friend; it seems I have been deceived'; <1meg*er ne kadar sevi%yormus+um bu kizi>1 . . . <1yanimda i%ken neye anlama- mis+im?>1 "I realize how much I love this girl; why did I not understand when she was by my side ?' It may end a sentence: <1c+ars+iya c+ikmis+ meg*er>1 "he has gone to the market, apparently'. A colloquial alternative is <1meg*erleyi%m.>1 15. <1ki%>1 "that'. The importation of this Persian conjunction opcncd the door to the Indo-European pattern of sentence, which is in many respects the reverse of the native Turkish literary pattern: <1yarin geleceg*i%ne emi%ni%m>1 "I am sure he will come to- <1emi%ni%m ki% yarin gelecek>1 morrow' <1geIeceg*i% s+u*phesi%z>1 "it is indubitable that he will <1s+u*phesi%z ki% gelecek>1 come' <1beklemesi%ni% i%sti%yorum>1 "I want him him to wait' <1i%sti%yorum ki% beklesi%n>1 <1kapiyi kapamiyan bi%r c+ocuk>1 "a child who does not shut the <1bi%r c+ocuk ki% kapiyi kapamaz>1 door' In this last example, the only one from which the <1ki%>1 cannot be omitted, even in the roughest colloquial, <1ki%>1 looks like a relative pronoun. It is possible that such uses may have been helped to gain currency by the resemblance between <1ki%>1 and the Turkish interrogative pronoun <1ki%m>1 ; indeed, <1ki%m>1 is a very ancient alterna- tive for <1ki%,>1 still occasionally heard and, in the written language, surviving in <1ni%teki%m>1 (# 17). Grammatically, however, <1ki%>1 is purely a conjunction. This is not a pedantic question of nomenclature but is of practical importance in translation, particularly of sentences like the following: <1ki%razi yedi%m>1 "I ate the cherry' <1ki% s+eker gi%bi%>1 <2not>2 "which was like sugar' <2but>2 "and found it was like sugar'. This will be clearer if we consider such uses as <1baktim ki%,>1 lit. "I looked that', but to be translated "I looked and saw that', "I looked and behold ]': <1baktim ki%, kapi ac+ik>1 "I looked and saw that the door was open'; <1geldi%m ki%, ki%mseler yok>1 "I came and found there was no one there'; <1c+antami ac+tim ki%, bombos+>1 "I opened my bag and found it absolutely empty'. Although the attachment of <1ki%>1 has become habitual in such sentences, it is not essential. Ediskun1 gives an example of the use of <1ki%--bi%beri% di%li%me deg*di%rdi%m ki% zehi%r gi%bi%>1 "I let the pepper touch my tongue and found it was like poison'--which he glosses by simply putting a comma in place of the <1ki%.>1 <1ki%>1 cannot be omitted: <2(a)>2 When it introduces a relative clause of the Indo-European type, with a finite verb, following the qualified word instead of the Turkish type with a participle preceding it. <2(b)>2 When it introduces a noun clause which is the subject of a preceding verb: <1go*ru*lu*yor ki%, bu karar haksizdir>1 "it is evident that this decision is wrong'; <1anlas+iliyor ki%, yeni% yol hazi%ran ayinda ac+ilacaktir>1 "it is understood that the new road will be opened in June'. introductory adverbial clause such as <1bu sebeptendi%r ki%>1 "it is for this reason that . . .'. Many such expressions contain a post- position: <1bundan dolayidir ki%, pla=n tatbi%k edi%lemedi%>1 "it is on account of this that it has not been possible to apply the plan'; <1IZsla=mi%yeti%n kabul-i%-yle-di%r ki%, Tu*rk di%li% u*zeri%ne bi%r taraftan Arapc+a, o*bu*r taraftan Farsc+a etki% yapmaya bas+lamis+tir>1 "it is with the acceptance of Islam that Arabic on the one hand, Persian on the other, began to influence the 'Turkish language'. <2(c)>2 When it links two sentences of which the first indicates the time at which the action of the second occurs: <1gu*nes+ batmis+ti ki% ko*ye vardik>1 "the sun had set when we reached the village'; <1telefonu kapayarak yeri%me henu*z do*nmu*s+tu*m ki%, kapi zi%li%ni%n u*stu*ste bi%rkac+ kere c+alindig*ini duydum>1 "putting down the telephone, I had just returned to my seat when I heard the doorbell ring several times in quick succession'. The link between <1ki%>1 and the preceding word is very close (in accent it is enclitic and some writers habitually put a comma after it), whereas it may be separated by a word or phrase from the clause it introduces : <1bu di%l kalkmali ki% ortadan, bas+liyabi%le- li%m tu*rkc+e du*s+u*nmeg*e>1 "this language must disappear, so that we may be able to start to think in Turkish'. The writer has chosen to reverse the normal phrase for "to disappear', <1ortadan kalkmak,>1 but has not displaced <1ki%>1 from immediately after the verb. The sentence would be complete without it, but it serves as a warning that a consequence is coming; cf. the premonitory use of <1eg*er>1 in XX, 8. <1bi%r yazar di%yormus+ ki%, bi%r dergi%de gec+en ay,>1 . . . "it seems a writer was saying, in a journal last month, that . . .'. <1daha i%leri% gi%di%p di%yeceg*i%m ki% si%ze>1 . . . shall go further and say to you that . . .'. Parenthetic remarks are introduced by <1ki%. eg*er bu mektubu okuduysan--ki% okudug*una emi%ni%m--onun ne yaptig*ini bi%li%yorsundur>1 "if you have read this letter--as I am sure you have--you certainly know what he is doing'. <1haI o*yIe olsa bi%le-- ki% deg*i%l elbette--sana ne ?>1 "even if the situation were thus-- as it certainly isn't--what is it to you?' Clauses expressing consequence are introduced by <1ki%. o*ylc zayifladi ki% bi%r deri% bi%r kemi%k kaldi>1 "he grew so thin that he remained only skin and bone'. <1bi%r bag*irdi, bi%r bag*irdi ki% yer yeri%nden oynadi>1 "he gave such a shout, such a shout that the earth started from its place'. The consequence, however, is frequently left to the imagination, as it is in English, except that the <1ki%>1 is retained whereas we omit the "that': <1o*yle zayifladi ki%]>1 "he grew so thin ]' <1o kadar gu*ldu*k ki% ]>1 "we laughed so much]' <1bi%r bag*irdi ki%]>1 "he gave such a shout ]' An intermediate stage is seen in the next example, where the three dots indicate that the expression of the thought is not going to be completed and then the writer completes it after all: <1o kadar sevdi%m ki% bu s+ehri%>1 . . . <1oturup ag*layasim geldi%>1 (IX,9) "Iloved this city so much . . . I felt like sitting down and crying'. The vestigial <1ki%>1 is very frequent in the colloquial: <1Deveye "Neden boynun eg*ri% ?' demi%s+ler. "Nerem dog*ru ki% ?' demi%s+>1 "They said to the camel, ""Why is your neck crooked ?'' Said he, ""What part of me is straight, that Õyou should single out my neckå ?''' <1"Hangi% parti%densi%ni%z?' "Memlekette birkac+ parti% var mi ki% ?">1 "Of which party are you ?' "Are there several parties in the country that Õyou need to askå ?' The <1ki%>1 in both these last examples may be translated "then'. There are several other colloquial uses of <1ki%.>1 At the end of a question it indicates anxiety: <1bu borcun aItindan kalkabi%li%r mi% ki% ?>1 "can he ever rise from-under this debt ?' Between repeated words it shows admiration or surprise: <1vapur ki% vapur]>1 "such a fine ship ]' <1okudu ki% okudu]>1 "my goodness how he studied]' <1bi%lmem ki%>1 means "I wonder' (not "I don't know that . . .'): <1bi%lmem ki% ne yapsam ?>1 "I wonder what I should do ?' <1bi%lmem ki% ki%me s+i%ka=yet etsem ?>1 "I wonder who to complain to ?' For <1ki%>1 with the subjunctive, see Chapter XIX. 16. meg*erki%>1 "unless' is followed by the subjunctive : <1u*mi%di%mi%z yok, meg*erki% hu*ku*met mu*dahale etsi%n>1 "we have no hope, unless the government intervene'; <1vapura yeti%s+mi%yeceksi%n, meg*erki% kos+asin>1 "you will not catch the steamer unless you run'. 17. <1ni%teki%m, neteki%m>1 "just so, just as' introduces the second clause of a comparison: <1ben hata yaptim, ni%teki%m si%z de hata yaptiniz>1 "I made a mistake, just as you made a mistake'. Even when it begins a sentence, it refers not forward but back to the preceding sentence: <1Du*nku* toplantida bulunmadim.>1 <1Ni%teki%m yarinki% topIantida bulunmak ni%yeti%nde deg*i%li%m>1 "I was not at yesterday's meeting. In just the same way, I do not intend to be present at tomorrow's meeting'. The synonymous <1nasil ki%>1 is used in the same way, but may also introduce the first clause of a comparison, often with an <1o*yle>1 "thus' in the second clause: <1nasil ki% ben hata yaptim, si%z de o*yle hata yaptiniz>1 "just as I made a mistake, so did you too make a mistake'. 18. halbuki%, oysa(ki%)>1 (accented on the <1u>1 and <1o>1 respectively) "whereas', "though'. These represent the backward- not the forward-looking "whereas' or "though', even when they begin a sentence, in which case the correct translation is "Yet' or "But': <1bana gu*cenmi%s+, halbuki% aramizda bi%r s+ey gec+ti%g*i%ni% hatirlamiyorum>1 "I gather he is vexed with me, though I do not recall that anything has passed between us'. <1Halk, c+ok defa softayi i%deali%stle karis+tirir. Oysaki% softa, i%deali%sti%n tam tersi%di%r>1 "The people often confuse the bigot with the idealist. Yet the bigot is the exact opposite of the idealist'. 19. <1c+u*nku*, zi%ra>1 "for'. These Persian borrowings almost always begin a sentence but, like the English "for', always explain the preceding statement (cf. <1ni%teki%m, halbuki%): Di%lleri%n dog*us+u demek, keli%meni%n dog*us+u demekti%r. C+u*nku*, her di%li%n en ku*c+u*k bi%rli%g*i% keli%me'di%r>1 "The origin of languages means the origin of the word (""to say "the origin oflanguages'is to say . . -'')- For the smallest unit of every language is the word'. <1"la=ki%n' bag*laci, Eski% Tu*rkc+ede yoktur; c+u*nku* Arapc+a asillidir>1 "the conjunction <1Ia=ki%n>1 does not exist in Old Turkish, because it is of Arabic origin'. <1zi%ra>1 could replace <1c+u*nku*>1 in these examples, but is not much used. The spelling <1c+u*nki%>1 for <1c+u*nku*>1 is not recommended. 20. <1demek>1 "it means': <1Sene yiI demekti%r. Senevi% de yillik demek olacak "Sene>1 means ""year''. So <1senevi%>1 will mean (""will be to say'') ""annual''' <1(senevi%>1 Õ <2sanawi**>2 (A)). } A fuller form of the expression is seen in the first example of the preceding section and in : <1demokrasi% demek adalet demek- ti%r>1 "to say ""democracy'' is to say ""justice'''. At the beginning of a clause <1demek, demek ki%,>1 or <1demek oluyor ki%>1 <2("it>2 becomes to say') signifies "that is to say': <1du*s+u*nu*- yorum, demek ki% varim>1 "I think, that is to say, I exist'. <1demek>1 alone can be used when seeking corroboration of an impression: <1paraniz yok demek?>1 "so you have no money ?' <1demek o da geli%yor ?>1 "that means he is coming too ?' 21. di%g*er taraftan>1 (P, A) and <1o*te yandan,>1 lit. "from the other side', are not as adversative as they look; "moreover' or "at the same time' is usually the best rcndering, not "on the other hand'. 22. <1gerc+i%>1 (P) "it is true that': <1gerc+i% pek sevi%mli% deg*i%l, ama gayet i%yi% bi%r arkadas+tir>1 "it is true he is not very attractive, but he is a very good friend'. 23 <1gu=ya>1 (P) "allegedly, forsooth'; usually pronounced and some- times written <1go*ya.>1 For an example see XXIV , 12. 24. hani%,>1 an old word for "where ?', has several idiomatic uses. It may be reinforced by <1ya,>1 written together with it or as a separate word. <2(a)>2 It asks the whereabouts of someone or something' expected but not in evidence, or lost and unattainable : <1hani%ya arkadas+iniz, gelmedi% mi%?>1 "where is your friend; hasn't he come?' <1hani% o gu*nler]>1 "where are those Õgood oldå days ]' <2(b)>2 It draws attention to a failure to carry out a promise: <1hani% ya bana bi%r hedi%ye geti%recekti%n?>1 "I thought you were going to bring me a present ?' <2(c)>2 "You know' covers most other uses: <1hani% bu*ronuzda>1 <1esmer c+ocuk var ya, i%s+te o si%zi% ariyor>1 "you know there's the dark boy in your office; wellit's he who is looking for you' (for <1i%s+te>1 see #28); <1hani% yanlis+ da deg*i%l>1 "and it's not wrong, you know'. <2(d)>2 A parenthetic <1hani% yok mu>1 lends weight to the following words: <1bu problemi% c+o*zmek i%c+i%n, hani% yok mu, tam u*c+>1 <1gu*n c+alis+tim>1 "to solve this problem, would you believe it, I worked exactly three days'. <1hani%di%r onu go*rmu*yorum>1 "I haven't seen her for ages'. 25. <1hele>1 "above all, at any rate'; with an imperative, "just': <1hele si%z bunu so*ylememeli% i%di%ni%z>1 "you above all should not have said this'; <1hele i%nsan kaybi yokmus+>1 "at any rate there is no loss of life reported' ("therc-is-said-to-be-no human-loss'); <1s+una bak hele>1 "just look at that ]' ; <1c+ocuk sinifini gec+mesi%n hele, do*g*eri%m onu>1 "just let the child not pass up (""let-him-not-pass his-class''), I'II give him a good hiding'. A doubled <1hele hele>1 is hortatory: <1hele hele so*yle daha neler olmus+>1 "come on then, tell what else happened ]' 26. <1herhalde>1 "certainly, surely'. The literal translation is "in every case', but this gives a misleading idea of the use. In the first two examples it indicates a strong supposition: <1herhalde bi%li%yorsunuz>1 "you surely know'; <1gazetede okumus+sunuzdur herhalde>1 "you have certainly read Õitå in the newspaper'. <1i%ster darilsin, i%ster darilmasin, herhalde hakkimi i%sti%yeceg*i%m>1 "let him get cross or not, as he chooses, I shall certainly ask for my due'. 27. <1i%se>1 ("if it is') and its suffixed forms (VIII, 8) draw attention to the preceding word and may be translated "as for', "whereas', "however' according to context: <1ben i%se (bense) patates hi%c+ yemi%yorum>1 "as for me, I don't eat potatoes at all'; lit. "if it is I Õabout whom you are askingå . . .'; <1babasi IZngi%li%z, annesi% i%se (annesi%yse) Ameri%kali>1 "his father is English, whereas his mother is American'. The word before <1i%se>1 may be in whatever case the syntax of the rest of the sentence demands: <1kendi%si% pek hos+, sesi%ni% i%se hi%c+ sevmem>1 "he himself is very pleasant; his voice, however, I don't like at all'. Here <1sesi%ni%>1 is accusative, object of <1sevmem.>1 For <1i%se> 1 following the genitive, see the fifth example in XVI, 6. 28. <1i%s+te>1 "behold ]' "there ]' "precisely': <1hani% beni%m kalem ?-- i%s+te]>1 "where is my pen ?'--"there ]'; <1i%s+te otobu*s geldi%>1 "there, the bus has arrived'; <1i%s+te bu sebepten dolayi ona oy vermedi%m>1 "precisely for this reason I did not vote for him'. 29. <1sakin.>1 ln origin it is the imperative of <1sakinmak>1 "to be cautious'. As an interjection, <1sakin>1 or <1sakin ha>1 means "beware ] don't do it]' It is also used with a negative imperative: <1sakin du*s+me]>1 "mind you don't fall]' With the periphrastic perfect tense of the negative imperative it expresses anxiety: <1sakin unutmus+ olmayin>1 "I do hope you have not forgotten' ("do-not-be having-forgotten'). A question- mark may emphasize the doubt in the speaker's mind: <1so*yle- di%kIeri%mi% sakin unutmus+ olmasin?>1 "I do hope he hasn't forgotten what I said ?' 30. sanki%>1 "as if' (lit. "suppose that') is usually construed with gi%bi%>1 following an inferential verb or a tense-base, or with an inferential verb alone: <1sanki% du*nyada bas+ka bi%r kadin yokmus+ gi%bi% hep Ays+e'yi% du*s+u*nu*yor>1 "as if there were no other woman in the world, he thinks entirely of Ayesha'; <1sanki% bi%lmi%yor gi%bi%si%ni%z]>1 "as if you didn't know ]'; <1sanki% kabahat beni%mmi%s+]>1 "as if the fault were mine ]' In a question it conveys an argumentative or scornful "do you think?': <1ablaniza c+ok u*zu*ntu* verdi%ni%z de i%yi% mi% etti%ni%z sanki% ?>1 "you have greatly upset your sister and have you Õtherebyå done well, do you think ?' Otherwise it is to be translated "it is as if': <1maki%ne sabah aks+am c+ocug*a eli%ni%n ve kafasinin gu*cu*nu* hesaplatiyor; sanki% ona ""Beni%mle yapacag*in her i%s+ten sen sorumlusun, ben karis+mam'' di%yor>1 "the machine all day long makes the child take account of the power of his hand and head; it is as if it says to him ""For everyjob which you are going to do with me, you are responsible ; I do not interfere'''. 31. <1s+o*yIe dursun>1 (lit. "let it stand thus'), with an infinitive as subject, means "let alone . . ., never mind about . . .'. <1radyoda di%nledi%g*i%mi%z s+arkilarin c+og*u mi%lIi= olmak s+o*yle dursun musi%ki% bi%le deg*i%ldi%r>1 "most of the songs we listen to on the radio are not even music, let alone national'. <1tercu*manlik yapmak s+o*yle dursun, kendi% li%sanini bi%le bi%lmez>1 "never mind about acting as interpreter, he doesn't even know his own language'. 32. <1ya>1 has a wide variety of functions in the colloquial, e.g. at the end of rhetorical questions: <1her aks+am si%nemaya gi%di%li%r mi% ya ?>1 "does one go to the cinema every cvening ?' In the sense of "you know', "isn't that so ?': <1bugu*n ni%ye okula gi%tmedi%n ?--pazar ya ]>1 "why haven't you gone to school today ?' --"it's Sunday, you know ]' <1ko*s+ede ku*c+u*k bi%r du*kka=n var ya, i%s+te orada aldim>1 "you know there's a little shop on the corner; well I bought Õitå there'. In the sense of "yes indeed' the <1a>1 is pronounced long: <1si%ze c+ay vereyi%m mi%?--ya, ver>1 "may I give you Õsomeå tea ?-- "yes, do'. At the beginning of a clause it means "and what about . . .?'; this is the use most likely-to be found in the written language: <1bu kadar yeti%s+i%r, di%yorsun, ya yeti%s+mezse ?>1 "this much will be enough, you say; and what if it isn't enough?' A versified slogan of the 1960 revolution ran: <1Gereki%rse / O*u*ru*z / Bi%z. / Ya si%z?>1 "If necessary / We are ready to die, / We. / And you ?' 33. <1yok>1 is used colloquially for "no'in reply not only to questions containing <1var mi>1 or <1yok mu>1 (VIII, 45): <1gi%di%yor musun ?-- yok>1 "are you going?'--"no'. In this sense it is often pronounced without the <1k>1 and with the vowel lengthened, and may be pho- netically spelled <1yooo ]>1 When retailing an unlikely story, a sarcastic <1yok>1 may preface each clause: <1yok ka=g*idi kalmamis+, yok mu*rekkebi% i%yi% deg*i%lmi%s+, hasili bi%r alay bahaneler>1 "oh no he had no paper left, oh no his ink was no good; in short, a host of excuses'. 34. <1yoksa>1 "if not, otherwise': <1usIu durursun, yoksa seni% bi%r daha buraya geti%rmem>1 "you'll stand nice-and-quiet, otherwise I shan't bring you here again'. It then comes to be used to introduce the second half of double questions: <1bu mu*mku*n mu* yoksa deg*i%l mi% ?>1 "is this possible, or is it not ?'; <1bugu*n mu* yoksa yarin mi gi%di%yorsunuz ?>1 "is it today or tomorrow you are going ?' When two possibilities are considered but only one is expressed, <1yoksa>1 may begin the sentence: <1yoksa gi%tsem mi%?>1 "or should I go ?' XIV WORD-FORMATION 1. Deverbal substantives. In sections 2-18 are discussed the principal suffixes which are added to verb-stems to make nouns and adjectives, excluding those dealt with under the headings of participles and verbal nouns in Chapters IX and X. These suffixes have been and are the chief weapons of the language-reformers in their campaign to substitute words from Turkish roots for Arabic and Persian borrowings. ak- to flow <1akici>1 fluent <1oku->1 to read <1oku-y-ucu>1 reader <1gu*l-du*r->1 to make to laugh <1gu*ldu*ru*cu*>1 amusing <1uyus+-tur->1 to benumb <1uyus+turucu>1 narcotic <1et->1 to make <1sarhos+ edi%ci%>1 intoxicant ("drunk making') <1o*l-du*r->1 to kill <1has+arat o*ldu*-ru*cu* i%la=c+>1 in- secticide ("insect killer medi- cament') <1do*n-du*r->1 to turn <1bas+ do*ndu*ru*cu* hiz>1 vertigi- nous ("head turning') speed <1ver->1 to give <1hayat veri%ci%>1 life-giving The first vowel of the suffix has been lost in <1di%lenci%>1 "beggar' from <1di%len->1 "to beg'. <1o*g*renci%>1 "student, pupil' was manufactured analogously from <1o*g*ren->1 "to learn'. 3. -<1men.>1 A suffix -<1man>1 occurs in a number of time-honoured words, apparently with intensive significance; e.g. from <1koca>1 "big', <1kocaman>1 "huge'; from <1s+i%s+>1 "swollen', <1s+i%s+man>1 "fat'. The language-reformers have used -<1men>1 to make nouns of occupation : <1o*g*ret->1 to teach <1o*g*retmen>1 teacher <1oku-t->1 to make to read <1okutman>1 lector <1say->1 to count - <1sayman>1 accountant <1sec+->1 to choose <1sec+men>1 elector <1yaz->1 to write <1yazman>1 secretary In this use the suffix is a hybrid, deriving, on the one hand, from the Turkish -<1man>1 and, on the other, from the English -<2man,>2 familiar to the Turks in three borrowings from French: <1vatman>1 "tram-driver', <1sportmen>1 "sportsman', and <1rekortmen>1 "record- holder'. The last two may have come via Russian. <1egemen>1 "sovereign' purports to be derived from <1ege>1 or <1eg*e>1 "guardian'. In fact it is a distortion of the Greek "leader'; the French <2he=*ge=*mie>2 was borrowed in the form <1hegemonya>1 by Ziya Go*kalp (d. 1924). 4. -<1i%k>1 makes adjectives, mostly with passive meaning, and nouns, mostly denoting the result of action: <1bi%rles+->1 to unite <1bi%rles+i%k>1 united <1boz->1 to destroy <1bozuk>1 unserviceable, spoilt <1c+ik->1 to come out <1c+ikik>1 dislocated <1deg*i%s+->1 to change <1deg*i%s+i%k>1 varied <1o*ksu*r->1 to cough <1o*ksu*ru*k>1 cough <1so*k->1 to undo <1so*ku*k>1 unravelled <1tu*ku*r->1 to spit <1tu*ku*ru*k>1 saliva 5. -<1i%>1 denotes action or result of action. It occurs only with mono- syllabic consonant-stems : <1dol->1 to be filled <1dolu>1 full <1kork->1 to run <1korku>1 fear <1kos+->1 to run <1kos+u>1 race <1o*l->1 to die <1o*lu*>1 dead, corpse <1yap->1 to make <1yapi>1 construction 6. -<1ti%, -i%nti%.>1 <2(a)>2 -<1ti%>1 denotes action or result of action: <1beli%r->1 to appear <1beIi%rti%>1 symptom <1buyur-ul->1 to be ordered <1buy(u)rultu>1 command <1bula-n->1 to be nauseated <1bulanti>1 nausea <1c+alka-n->1 to be agitated <1c+alkanti>1 agitation <2(b)>2 Analogously with the last two examples, there are a number of nouns ending in -<1i%n-ti%>1 from verbs with no reflexive in use, e.g.; <1ak->1 to flow <1akinti>1 stream <1bur->1 to twist <1buruntu>1 colic <1c+ik->1 to come out <1c+ikinti>1 projection <1c+o*k->1 to collapse <1c+o*ku*ntu*>1 debris <1kur->1 to brood <1kuruntu>1 melancholy fancy <1sev->1 to love <1sevgi%>1 affection <1i%c+->1 to drink <1i%c+ki%>1 (alcoholic) drink <1c+al->1 to play <1c+algi>1 musical instrument <1as->1 to hang <1aski>1 pendant, braces (U. K.), suspenders (U.S.A.) <1bur->1 to twist <1burgu>1 gimlet <1o*r->1 to interlace <1o*rgu*>1 plait <1yar->1 to split <1yargi>1 decision 8. -<1c+>1 makes adjectives and abstract nouns, primarily from re- flexive stems and other stems in <1n: <1i%g*ren->1 to be disgusted <1i%g*renc+>1 loathsome, loathing <1i%nan->1 to believe <1i%nanc+>1 belief <1kazan->1 to win <1kazanc+>1 gain <1kiskan->1 to envy <1kiskanc+>1 jealousy <1usan->1 to be bored <1usanc+>1 boredom By analogy, <1korkunc+>1 "terrible' is formed from <1kork->1 "to fear', although this verb has no reflexive. <1yala>1 to lick <1yalak>1 trough <1bat->1 to sink <1batak>1 marsh <1ele->1 to sift <1elek>1 sieve <1tara->1 to comb <1tarak>1 comb <1o*lc+->1 to measure <1o*lc+ek>1 scale of a map <1o*lc+->1 to measure <1o*lc+ek>1 scale of a map <1yed->1 to tow <1yedek>1 tow-rope å led animal å spare <1aksa->1 to limp <1aksak>1 lame <1bu*yu*->1 to become great <1bu*yu*k>1 great <1sog*u->1 to become cold <1sog*uk>1 cold <1u*rk->1 to shy <1u*rkek>1 timid From <1at->1 "to throw' comes <1atak>1 "bold, daring', not to be con- fused with the identical-looking noun meaning "attack', a French borrowing used by sports-writers and military experts. <1c+eki%n->1 to withdraw <1c+eki%ngen>1 retiring <1do*g*u*s+->1 to fight <1do*g*u*s+ken>1 bellicose <1sokul->1 to push oneself in <1sokulgan>1 ingratiating <1unut->1 to forget <1unutkan>1 forgetful <1A>1 rare by-form is -<1eg*en:>1 <1ol->1 to happen <1olag*an>1 normal <1pi%s+->1 to cook (intr.) <1pi%s+eg*en>1 easily cooking <1gez->1 to stroll <1gezeg*en>1 planet 11. -<1gi%n>1 makes nouns and adjectives with active or passive meaning : <1er->1 to mature <1ergi%n>1 adult <1kiz->1 to become heated <1kizgin>1 fevered <1sol->1 to fade <1solgun>1 faded <1su*r->1 to exile <1su*rgu*n>1 exile <1bi%t->1 to end <1bi%tki%n>1 exhausted <1ku*s->1 to sulk <1ku*sku*n>1 sulky <1s+as+->1 to go astray <1s+as+kin>1 bewildered <1cos+->1 to overflow <1cos+kun>1 exuberant <1gec+ki%n>1 "past' and <1as+kin>1 "exceeding' may govern an object: <1elli yas+ini gec+ki%n bi%r adam>1 "a man past his fiftieth year'; <1boyu, i%ki% metreyi% as+kindi>1 "his height was over two metres'. 12. -<1i%t, -t>1 (the latter after vowel-stems). This noun-suffix, though not very productive in former times, is a favourite of the neo- logizers ; witness the last five examples : <1ayir->1 to distinguish <1ayirt>1 distinction <1gec+->1 to pass <1gec+i%t>1 passage, ford <1yog*ur->1 to knead <1yog*urt>1 yoghurt <1an->1 to call to mind <1anit>1 memorial <1soy->1 to strip <1soyut>1 abstract <1tas+i->1 to carry <1tas+it>1 vehicle <1yak->1 to burn <1yakit>1 fuel <1yaz->1 to write <1yazit>1 inscription It occurs also in a few adjectives deliberately derived from substantives : <1yas+>1 age <1yas+it>1 coeval <1es+>1 mate <1es+i%t>1 equal <1kars+i>1 opposite <1kars+it>1 contrary An analogous recent coinage is <1somut,>1 from <1som>1 "solid', for "concrete', as opposed to <1soyut>1 "abstract'. 13. -<1i%m>1 makes nouns, many of them denoting a single action, This too is an abundant source of neologisms, e.g. <1basim>1 and the three following examples on the next page. <1i%c+->1 to driUnK 1li%c%m>1 d raugh <1yut->1 to swallow <1yudum>1 swallow, mouthful <1di%l>1 to slice <1di%li%>1 slice, strip <1dog*->1 to be born <1dog*um>1 birth <10*l->1 to die <1o*lu*m>1 death <1tut->1 to hold <1tutum>1 thrift, behaviour The noun of unity <1tut->1 is irregular: <1tutam>1 "handful'. <1bas->1 to press,print <1basim>1 printing <1de->1 to say <1deyi%m>1 expression <1dur->1 to stand <1durum>1 situation <1yat-ir->1 to lay, deposit <1yatirim>1 investment See also XII, 1; <1su*ru*m su*ru*m,>1 etc. Examples of deverbal nouns in -<1m>1 from vowel-stems are few, but the reformers have created somc on the analogy of <1anlam,>1 alleged to be used in Konya in the sense of "meaning'; cf. <1anla->1 "to understand'. <1go*zle->1 to observe <1go*zlem>1 observation <1Kavra->1 to grasp <1kavram>1 concept The same dubious suffix is seen in the neologism <1gu*ndem>1 "agenda' from <1gu*nde>1 "in the day'. 14. -<1i%n>1 makes <1nouns:>1 <1ak->1 to flow <1akin>1 stream, rush, raid <1ek->1 to sow <1eki%n>1 crop <1tu*t->1 to smoke (intr.) <1tu*tu*n>1 tobacco <1yig*->1 to pile up <1yig*in>1 heap <1bas->1 to press, print <1basin>1 the Press 15. -<1gec+,>1 -<1gi%c+.>1 These two related suffixes make a few nouns, mostly denoting agent or instrument: <1dal->1 to plunge <1dalgi>1 diver <1su*z->1 to filter <1su*zgec+>1 filter, strainer <1yu*z->1 to swim <1yu*zgec+>1 swimmer, float <1bas+la->1 to begin <1bas+la-n-gic+>1 beginning <1patla->1 to explode <1patla-n-gac+, patla-n-gic+>1 pop-gun, fire-cracker 16. -<1tay.>1 This neologism seems to have been extracted from the Mongol <2quriltai>2 "assembly of the nobles', as if the word were derived from the Turkish <1kur-ul->1 "to be established' -*-<1tay.>1 <1kurultay>1 is the name given by the Turkish Linguistic Society to its annual congress. The "suffix' has been used (with substantives as well as with verb-stems) to create a number of administrative terms, all of which, except the first, are often used in official language. The older terms are given in brackets. <1kamu>1 <2(archaic)>2 all, whole <1Kamutay>1 Grand National Assembly <1(Bu*yu*k Mi%llet Mecli%si%)>1 <1danis+->1 to consult <1Danis+tay>1 Council of State ( <1S+ura-yi Devlet, Devlet S+urasi)>1 <1sayis+->1 to settle accounts <1Sayis+tay>1 Exchequer and Audit <1(Di%van-i Muhasebat, Muhasebat Di%vani)>1 <1yargi>1 decision <1Yargitay>1 Supreme Court of Appeal <1(Temyi%z Mahke- mesi%)>1 17. -<1ev, -v.>1 This was borrowed by the neologizers from the Kazan dialect. <1go*r->1 to see, perform <1go*rev>1 duty <1sayla->1 to choose <1saylav>1 deputy, M.P. <1sina->1 to test <1sinav>1 examination <1so*yle->1 to tell <1so*ylev>1 speech l8. -<1ey,>1 -y.>1 This suffix, of Chaghatai origin, is also beloved of the neologizers. <1dene->1 to try <1deney>1 experiment <1di%k->1 to set up <1di%key>1 perpendicular <1ol->1 to happen <1olay>1 event <1yat->1 to lie <1yatay>1 horizontal It is rarely added to nouns: <1yu*z->1 face <1izey>1 surface 19. Denominal verbs. Relatively few substantives are also verb- stems; among the commonist are: <1aci>1 grief <1aci->1 to grieve (intr.) <1boya>1 paint <1boya->1 to paint <1eks+i%>1 sour <1eks+i%->1 to become sour <1eski%>1 old <1eski%->1 to become worn out <1gerek>1 necessary <1gerek->1 to be necessary <1go*c+>1 migration <1go*c+->1 to migrate <1kuru>1 dry <1kuru->1 to dry (intr-) On the other hand, many verbs are formed by adding suffixes to substantives. These suffixes are discussed in ## 20-29- <1bos+>1 empty <1bos+a->1 to divorce <1harc+>1 expenditure <1harca->1 to spend <1kan>1 blood <1kana->1 to bleed <1oyun>1 game <1oyna->1 to play <1yas+>1 age <1yas+a->1 to live 21. -<1le->1. This, with its derivatives (## 22-24), is the most pro- ductive of all verbal suffixes. The precise relationship between the meanings of the basic substantive and the derived verb is not always guessable; compare the last two examples in list <2(a).>2 It is added to: <2(a)>2 Nouns: <1balta>1 axe <1baltala->1 to sabotage <1go*z>1 eye <1go*zle->1 to keep an eye on <1ki%li%t>1 lock <1ki%li%tle->1 to lock <1ki%r>1 dirt <1ki%rle->1 to dirty <1su>1 water <1sula->1 to irrigate <1yumurta>1 egg <1yumurtala->1 to lay eggs <1kuzu>1 lamb <1kuzula->1 to lamb <1ko*pek>1 dog <1ko*pekle->1 to cringe <2(b)>2 Adjectives: <1ku*c+u*k>1 small <1ku*c+u*kle->1 to slight <1seri%n>1 cool <1seri%nle->1 to become cool <1temi%z>1 clean <1temi%zle->1 to clean <1u*c+>1 three <1u*c+le->1 to increase to three, to let a farm in ex- change for one-third of the crop <2(c)>2 Onomatopoeic words : <1hav hav>1 bow-wow <1havla->1 to bark <1mi%yav>1 miaow <1mi%yavla->1 to mew <1pu*f>1 puff <1pu*fle->1 to puff, blow out 22. -<1len->1. In origin the reflexive and passive of -<1le->1, it also makes some verbs synonymous with those in -<1Ie->1, and some of which there is no -<1Ie->1 form in use: <1temi%zle->1 to clean <1temi%zlen->1 to be cleaned <1ki%rIe->1 to dirty <1ki%rlen->1 to become dirty <1seri%nle->1 to become cool <1seri%nlen->1 to become cool <1can>1 soul,life <1canlan->1 to come to life <1ev>1 house <1evlen->1 to marry Its causative is -<1len-di%r->1: <1canlandir->1 "to vivify', <1evlendi%r->1 "to give in marriage'. 23. -<1let->1. The causative of -<1le->1. Some verbs formed with it are synonymous with the forms in -<1le->1: <1temi%zle->1 to clean <1temi%zlet->1 to get cleaned <1ki%li%tIe->1 to lock <1ki%li%tlet->1 to get locked <1ki%rle->1 to dirty <1ki%rIet->1 to dirty 24. -<1les+->1. Originally the reciprocal of -<1le->1, it is also freely used to make verbs meaning "to become . . .': <1kars+ila->1 to meet <1kars+ilas+->1 to meet one another <1seri%n>1 cool <1seri%nles+->1 to become cool <1dert>1 pain, trouble <1dertles+->1 to tell each other your troubles <1mektup>1 letter <1mektuplas+->1 to correspond <1Tanri>1 God <1tanrilas+->1 to become divine <1o*lmez>1 (IX, 4) <1o*lmezles+->1 to become immortal immortal <1Ameri%ka-li>1 American <1ameri%kalilas+->1 to be American- ized <1garp-li>1 westerner <1garplilas+->1 to be western- ized <1bi%r>1 one <1bi%rles+->1 to become united Its causative is -<1les+-ti%r->1: <1o*lmezles+ti%r->1 "to immortalize', <1garplilas+tir->1 "to westernize', <1bi%rles+ti%r->1 "to unite'. 25. -<1el->1, -<1I->1. Added to a number of adjectives, but very few nouns, it conveys "to become . . .'. Disyllables in final <1k>1 lose it before this suffix : <1az>1 little <1azal->1 to diminish (intr-) <1c+ok>1 much <1c+og*al->1 to increase (intr.) <1bos+>1 empty <1bos+al->1 to be emptied <1si%vri%>1 sharp-pointed <1si%vri%l->1 to become prominent <1alc+ak>1 low <1alc+al->1 to condescend <1ufak>1 tiny <1ufal->1 to diminish (intr.) <1yu*ksek>1 high <1yu*ksel->1 to rise <1yo*n>1 direction <1yo*nel->1 to direct oneself The causative is -<1elt->1, -<1It->1 : <1azalt->1 "to diminish' (tr.), <1yu*ks elt->1 "to raise'. 26. -<1er->1. No longer productive, with adjectives of colour it con- veys "to become . . .'; added to other words it usually has an active sense. Disyllabic adjectives of colour lose their final syllable before it; more accurately, -<1er->1 is added to the monosyllabic stem from which the disyllabic adjective is derived: <1ak>1 white <1ag*ar->1 to become white <1boz>1 grey <1bozar->1 to become grey <1go*k>1 blue green <1go*g*er->1 <2or>2 to become <1go*ver->1 (I, lo) blue, green <1yes+i%l>1 green <1yes+er->1 to become green <1kizil>1 red <1kizar->1 to become red, be roasted <1sari>1 yellow <1sarar->1 to become yellow <1ev>1 house <1ever->1 to marry off <1ot>1 grass <1otar->1 to pasture <1su>1 water <1suvar->1 (p. 29) to water an animal <1yas+>1 moisture <1yas+ar->1 to become wet 27. -<1se->1. This was once not uncommon in the sense of "to want . . .', e.g. in <1tu*tu*nse->1 "to crave tobacco'. The only surviving example in common use is: <1su>1 water <1susa->1 to thirst In a few words it has the sense of"to regard as . . :': <1beni%m>1 of me <1beni%mse->1 to regard as one's own <1mu*hi%m>1 important <1mu*hi%mse->1 to think important <1c+i%rki%n>1 ugly <1c+i%rki%nse->1 to think ugly <1gari%p>1 stranger <1gari%pse->1 to consider strange, to feel lonely 28. -<1i%mse->1. A suffix -<1i%mse->1 with the same meaning appears in: <1az>1 little <1azimsa->1 to consider inadequate <1c+ok>1 much <1c+og*umsa->1 to consider excessive In the postvocalic form -<1mse->1 it is used to make two neo- logisms: <1i%ko*tu*>1 bad <1ko*tu*mse->1 to be pessimistic The aorist participles <1i%yi%mser>1 and <1ko*tu*mser>1 are commonly used for "optimistic' and "pessimistic' respecively. Different in sense and in being formed from a verb-stem is <1gu*lu*mse->1 "to smile'; cf. <1gu*l->1 "to laugh'. This -<1i%mse->1 may have been formed on the analogy of <1beni%m-se->1 and <1mu*hi%m-se->1 but is more likely related to the adjectival suffix -<1i%msi%>1 (IV, 3)- 29. -<1de->1 is added to a number of onomatopoeic words ending in <1r>1 or <1I>1 which, when repeated, are used as adverbs. For example, <1cizir>1 imitates the sound of sizzling; "sizzlingly' is <1cizir cizir,>1 while <1cizirdamak>1 is to make this noise. Such verbs in -<1de->1 have a corresponding noun in -<1di%>1 or -<1ti%,>1 thus cizirti"sizzling'. There is also a verb <1ciz-la-mak>1 "to sizzle'. A series like this exists for many onomatopoeic words, though in some the verb in -<1le->1 is wanting. Where there is a verb in -<1le->1, it is used with the doubled adverb in preference to the verb in -<1de->1. Thus "to snore snortingly' is <1horul horul horlamak>1 rather than <1horuldamak.>1 <2Imitative>2 <2Word Represents Verb Noun Verb>2 <1gicir>1 creaking <1gicirda- gicirti>1 -- <1hiril>1 growling <1hirilda- hirilti hirla->1 <1horul>1 snoring <1horulda- horultu horla->1 <1ku*tu*r>1 crunching <1ku*tu*rde- ku*tu*rdu*>1 -- <1patir>1 footsteps <1patirda- patirdi>1 -- <1paril>1 glittering <1parilda- parilti parla->1 <1piril>1 ,, <1pirilda- pirilti>1 -- <1takir>1 tapping <1takirda- takirti>1 -- 30. Compound nouns and adjectives. The various ways in which these may be formed are dealt with in this and the following sections. Two <2nouns>2 juxtaposed : <1baba>1 father <1anne>1 mother <1babaanne>1 paternal grand- mother <1anneanne>1 maternal grand- mother <1kayin>1 brother- <1ata>1 father <1kaynata>1 father-in-law in-law <1ana>1 mother <1kaynana>1 mother-in-law <1bas+>1 head <1bakan>1 minister <1bas+bakan>1 prime minister <1c+avus+>1 sergeant <1bas+c+avus+>1 sergeant-major <1parmak>1 finger <1bas+parmak>1 thumb <1i%c+>1 interior <1yu*z>1 face <1i%c+yu*z>1 "the inside story' <1kale>1 fort <1i%c+kale>1 citadel <1orta>1 middle <1c+ag*>1 epoch <1ortac+ag*>1 the Middle Ages <1okul>1 school <1ortaokul>1 intermediate school <1g-o*z>1 eye <1kulak>1 ear <1go*zkulak>1 alert, interested <1ag*a>1 chief <1bey>1 lord <1ag*abey>1 elder brother <1hanim>1 lady <1efendi%>1 master <1hanimefendi%>1 Madam <1beyefendi%>1 Sir <1yu*z>1 face <1go*z>1 eye <1yu*zgo*z>1 over-familiar <1o*n>1 front <1ayak>1 foot <1o*nayak>1 pioneer, ringleader <1so*z>1 word <1o*nso*z>1 foreword <1yargi>1 judgement <1o*nyargi>1 prejudice 31. Abbreviated nouns. Some military terms have been formed on the pattern of Russian officialese, from abbreviated nouns: <1tu*men>1 division <1generaI>1 general <1tu*mgeneral>1 major- general <1ordu>1 army <1orgeneral>1 general (4-star) <1donatim>1 equipment <1ordonat>1 equip- ment branch <1u*st>1 top <1teg*men>1 2nd <1u*stegmen>1 1st lieutenant lieutenant 32. Izafet groups : <1yil>1 year <1bas+>1 head <1yilbas+i>1 New Year <1eI>1 hand <1bi%rIi%k>1 oneness <1elbi%rli%g*i%>1 co-operation <1i%c+>1 interior <1aci>1 pain <1i%c+ler acisi>1 heart-rending <1hamm>1 lady <1el>1 hand <1hanimeli%>1 honeysuckle <1saman>1 straw <1yol>1 way <1samanyolu>1 the Milky Way <1cuma>1 Friday <1erte>1 morrow <1cumartesi%>1 Saturday <1tari%h>1 history <1o*nce>1 before <1tari%h o*ncesi%>1 prehistoric <1mu*letler>1 nations <1ara>1 interval <1mi%lletlerarasi>1 inter- national <1harp>1 war <1sonra>1 after <1harp sonrasi>1 post-war <1su>1 water <1u*st>1 top <1suu*stu*>1 surface (adj-) 33. Frozen izafet groups. The following words, though izafet groups in origin, are treated like simple vowel-stems (cf. Il, 24)- Thus <1deni%zaltilar>1 "submarines', <1bi%nbas+iya>1 "to the major', <1ayakkabici>1 "shoemaker'. <1deni%z>1 sea <1alt>1 underside <1deni%zalti>1 submarine (noun and adj-) <1bi%n>1 thousand <1bas+>1 head <1bi%nbas+i>1 major <1yu*z>1 hundred <1yu*zbas+i>1 captain <1on>1 ten <1onbas+i>1 corporal <1ayak>1 foot <1kap>1 cover <1ayakkabi>1 footwear, shoes 34. Proper names consisting in izafet groups. Patronymics in -<1og*lu>1 are strictly declined as izafet groups: <1Osmanog*ullari>1 "the Ottoman dynasty', <1Karamanog*luna>1 "to the karamanid'. Colloquially, however, surnames of this type are sometimes treated as simple vowel-stems; thus "to Azizog*lu', strictly <1Azi%z- og*luna>1 or <1Azi%zog*lu'na,>1 may occur as <1Azi%zog*lu'ya. IZno*nu*>1 as a place-name is declined as an izafet group; as a sur- name (derived from the place-name) it is declined as a simple noun. Either way it may be written with or without an apostrophe before the case-endings : <2Place-name Surname>2 <2abs.>2 <1IZno*nu*>1 <2acc.>2 <1IZno*nu*'nu* IZno*nu*'yu*>1 <2pen.>2 <1IZno*nu* 'nu*n>1 <2dat.>2 <1IZno*nu*'ne IZno*nu*'ye>1 <2loc.>2 <1IZno*nu*'nde IZno*nu*'de>1 <2abl.>2 <1IZno*nu*'nden IZno*nu*'den>1 35. Adjective-noun : <1bu*yu*k>1 great <1anne>1 mother <1bu*yu*kanne>1 grandmother <1kara>1 black <1yel>1 wind <1karayel>1 north-wester <1top-lu>1 knobbed <1i%g*ne>1 needle <1toplui%g*ne>1 pin <1kirk>1 forty <1ayak>1 foot <1kirkayak>1 centipede 36. Noun-noun--<1li%>1 : <1ci%n>1 demon <1fi%ki%r>1 thought <1ci%nfi%ki%rli%>1 shrewd <1koyun>1 sheep <1bas+>1 head <1koyunbas+Ii>1 mutton-headed <1orta>1 middle <1boy>1 stature <1ortaboyIu>1 of medium height <1ac+>1 hungry <1go*z>1 eye <1ac+go*zIu*>1 avaricious <1alc+ak>1 low <1go*nu*l>1 soul <1alc+akgo*nu*llu*>1 humble <1deli%>1 mad <1kan>1 blood <1deli%kanli>1 young man <1i%ki%>1 two <1can>1 soul <1i%ki%canli>1 pregnant 38. Noun-adjective : <1su*t>1 milk <1beyaz>1 white <1su*tbeyaz>1 milk-white <1ko*mu*r>1 coal <1si%yah>1 black <1ko*mu*rsi%yah>1 coal-black 39. Noun-third-person suffix-adjective : <1el-i%>1 his hand <1ac+ik>1 open <1eli%ac+ik>1 generous See XVIII, 1. 40. Noun-verb : <1ku*l>1 ash <1basti>1 it pressed <1ku*lbasti>1 grilled meat <1dal>1 branch <1dalbasti>1 fine and large (of cherries) <1unutma>1 do not forget <1beni%>1 me <1unutmabeni%>1 forget- me-not To this class belong the names of two dishes made with auber- gines: <1hu*nka=rbeg*endi%>1 "the Sovereign approved' and <1i%mam->1 <1bayildi>1 "the Imam swooned'. The verb may be a participle: <1kervan>1 caravan <1kiran>1 breaking <1kervankiran>1 the morning <1oyun>1 game <1bozan>1 spoiling <1oyunbozan>1 spoilsport <1yurt>1 land <1sever>1 loving <1yurtsever>1 patriot <1c+it>1 crack] <1kirildim>1 I have been <1c+itkirildim>1 fragile b roken effeminate <1s+ip>1 plop ] <1sevdi%>1 he has fallen in <1s+ipsevdi%>1 susceptible, love impressionable 42. Verb-verb : <1Sakar>1 it strikes <1almaz>1 it does not <1c+akaralmaz>1 useless, not fire take working; facetious term for gun, "blunderbuss' <1kapti>1 it snatched <1kac+ti>1 it fled <1kaptikac+ti>1 small, privately owned omnibus, "pirate bus' <1vurdum>1 I hit <1duymaz>1 he does <1vurdumduymaz>1 thick- not feel skinned 43. Hyphenated compounds. The hyphen is hardly ever used in compound words, except in one or two modernisms like <1okur- yazar>1 "literate' ("reader--writer') and <1akto*r-reji%so*r>1 "actor-- producer', phrases like <1Ankara-Konya yolu>1 "the Ankara-Konya road' and <1o*g*retmen-o*g*renci% orani>1 "teacher-pupil ratio', and names of commercial firms Iike <1IZpek-IZs+>1 "Silk-Work'. Some of the compounds shown above as one word may be spelt as two, and vice versa. 44. Repetitions. As in English, a verb may be repeated to indicate the duration of activity : <1c+alis+acaksin, c+alis+acaksin ve muvaf- fak olacaksin>1 "you will work, you will work, and you will be successful'. Similar locutions are frequent in the colloquial: <1kalalim kalalim aks+ama kadar kalalim, sonra>1 ? "all right, suppose we stay till evening; what do we do then ?' (lit. "let us stay, let us stay, till evening let us stay; after ?'). <1arabayi su*rmu*s+, su*rmu*s+, ni%hayet yeti%s+ti%>1 "he drove and drove the car and finally arrived'. If the object of the repeated verb is also repeated, inversion is automatic: <1su*rmu*s+ arabayi, su*rmu*s+ arabayi, ni%hayet yeti%s+ti%. yapacag*im da yapacag*im>1 "1'11 certainly do it' ("I shall do and I shall do'). <1gi%tti% mi% gi%tti%]>1 "I'll say he went ]' ("did he go ? he went ]')- This last construction is found with adjectives too: <1i%hti%yar zengi%n mi% zengi%n]>1 "the old man is certainly rich' (". . . rich? rich ]'). When repeated adjectives qualify nouns in the plural, the sense is more than simply intensive ; e.g. <1gu*zeI gu*zel kizlar>1 means not just "very beautiful girls' but "girls each more beautiful than the last'; <1yeni% yeni% u*mi%tler>1 are not "very new hopes' but "ever-new hopes'. Repeated nouns: <1avuc+ avuc+ paralar>1 "coins by the handful'; <1araba araba odun>1 "cartload after cartload of wood'; <1sira sira dag*lar>1 "range on range of mountains'; <1demet demet otlar>1 "bundles and bundles of grass'; <1ku*me ku*me evIer>1 "masses and masses of houses'. A once-popular song begins: <1Ey mi%ralay, mi%ralay]>1 / <1Askeri%n alay alay>1 "0 Colonel, Colonel] / Your soldiers are regiment on regiment'. 45. Doublets. On almost every page of the dictionary will be found nouns and adjectives consisting in pairs of assonant words. Such doublets are of three kinds. <1(a)>1 Each element is a regular word: <1i%s+ gu*c+>1 employment ("work toil') <1kanli canli>1 robust ("having blood and Iife') <1yorgun argun>1 dead-tired ("tired exhausted') <1yorgun argun>1 jerrybuilt ("collection fitting-together) <1(b)>1 Only one element is a regular word, the other exists only in this doublet: <1c+ocuk>1 child <1c+oluk c+ocuk>1 wife and family <1siki>1 close <1siki fiki>1 intimate <1c+arpik>1 crooked <1c+arpik c+urpuk>1 crooked and twisted <1alaca>1 motley <1alaca bulaca>1 garish and discor- dant of colour <1(c)>1 Neither element has independent existence : <1allak bullak>1 topsy-turvy <1abuk sabuk>1 nonsensical <1ivir zivir>1 miscellaneous rubbish 46. <1m->1 doublets. The largest class of doublet is that in which a word is followed by an echo of itself but with <1m>1 replacing its initial consonant or preceding its initial vowel. The meaning of this form beginning with <1m>1 is "and so on, and suchlike'. <1dergi% okumuyor>1 "he doesn't read journals'; <1dergi% mergi% okumuyor>1 "he doesn't read journals or periodicals or magazines'. <1bahc+ede ag*ac+ yok>1 "there are no trees in the garden'; <1bahc+ede ag*ac+ mag*ac+ yok>1 "there are no trees or shrubs or bushes in the garden'. It must be emphasized that it is useless to seek such words as <1mergi%>1 and <1mag*ac+>1 in the dictionary; they are manufactured <2ad hoc.">2 <1parti%ler, marti%ler, hep reform meform di%ye bag*irip c+ag*iriyorlar>1 "the political parties and suchlike are always shouting and screaming about reform and all that'. <1i%s+i%n sonunu anlat--sonu monu yok>1 "tell Õmeå the end of the business'--"it has no end or anything resembling an end'. A rough equivalent of "but me no buts' is <1fakati makati yok,>1 lit. "it has no ""but'' <1(fakat)>1 or anything like a ""but'' <1(makat)'.>1 The late Prime Minister Menderes, on hearing that Harold Stassen was retiring as administrator of United States foreign aid, remarked: <1Stassen gi%derse, yeri%ne Mtassen geli%r. Yardimi ondan aliriz>1 "If Stassen goes, some close facsimile of Stassen will take his place. We'll get the aid from him.' A Turkish workman who had married a German girl, when asked how they managed to communicate, replied: <1Tarzanca marzanca i%dare edi%yoruz i%s+te>1 "We manage in the manner (or "language'; see XII, 2 <2(e))>2 of Tarzan and his mate Jane, that's how it is'. It will be seen that this is essentially a colloquialism; for a neat literary use of it see XXIV, 14. An ingenious political use was made ofit before the 1960 revolution, when the opposition weekl' <2Kim>2 was suspended but immediately reappeared under the title of <2Mim.>2 Besides meaning, in this context, "something closely resembling <2Kim',>2 this is the name of the Arabic letter <2m>2 which was used by the Ottoman bureaucracy as a "black mark', to put against the names of those politically suspect. Hence <1mi%mli%,>1 still current for "on the black list'. This device is possible only because of the lack of native Turkish words with initial <1m.>1 With words which do begin with <1m, m->1doublets cannot be made and <1falan>1 or <1fi%la=n>1 (V, 21) is used instead : <1mu*fetti%s+ler falan geli%yor>1 "the inspectors and all that lot are coming'. XV THE ORDER OF ELEMENTS IN THE SENTENCE 1. Nominal sentences and verbal sentences. Turkish grammarians classify all sentences as either nominal or verbal, the former being those in which the verbal element, if any, is one of the parts of "to be' not formed from the stem <1ol->1; the latter, those in which the verbal element is from <1ol->1 or any other normal stem. Thus these are nominal sentences : <1hava gu*zel(di%r)>1 the weather is fine <1yorgun deg*u*i%m>1 I am not tired <1yu*zu* temi%z i%di%>1 his face was clean <1ev c+ok ucuz i%mi%s+>1 the house is said to be very cheap <1bekli%yordur>1 he is sure to be waiting These are verbal sentences : <1hava gu*zel oldu>1 the weather has become fine <1yorulmadim>1 I have not become fatigued <1yu*zu*nu* yikadi>1 he has washed his face <1ev satilmis+>1 the house appears to have been sold <1bekli%yor>1 he is waiting The distinction, however, has no practical value; the weight given to it by Turkish schoolteachers is a relic of the days when Turkish grammar was taught with the technical terms of Arabic, in which the distinction is of fundamental importance. 2. The principles of word-order. The cardinal rule is that the qualifier precedes the qualified; i.e. the adjective, participle, or qualifying noun precedes the noun; the adverb or complement precedes the verb; the modifying phrase or adverb precedes the adjective : <1bu*yu*k ev>1 the big house <1do*nen tekerlek>1 the turning wheel <1c+i%ft;i%ni%n evi%>1 the farmer's house <1c+abuk geldi%>1 he came quickly <1c+abuk ol>1 be quick ] <1buraya geldi%>1 he came here <1buradan uzak>1 far from here <1Hi%ndi%stan kadar bu*yu*k bi%r memleket>1 a land as big as India <1Hi%ndi%stan'dan bu*yu*k bi%r memleket>1 a land bigger than India <1pek ku*c+u*k bi%r bahc+e>1 a very small garden To leave aside, for the moment, the flexibility given to the written word by writers of the <1devri%k cu*mle>1 school (see # 3), the typical order of the elements in a literary sentence is-- (1) subject, (2) expression of time, (3) expression of place, (4) indirect object, (5) direct object, (6) modifier of the verb, (7) verb. If any of these elements is qualified, the qualifier precedes it. The definite precedes the indefinite, so elements (4) and (5) will change places if the indirect object is indefinite and the direct object is definite. Thus <1c+ocug*a hi%ka=yeyi% anlatti>1 "she told the child the story', but <1hi%ka=yeyi% bi%r c+ocug*a anlatti>1 "she told the story to a child'. By "modifier of the verb' in position (6) is meant what Turkish grammarians call <1tu*mlec+>1 "complement'. This may be: <2(a)>2 a noun in the dative, locative, or ablative case: <1vesi%kalari Ankara'ya yolluyorum>1 "I am sending the documents to Ankara'; <1mi%safi%r otelde bekli%yor>1 "the guest is waiting in the hotel'; <1onu penceremden go*rdu*m>1 "I saw him from my window'. <2(b)>2 an adverb or the equivalent: <1dis+ari c+ikalim>1 "let us go out- side'; <1bi%zi%m kadar c+alis+miyor>1 "he is not working as much as we are'. <1(c)>1 a particle: <1evet, geli%ri%m>1 "yes, I am coming'; <1hayir, gel- mem>1 "no, I am not coming'. An example of the typical word-order-- (1) <1ressam>1 (2) <1gec+en hafta>1 (3) <1Bebek'te>1 (4) <1bi%ze>1 (5) <1resi%mleri%ni% (6) i%ki%nci% defa>1 <1olarak>1 (7) <1go*sterdi%;>1 i.e. (1) the artist <1(7)>1 showed (4) us (5) his pictures (6) for the second time (2) last week (3) at Bebek. The definite precedes the indefinite, so, if he showed his pictures not to us but to a journalist, elements (4) and (5) will change places: <1resi%mleri%ni% bi%r gazeteci%ye go*sterdi%.>1 Any element which is to be emphasized may be placed immediately before the verb: <1gec+en hafta Bebek'te bi%ze resi%mleri%ni% ressam go*sterdi%>1 "it was the artist who showed us . . .'; <1ressam Bebek'te bi%ze resi%mIeri%ni% gec+en hafta go*sterdi%>1 "it was last week that the artist showed us . . .'; <1ressam gec+en hafta bi%ze resi%mleri%ni% Bebek'te go*sterdi%>1 "it was at Bebek that the artist showed us . . .'. If the verb is intransitive, elements (4) and (5) are replaced by the complement or modifier of the verb: (1) <1kiz kardes+i%m>1 (2) <1s+i%mdi%>1 (3) <1Pari%s'te>1 (4) <1trenden>1 (5) <1i%ni%yordur;>1 (1) my s ister (5) must be alighting (2) now (4) from the train (3) in Paris. (1) <1i%ki% sarhos+>1 (2) <1du*n aks+am>1 (3) <1Taksi%m'de>1 (4) <1karakolluk>1 (5) <1oldular>1 ; (1) two drunkards (5) became (4) police-station-material (2) yesterday evening (3) at Taksim (i.e. they were locked up). The subject of <1var>1 and <1yok>1 adjoins them as a rule: <1dag*da bi%r ayi var>1 or <1bi%r ayi var dag*da>1 "there is a bear on the moun- tain'; <1evde ki%mse yok>1 or <1ki%mse yok evde>1 "there is no one in the house'. It will not escape the reader's attention that such "typical' sentences are relatively infrequent among the enormous variety that can occur in human speech, especially in its written form. Nevertheless, although not every sentence will have all these elements, the order given above will be found to fit not only most sentences but also most clauses within the sentence. 3. The inverted sentence , <1devri%k cu*mle.>1 In English, which has discarded most of its inflexions, the rules of word-order must be obeyed or the syntactic relationships of the various parts of the sentence will be upset. In an inflected language like Turkish or Latin one can take liberties with the conventional word-order and still be intelligible. <1Romalilar>1 , <1barbarlari yendi%ler>1 Romani barbaros superaverunt The Romans defeated the barbarians Let the Romans and the barbarians change places in the Turkish or Latin sentences and the basic implication remains the same, though there is a shift of emphasis ("it was the <2Romans>2 who defeated the barbarians'). If they change places in the English, the sense is totally reversed. In the past, Turkish prose-writers, like Classical Latin authors, have in the main denied themselves the freedom of word-order which the structure of their language offers. The qualifier in a definite izafet had to precede its noun, just like the attributive adjective; the verb had to come at the end of the sentence. Any departure from these laws could be dismissed as colloquial. Under the Republic, however, new factors have altered the situation: the "Anatolian' school of novelists and short-story writers have made peasant speech a familiar element of literature; the language- reformers have largely succeeded in establishing the principle that the gap between the written and spoken languages must be narrowed if not eliminated; the writers of the <1devri%k cu*mle>1 ("inverted sentence') school have deliberately departed from the conventional word-order even in formal writing. As they are widely admired and imitated by the younger generation, it seems likely that their style will one day impose itself on all but the most formal and solemn prose. To ignore the "inverted sentence' in the hope that it will go away, as some conservative Turkish gram- marians do, is to confuse the duties of grammarian and literary critic. In fact, the <1devrik cu*mle>1 school's deviations from con- ventional word-order can all be paralleled in the works of the most venerated writers of all periods. Where the more inept adherents of the school go wrong is that they do not use such deviations occasionally, so that by their novelty they may be the more telling, but make them into a new norm. In the "inverted sentence', the qualifier in a definite izafet may follow the word it qualifies. The rule that attributive adjectives (in which we may include participial qualifiers, the equivalent of English relative clauses; see XVIII, 2) must precede their nouns is unbreakable, simply because an adjective which is placed after its noun automatically becomes predicative. <1mavi% deni%z>1 "the blue sea' reversed becomes <1deni%z mavi%>1 "the sea is blue'. <1i%lk aklima geIen cevap>1 means "the answer which comes first to my mind', If <1i%lk>1 . . . <1gelen>1 is put after <1cevap,>1 the meaning becomes "the answer is that which first comes to my mind'. But if we take a definite izafet group such as <1c+i%ftc+i%-ni%n ev-i%>1 "the farmer's house' and invert it, <1evi% c+i%ftc+i%ni%n,>1 the grammatical suffixes still show the relationship between the two words and the meaning is un- altered. True, they might also mean "his house is the farmer's', but in context there could be no ambiguity. In informal speech the answer to a question like "what's that place over there ?' may well be in the form <1evi% c+i%ftc+i%ni%n.>1 The inverted order is even more likely if the phrase is part of a longer sentence, e.g. <1evi% bu*yu*k, c+i%ftc+i%ni%n>1 "his house is big, the farmer's'. This may look as if the qualifier <1c+i%ftc+i%ni%n>1 is added as an afterthought, but in fact this is at least as common a form of sentence in the spoken language as the formal <1c+i%ftc+i%ni%n evi% bu*yu*k.>1 In poetry this type of inversion is frequent ; there are two instances of it in two consecutive lines in Yahya Kemal's <2Ac+ik Deniz>2 ("The Open Sea'): <1Gi%tti%m o son di%ya=ra ki% serhaddi%di%r yeri%n.>1 / <1Ha=la= di%Ii%mdedi%r tuzu engi%n deni%zleri%n]>1 "I went to that last land which is earth's boundary. / Still on my tongue is the salt of the limitless seas]' In formal prose, <1serhadd-i%-di%r yer-i%n>1 would be <1yeri%n serhaddi%di%r,>1 while <1tuz-u engi%n deni%z-ler-i%n>1 would be <1engi%n deni%zleri%n tuzu.>1 Prose examples are not so frequent: <1gi%yi%ni%s+i%>1 . . . <1hayli% acayi%pti% bu adamin>1 (Yakup Kadri) "this man's mode of dress was very peculiar'; here the effect is racy and conversational. <1halkin konus+tug*u di%lle, bi%li%m, felsefe ve edebi%yatin di%li%ni% bi%r- Ies+ti%rmek, bas+ka bi%r deyi%mIe du*s+u*ndu*g*u*nu* konus+ur gi%bi% yazmak, i%lk i%s+i% olmus+tur Avrupa'da aydin ki%s+i%leri%n>1 (Eyu*bog*lu) "to unify the language spoken by the people and the language of science, philosophy, and literature, in other words, to write one's thoughts as if speaking them, has become the first task of the intellectuals in Europe'. The inversion in the last six words is probably due to the desire to avoid the ugly assonance of <1ki%s+i%leri%n i%Ik i%s+i%.>1 The commonest manifestation of the <1devri%k cu*mle>1 and the one which most infuriates conservative critics is that the verb does not come at the end of the sentence. In the colloquial, an impera- tive often begins a sentence, because someone with urgent instruc- tions to give will naturally put the operative word first: <1c+ik oradan]>1 "get out of there ]' <1yakma la=mbayi]>1 "don't light the lamp ]' Similarly with an urgent question; the bus-conductor in the rush-hour will shout, with his finger poised over the bell, <1var mi% i%necek?>1 (or <1var m'i%necek?)>1 "is there anyone about to get off?' although at quieter moments he may ask <1i%necek var mi?>1 In a statement, however, the verb tends not to come first. The use of <1s+ey>1 "thing' for "what-d'ye-call-it?' is an indication of the strength of this tendency ; if one wants to say "I saw the exhibition' and momentarily forgets the word, one is more likely to say <1s+eyi% go*rdu*m--sergi%yi%>1 than <1go*rdu*m--sergi%yi%.>1 Similarly for "I am going to the what-d'ye-call-it--the exhibition': <1s+eye gi%di%yorum --sergi%ye>1 rather than <1gi%di%yorum--sergi%ye.>1 Consequently, even in the writings of the <1devri%k cu*mle>1 school, it is rare to find a sentence beginning with a verb other than an imperative or a question, except for introductory formulas which are part of the standard written language, such as <1go*ru*lu*yor ki%>1 "it seems that'. But the verb frequently precedes its subject, object, or modifier- <1beni% burada bulursa Abdi% Ag*a, o*ldu*ru*r (Y->1 Kemal) "if Abdi Agha finds me here, he'll kill me'. <1Nasil der Yunus Emre: Bi%r ben var bende benden i%c+eri%. Fi%i%li% sona koyun da, bakin ne oluyor cu*mle>1 (Eyu*bog*lu) "What is it Yunus Emre says ? ""There is an "I'in me, within the "I'''. Put the verb at the end and see what becomes of the sentence' ("what the sentence becomes'). <1u*c+ bes+ ki%s+i%yi%z bo*yle so*yIi%yen, bi%li%yoruz c+og*unlug*a bunu anlatamiyacag*imizi>1 (N. Atac+) "we are a handful of people who talk Iike this; we know that we could not make the majority understand it'. 4. The sentence-plus. For one type of <1devri%k cu*mle>1 there is a useful term invented by C.S. Mundy; he applies the name "sentence-plus' to the sort of statement in which qualifiers or modifiers are added to the end of a sentence which is already grammatically complete in itself. Mundy gives the example <1Kayseri%'de bi%r damadi var>1 "he has a son-in-law at Kayseri'. If this is expanded into "he has a son-in-law who is a doctor at Kayseri', it becomes, in the formal written language, <1Kayseri%'de doktor olan bi%r damadi var,>1 but in speech <1Kayseri%'de bi%r damadi var, doktor.>1 Besides being the regular mode of ex- pressing such meanings in speech, the sentence-plus occurs frequently in Old Ottoman texts, so that the outsider's sympathies "" are with those modernist writers who make full use of it, rather than with the pedants who condemn it as un-Turkish. The first of the three following examples is from the fifteenth-century historian As+ik Pas+azade: <1hem i%ki% yildiz dog*du ol zamanda kuyruklu>1 "moreover two stars rose at that time, tailed' (i.e. comets). <1kapilar da go*nu*lleri% gi%bi% hep yari ac+ilir mi%safi%re; go*ru*lmeden o*nce go*rmek, go*rmekten de c+ok go*zetIemek i%ster gi%bi%>1 (Eyu*bog*lu) "the doors too, like their hearts, are always (onlyå half-opened to the guest, as if wanting to see before being seen and to spy rather than to see'. <1gu*res+c+i%ler, bi%r avuc+ tuz alip yere atarlar, s+ans geti%rsi%n di%ye>1 "wrestlers take a handful of salt and throw it on the ground for luck' (lit. "saying let it bring luck')- XVI NUMBER, CASE, AND APPOSITION 1. Concordance of subject and verb. It used to be stated as a rule of grammar that inanimate plural subjects took a singular verb, plural verbs being used with animate subjects or with inanimates personified or considered as individuals, e.g. <1ag*ac+lar, yu*zu*mu*ze konfeti% atiyorlar>1 "the trees are throwing confetti into our faces'. Conversely, an animate plural subject could take a singular verb if it represented a number of people acting as one. This rule needs to be modified in one respect: another factor nowadays seems to be the distance between subject and verb; i.e. if an inanimate plural subject takes a plural verb for no obvious reason, it will be because subject and verb are widely separated: <1F-84 jet uc+aklari, ta=yi%n edi%len hedefleri% roket atarak tahri%p etmi%s+- lerdi%r>1 "the F-84 jets destroyed the assigned targets by firing rockets'. 2. Singular and plural in izafet groups. In an izafet group whose qualifier is a plural, the qualified word, if singular, has the singular possessive suffix: <1c+arklar do*nu*yor, ku*c+u*k c+ark bu*yu*g*u*nu* do*ndu*ru*yor>1 (Sait Faik) "the gears turn, the little gear turns the big one'. If the penultimate word were <1bu*yu*kleri%ni%>1 it wouId mean "the big ones'. The singular suffix of <1bu*yu*g*-u*-nu*>1 refers to the plural <1c+arklar. Bu yu*zu*kler c+ok pahali. Daha ucuzu yok mu ?>1 "These rings are very expensive. Have you no cheaper ones?' Here the singular suffix of <1ucuz-u>1 refers to the class <1yu*zu*k>1 of which <1bu yu*zu*kler>1 are individual members. This rule may be broken to avoid ambiguity: <1tu*rlu* ai%Ielere--bi%lhassa Hi%nd-Avrupa--mensup olan di%l ve lehc+eleri%n yayilma tarzi mekani%zmasi, ai%t olduklari ai%le c+erc+evesi% i%c+i%nde i%ncelen- erek tespi%t edi%lmi%s+ bulunuyor>1 "the mechanism of the manner of spreading of languages and dialects belonging to the various families--especially the Indo-European--has been established by being studied within the framework of the family to which they belong'. As "to which they belong', <1ai%t olduklari,>1 refers to the inanimate plural "languages and dialects', it could have been singular, <1ai%t oIdug*u,>1 except that this might have been taken as referring to one of the preceding singulars "spreading', "manner', or "mechanism'. 3. Idiomatic uses of the plural. <2(a)>2 A plural noun is sometimes employed where English prefers the singular: <1sog*uklar sebebi%yle s+ehri%n su borulari patla- mis+tir>1 "because of the cold, the city's water-pipes have burst'. What the city has had to face is not just <1sog*uk,>1 cold in general, but <1sog*uklar,>1 some specific instances of cold. <1bu haber, bi%zi% hayretIere du*s+u*rdu*>1 "this news reduced us to astonishment'. <1i%yi% geceler]>1 "good night ]' <1Allah akiIlar versi%n]>1 "God give Õyouå sense ]' <1Fethi% Bey, o gece hasimIari u*zeri%ne saldirarak bi%rer bi%rer yerlere seri%yordu>1 (Ag*aog*lu Ahmet) "Fethi Bey that night, attacking his opponents, was strewing them one by one only ground'. <1geli%n, beyazlar gi%ymi%s+ti%>1 "the bride wore kadin, karaIar gi%ymi%s+ti%>1 "the widow wore white';<1dul although brides wear white, cricketers wear whites. Note also: <1geri%lere gi%tmek>1 "to go back'; <1uzaklarda>1 "in the far distance'; <1yakinlarda>1 "in the vicinity'; <1gec+enlerde>1 "in recent times'; <1buralarda>1 "in these parts'. <2(b)>2 The use of the plural for a single second or third person is a mark of respect: <1orada yalniz bas+iniza mi oturuyorsunuz?>1 "do you live there all alone?' <1es+i%ni%z daha gelmedi%ler mi%?>1 "has your wif e not yet arrived?' <2(c)>2 On the other hand, the use of the first plural for the first singular is modest: <1boynumuz kildan i%nce>1 "our neck is finer than a hair'. This a joc ular expression meaning "I'll have my hair cut off if I don't do as I'm told'. <2(d)>2 The first person plural verb is used when the speaker and another person are joint subjects: <1onunla ti%yatroya gi%tti%k "he and I went ot the theatre'. If the speaker is regarded as the prime mover while the other plays a subordinate part, the the verb may be singular: <1onunla bera- ber ti%yatroya gi%tti%m>1 "I went to the theatre, together with him'. In the next example, from a newspaper headline, the first plural of the reciprocal verb means not "I and another' but "we and others': <1Bulgari%stan'la yeni%s+emedi%k>1 "we and Bulgaria were unable to defeat each other'; i.e. the Turkish and Bulgarian football-teams drew. <2(e)>2 The fact that the plural suffix -<1ler>1 never occurs more than once in the same word makes possible a useful distinction: <1tanis+tig*imiz adamlar mu*hendi%sti%ler (== mu*hendi%s i%di%ler)>1 "the men whom we met were engineers'; <1tanis+tig*imiz adamlar mu*hendi%sIerdi%>1 (== <1mu*hendi%sIer i%di%)>1 "the men whom we met were the engineers'. <1mi%safi%rseIer>1 (== <1mi%safi%r i%seler)>1 "if they are guests'; <1mi%safi%rlerse>1 (== <1mi%safi%rler i%se)>1 "if they are the guests'. <1mahkemeye gi%renler yargic+ deg*i%ller>1 "those entering the court are not judges'; <1mahkemeye gi%renler yargic+lar deg*i%l>1 "those entering the court are not the judges'. 4. The accusative with <1bi%r.>1 Although the accusative suffix shows that the word to which it is attached is definite, the use ofit is not precluded by the presence of <1bi%r,>1 since this, as well as being the "indefinite article', is the numeral "one'. Nevertheless, even in such contexts, "a' and not "one' may often be the better translation. Compare <1her gu*n bi%r gazete okuyorum>1 with <1her gu*n bi%r gazeteyi% okuyorum.>1 Both may be translated "every day I read a newspaper', but the second, unlike the first, implies that I always read one particular newspaper. <1Tu*rk hu*ku*meti%, an- las+malarin aynen uygulanmasini i%sti%yen bi%r notayi Bulgar hu*ku*meti%ne vermi%s+ti%>1 "the Turkish government had given the Bulgarian government a note asking that the agreements should be given strict effect'. Here the <1nota>1 is defined by the pre- ceding participial clause ending in <1i%sti%yen,>1 and therefore has the definite accusative ending. <1ne ac+iklari, ne ac+Iari, ne beni% kizina mu*nasi%p go*rmeyen zengi%n tu*ccari hi%c+ bi%r s+eyi% du*s+u*nmi%yeceg*i%m>1 (Sait Faik) "I am going to think neither of the naked nor the hungry, nor the rich businessman who does not regard me Õaså suitable for his daughter; not anything at all'. Because <1hi%c+ bi%r s+ey>1 "not any thing' resumes and expands the definite objects about which he is not going to think, it too goes into the accusative. 5. Two idiomatic uses of the dative case. <2(a)>2 The absolute case of the present participle, followed by its dative case, conveys the idea of a multitude of people doing some- thing in excessive haste: <1kumsali go*rseydi%n yikanmak i%c+i%n gelen gelene>1 "if you had only seen the beach; people coming in droves to bathe', lit. "the-one-coming in order to bathe Õis addedå to-the-one-coming'. <1bi%zde hu*ku*metten kac+an kac+ana>1 "amongst us, people fall over each other to avoid being in the government', lit. "in us, the-one-fleeing from-government Õis addedå to-the- one-fleeing'. <2(b)>2 <1kardes+i%m bi%ze gelmi%yor di%ye merak etme; geli%yor gelmesi%ne>1 "don't worry about my brother not coming to us; he does come, for what it's worth', lit. "he comes for its coming'. The implication is perhaps that he does not come very often and certainly that when he does come the visit is never a great success. <1gerc+i%, bulundug*um yer deni%zi% go*rmu*yor deg*i%l; go*ru*yor go*rmesi%ne, ama en as+ag*i bi%r, bi%r buc+uk saatli%k bi%r yerden>1 (Orhan Veli) "It is true that the place where I am is not without a view of the sea; it has a view all right, but from a distance of at least an hour to an hour and a half'; lit. "not it-does-not-see the- sea, it-sees for-its-seeing'. <1para o*denmesi%ne o*deni%rdi% ama aradan aylar gec+erdi%>1 "the money would be paid all right, but months would intervene'. <1Rustaveli%, bati di%Ileri%ne c+evri%l- mi%s+ti%r c+evri%lmesi%ne>1 "Rustaveli Õa Georgian poetå has been translated into the western languages, for what it is worth' (i.e. but nobody reads the translations). This construction, with the third-person suffix of the -<1me>1 verbal noun, is used even when a second person is addressed; the antecedent of the third-person suffix is vague :" <1gu*zel olmasina gu*zelsi%n ama bi%r de kusurun var>1 "you are beautiful, as far as that goes, but you also have a fault'. An old-fashioned English equivalent is "you're beautiful, to say beautiful', i.e. but not to say anything complimentary beyond that. Cf. "Oh she's <2beautiful>2 enough, if that were all]' In the first of the two following examples, which are from Aziz Nesin, the -<1me>1 verbal noun has no personal suffix; in the second, there is no verbal noun at all, the abstract noun being used instead: <1s+ai%r olmaya ben s+ai%ri%m ama okuyamam>1 "I am a poet all right, but I can't recite'. <1gu*zelli%g*i%ne gu*zelmi%s+si%n>1 "you are said to be beautiful, as far as that goes'. <1gu*zelIi%g*i%ne>1 here is ambiguous, as its suffix might be that of the second- or third- person singular; it is in fact third-person singular, "for the beauty of it', and does not vary with the person, so "I am said to be beautiful, as far as that goes' would be <1gu*zelli%g*i%ne gu*zelmi%s+i%m.>1 6. The genitive as logical subject. Although as a rule the subject comes first in the sentence, we not infrequently find a sentence beginning with a word or phrase in the genitive case. The reason is that if the logical subject, the topic-word of the sentence, does not coincide with the grammatical subject, it is the logical subject which comes at the beginning. <1bu geli%s+meleri%n, dog*ulu vatandas+larimizin hayatlarinda ne gi%bi% etki%Ier yaratacag*i ortadadir>1 "what sort of effects these developments will create in the lives of our eastern fellow-citizens is manifest'. The predicate is <1ortada-dir>1 "is in the middle', that is, <2in medio,in>2 full view. The subject is all the rest of the sentence, <1bu>1 . . . <1yaratacag*i,>1 these words being the substantivized form of the question <1bu geli%s+meler>1 . . . <1ne gi%bi% etki%ler yaratacak?>1 "what sort of effects will these developments produce . . .?' The process of turning this question into a noun-clause has put <1bu geli%s+meler>1 into the genitive--"these developments' creating what sort of effects'--but these two words are still the logical subject and are marked as such by their position at the beginning of the sentence and by the comma. <1bu kazanin, hayatina mal olmasina ramak kaldi>1 "this accident all but cost him his life', lit. "of this accident, a last breath remained to its being the cost for his life'. <1kocasinin, tipki dis+arda oldug*u gi%bi%, evde de az konus+- mak a=deti%ydi%>1 (IZlhan Tarus) "her husband was in the habit of speaking little at home too, just as he was outside', lit. "of her husband, just as it was outside, to speak little at home too was his custom'. <1Hamdi% beyi%n c+ocuklarina tek bi%r fi%ske bi%Ie vurdug*u go*ru*lmemi%s+ti%. Oysa ki% i%ki%si% de oldum olasi has+ariydilar>1 (idem) "Hamdi Bey had never been seen to strike his children even a single flick of the fingers. Yet both of them were pests and always had been.' Lit. "Hamdi Bey's striking . . . had not been seen'. The lack of a comma after <1beyi%n>1 must be due to an over- sight, as one is needed not merely to mark the logical subject but to prevent the reader from taking the first three words as an izafet group ("to Hamdi Bey's children'). <1bu i%nsanlarinsa i%c+i%ne bi%r kurt du*s+mu*s+tu*r>1 (Eyu*bog*lu) "as for these people, they are full of misgivings', lit. "as for of these people, a worm has fallen into the inside of them', with the logical subject <1i%nsanlar-in>1 emphasized by -<1sa>1 ; see XIII, 27. <1i%kti%sadi= buhranin, bu gu*ne kadar bi%r tu*rlu* o*nu* aIina" madi>1 "the economic crisis has been not at all preventable up <1to>1 now'. "To prevent something' is <1bi%r s+ey-i%n o*n-u*-nu* almak>1 "to take the front of a thing'. Here the phrase is in the passive: "its front has not been able to be taken'. <1bu kuvveti%n o*nu*ne duruImaz>1 "this force is irresistible'. The largest class of sentence with the logical subject in the genitive is that denoting possession or the lack of it: <1Mehmed'i%n parasi var>1 "Mehmet has money'; <1Mehmed'i%n parasi yok>1 "Mehmet has no money'. Such expressions must not be thought of as consisting in an izafet group-<1var>1 or <1yok.>1 The syntactical grouping is not <1Mehmed'i%n parasi>1 / <1var>1 "Mehmet's-money exists' but <1Mehmed'i%n>1 / <1parasi var>1 "Mehmet has-money'. The proof is as follows. An izafet group cannot be split by an adverb unless the qualified element is a verbal noun; see p. 43, footnote. Consider the group <1cemi%yet-i%n toplanti-si>1 "the society's meeting'. If the meeting occurred yesterday and we wish to include that information in the izafet group, we cannot insert the adverb <1du*n>1 but must make it into an adjective: <1cemi%yeti%n du*nku* toplantisi>1 "the society's hesternal meeting'. <1sakalli i%hti%yar-in durum-u hos+uma gi%derdi%>1 "I Iiked the bearded old man's attitude' ("his attitude used-to-go to-my-pleasure, used to appeal to me'). If we wish to insert in the izafet group the adverbial clause "especially when he was accepting a tip', <1bu*hassa bahs+i%s+ alir-ken,>1 this clause must be made adjectival by the addition of -<1ki%: sakalli i%hti%yarin bi%lhassa bahs+i%s+ alirkenki% durumu.>1 . . . Similarly, if we wish to say "Mehmet's money in that bank is over a million', the adverbial phrase of place <1o banka-da>1 must be made into an adjective : <1Mehmed'i%n o bankadaki% parasi>1 (or <1Mehmed 'i%n o bankada bulunan parasi) bi%r mi%lyondan fazladir.>1 But the Turkish for "Mehmet has money in that bank' is <1Mehmed'i%n o bankada parasi var.>1 It follows that what we have here is not an izafet group plus <1var>1 but a statement, <1o bankada parasi var>1 "he has money in that bank', to which <1Mehmed'i%n>1 is the subject. 7. Apposition. Although the normal method of linking two nouns is by izafet, considerable use is also made of apposition. The usual way of saying "a shepherd-girl' is <1bi%r c+oban kizi,>1 i.e. a girl belonging to the category of shepherd. Also possible, however, is <1bi%r c+oban kiz>1 or <1bi%r kiz c+oban,>1 the emphasis in the latter being on <1kiz,>1 "a <2girl>2 shepherd'. So with <1bi%r kadin doktor>1 "a <2woman>2 doctor', as against <1bi%r doktor kadin>1 "a woman doctor'. <1bi%r kadin doktoru,>1 however, with izafet, is "a gynaecolog*st'. A lady gynaecologist might be referred to as <1bi%r kadin kadin doktoru.>1 but <1bi%r kadin ji%nekolog>1 would be more usual in sophisticated circles. Izafet groups may be used as qualifiers in apposition to nouns: <1ev sahi%bi%>1 is "householder' and <1ev sahi%bi% takim>1 is "the home team'; <1so*z konusu>1 "subject of discussion' and <1so*z konusu kanunlar>1 "the laws under discussion'. <1tari%h o*ncesi%,>1 literally "the before of history', and <1harp sonrasi,>1 literally "the after of war', are nouns of this class, although we translate them as adjectives: <1tari%h o*ncesi% du*nya>1 "the prehistoric world'; <1harp sonrasi Avrupa>1 "post-war Europe'. A curious use of apposition is seen in such expressions as <1si%z yas+ta>1 'of your age', literally "in you-age'; <1si%z yas+taku*er>1 "people of your age'; <1ben yas+ta yahut daha bu*yu*k c+ocuklar>1 "children of my age or older'. Apposition is the rule with titles: <1Osman Gazi%, Balaban Bey, Zenbi%lli% Ali% Efendi%, Hali%de Hanim, Mares+al Fevzi% C+akmak, Doktor Adnan, Profeso*r Mansurog*lu.>1 It will be noticed that the ancient titles follow the name whereas the modern Marshal, Doctor, and Professor precede it, in the western fashion. <1Sultan>1 is an interesting exception; it preceded the names of sovereigns--Sultan <1Mehmet, Sultan Su*leyman-->1 but followed the names of non-regnant members of the dynasty, male and female: <1Cem Sultan>1 "Prince jem' <1Esma Sultan>1 "Princess Esma'. Apposition is not used, however, as it is in English, to show a person's occupation in such expressions as "Ahmet Bilen, a pro- fessor of the Faculty of Letters'; Turkish idiom demands "from the professors of the Faculty of Letters Ahmet Bilen': <1Edebi%yat Faku*ltesi% Profeso*rleri%nden Ahmet Bi%len.>1 So <1genc+ aktri%s- leri%mi%zden Ays+e Gu*zel>1 "Ayesha Gu*zel, one of our young actresses'; <1gu*mru*k memurlarindan Orhan Soysal>1 "Orhan Soysal the Customs officer'. These expressions in the ablative, like other qualifiers, precede the word they qualify; cf. <1efendi%den, du*ru*st i%nsanlar>1 "respectable, honest people' <1(efendi%-den>1 "from the class ""gentleman'' '). Expressions consisting of a numeral and the name of a con- tainer or a unit of measurement are followed by the name of the commodity in apposition : <1bi%r bardak su>1 a glass of water <1i%ki% s+i%s+e su*t>1 two bottles of milk <1u*c+ kutu ki%bri%t>1 three boxes of matches <1do*rt araba odun>1 four cartloads of wood <1bes+ yil hapi%s>1 five years' imprisonment <1alti avuc+ dolusu s+eker>1 six handfuls of sugar <2or>2 <1aIti avuc+ s+eker>1 <1yedi% kas+ik dolusu c+orba>1 seven spoonfuls of soup <1seki%z daki%ka geci%kme>1 eight minutes' delay <1dokuz metre kumas+>1 nine metres of cloth The same construction is used with words like <1takim>1 "set', <1grup>1 "group', <1ci%ns, nevi%, c+es+i%t>1 "sort': <1bi%r takim c+amas+i%r>1 "a set of linen' (cf. V, 9), <1bi%r grup talebeler>1 "a group of students', <1bi%r c+es+i%t armut>1 "a sort of pear'. With <1ara>1 "interval' the distributive numerals are used in such sentences as <1otobu*sler, bes+er onar daki%ka ara i%le gec+i%yordu>1 "the buses were passing at five- or ten-minute intervals'. Either or both of the nouns in apposition may be separately qualified: <1bi%r tencere pi%s su>1 "a saucepan of dirty water', <1i%ki% bu*yu*k s+i%s+e beyaz s+arap>1 "two large bottles of white wine'. XVII THE NOUN CLAUSE AND THE - SUBSTANTIVAL SENTENCE 1. The verbal noun in -<1me>1 and the personal participles. It will be recalled that the personal participles have three functions: as adjectives, as nouns meaning "that which I do' and as nouns meaning "the fact that I do'. It is the third of these functions which will be discussed in this section, as it must be distinguished from the functions of -<1me>1 in its sense of "the act of doing'. -<1me>1 is used in indirect commands, -<1di%g*i%>1 and -<1eceg*i%>1 in indirect statements and questions: <1c+ocuklara as+ag*iya i%ni%p kendi%si%ni% sokakta beklemeleri%ni% so*yledi%>1 "she told the children to go downstairs and wait for her in the street'. With the substitution of <1bekledi%kleri%ni%>1 for <1beklemeleri%ni%,>1 the sentence would mean "she told the children that they went down and waited . . .'; with <1bekli%yecekleri%ni%,>1 ". . . that they would go and wait . . .'. <1onbas+i- ya ko*s+eye dog*ru kos+masini emretti%>1 "he ordered the corporal to run towards the corner'; <1yarin sabah gelmeni%z i%c+i%n tele-- fon etti%>1 "he has telephoned for you to come (""for your coming'') tomorrow morning'; <1kapiyi ki%li%tlemeyi% unutmayiniz>1 "do not forget to lock (""the locking'') the door'; <1kapiyi ki%li%tlemeni%zi% tavsi%ye ederi%m>1 "I recommend that you lock (""your locking'') the door'; <1kapiyi ki%li%tledi%g*i%ni%zi% unutmayiniz>1 "do not forget that you have locked the door'; <1lokantamizda mu*sku*rat i%sti- mal olunmadig*indan>1 (XI, 24) <1talep edi%lmemesi% muhterem mu*s+teri%leri%mi%zden ri%ca olunur>1 "as intoxicants are not used in our restaurant, our honoured clients are requested not to ask for them' ("their-not-being-demanded is-requested from our . . . clients'); <1en c+ok bunun yapilmasini i%sterdi%m>1 "most of all I should like this to be done'. Although the function of the personal suffixes is to indicate the agent of the -<1me>1 verbal noun, the third-person suffix is used with the -<1me>1 verbal noun of impersonal passives: <1de Gaulle, dolar yeri%ne altin esasina do*nu*lmesi%ni% i%stedi%>1 "de Gaulle has demanded a return to the gold standard instead of the dollar'; <1kapilara dayanilmamasi ri%ca olunur>1 "it is requested that one should not lean against the doors' ("its-not-being-leaned to-the- doors is-requested'); <1i%leri% gi%di%lmesi% ri%ca olunur>1 "going (""the being-gone-of-it'') forward is requested'. The -<1si%>1 in these examples performs no visible function and is to be ascribed to analogy with sentences of the type of the two preceding examples ; cf. also lI, 22. For a similar use of the third-person personal participle of an impersonal passive, see XVIII, 3 <2(a).>2 Indirect questions are made by turning the verb of the direct question into the appropriate personal participle : <1ne yapiyorum ?>1 "what am I doing ?' <1ne yapacag*im?>1 "what am I going to do ?' <1ne yaptig*imi, ne yapacag*imi bi%lmi%yorum>1 "I do not know what I am doing Õorå what I am going to do'. <1parayi ki%mden aldiniz ?>1 "from whom did you take the money ?' <1parayi ki%mden aldig*i- nizi soracak deg*i%li%m>1 "I do not intend to ask from whom you took the money'. <1kizlarin yanina yaklas+ti ve kendi%leri%ne ne s+eki%lde yardim edebi%leceg*i%ni% sordu>1 "he approached the girls (""came near to the side of the girls'') and asked in what way he could help them' (for the conditional force of <1edebi%leceg*i%ni%>1 see XX, <19). In the following example (from Eyu*bog*lu), the -<1me>1 verbal noun is used in the indirect question beginning with <1nasil,>1 to convey the idea of necessity; i.e. there is an indirect command within the question: <1her yerde, her zaman okuryazarlar toplum hayatinin nasil bi%r du*zene gi%rmesi% gi%bi% meseleler u*zeri%nde az c+ok bi%r fi%ki%r sahi%bi%di%rler>1 "everywhere and always the literates have more or less of an idea on questions such as what sort of order social life should enter'. The personal par- ticiple <1gi%rdi%g*i%, gi%rmekte oldug*u,>1 or <1gi%receg*i%>1 would mean not "should enter' but "has entered', "is entering', or "would enter'. When a personal participle is the subject of a sentence whose predicate is a noun, care must be taken not to read it as qualify- ing the noun: <1Bu i%ki% kaygu bi%r araya gelmi%yorsa kabahat ki%mi%n ? Orasi ayri mesele: ama gelmedi%g*i% ortada>1 "If these two concerns do not coincide (""do not come to one place''), whose fault is it? That is a separate problem, but that they do not co- incide is manifest' ("their-not-coming is in-the-middle'; cf. XVI, 6, first paragraph). To take <1gelmedi%g*i%>1 as an adjectival qualifier of <1ortada>1 ("but in the middle to which they do not come') is grammatically possible but fruitless. In the next example, both subject and predicate are personal participles : <1zaten bi%zi%m de merak etti%g*i%mi%z bunlarin ki%mler oldug*u>1 "just so; what we are curious about is who these people are'. The subject is <1merak etti%g*i%mi%z>1 "that pertaining to our exercising curiosity', the predicate <1bunlarin ki%mler oldug*u>1 "of-these, their-being who ?' 2. The substantival sentence. This term has been coined to cover a situation which often arises in Turkish: a complete sentence functions as a noun clause or adjectival clause within a longer sentence. An obvious example, not peculiar to Turkish, is in reporting speech: <1gu*nes+ daha batmadi, dedi%>1 """the sun has not yet set'', said he', where the words quoted are the direct object of <1dedi%>1 "said he'. But in Turkish the substantival sentence is more widely used than this, especially in the colloquial and there- fore in the latest literary idiom. The regular literary practice with a sentence that is to be the subject or object of a verb is to turn it into a noun clause by substituting a personal participle for the finite verb of the original sentence: <1kumar meraklisi i%di%, bi%r gece bi%n li%ra kaybetti%g*i% olurmus+>1 "he was a gambling enthusi- ast; it was said that there were occasions when he lost a thousand lira in a night'. Here the subject of <1oIurmus+>1 "was said to happen' is <1bi%r>1 . . . <1kaybetti%g*i%>1 "his losing . . .'. <1"yer yok' di%ye mu*s+t eri% c+evri%ldi%g*i% go*ru*lmu*s+ s+ey deg*i%ldi%r>1 "for customers to be turned away with the words ""no room'' is a thing that has never been witnessed'. Here the subject is <1c+evri%ldi%g*i%>1 "their being turned', In the next example, however, the original finite verb has not been changed to a personal participle: <1du*s+u*nu*s+ ayriliklar hayatimizi allak bullak eder de dostlug*a dokunmaz olur mu ?>1 (Eyu*bog*lu) "is it possible that differences of ways of thinking can throw our lives into chaos and not affect friendship?' The subject of <1olur mu>1 is the complete sentence <1du*s+u*nu*s+>1 . , , <1dokunmaz.>1 3. The substantival sentence as adjectival qualifier. <1kus+ uc+maz kervan gec+mez bi%r yer>1 "an inaccessible spot', lit. "a bird-does- qot-fly, caravan-does-not-pass place', with the sentence <1kus+>1 . . , <1gec+mez>1 occupying the normal position of the attributive adjec- tive, before <1bi%r. as+ag*i tu*ku*rse sakali, yukari tu*ku*rse biyig*iydi>1 "he was in a quandary', lit. "he was if he spits down, his beard ; if he spits up, his moustache'; cf. XII, 10 <2(d).>2 <1seyahattan u*fu*r uc+tum, tut kac+tim, do*ndu*m>1 "I came back from the trip so skinny that a breath of wind would have blown me away', lit. "I came back, puff] I've flown; hold me] I've gone]' The four- verb sentence <1u*fu*r>1 . . . <1kac+tim>1 stands in place of an adjective such as "emaciated'. In the essay which gives its name to Eyu*- bog*lu's <2Mavi ve Kara,>2 the "blue' and the "black' symbolize respectively art and money: <1Hi%c+ bi%r s+ey vermez mi% olur paranin kulu olmus+ sanatc+i? Veri%r, kolayina kac+tig*i i%c+i%n daha da bol veri%r; ama ne ? Ki%rli% bi%r mavi%, olmasa da olur bi%r mavi%>1 "Is it totally unproductive that he becomes, the artist who has become the slave of money ? He produces; because he has taken the easy course (""fled to-the-easy-of-it'') he pro- duces even more abundantly, but what? An impure blue, a blue we could well do without'. The adjectival qualifier of the final <1bi%r mavi%>1 is the complete conditional sentence <1olmasa da, olur>1 "even if it were non-existent, that would be all right'. It may be noted that whole sentences can similarly be used as qualifiers in colloquial English: "a headmaster of the ""this is going to hurt me more than it's going to hurt you'' breed'; "a sheriff of the ""shoot first and then ask questions'' school'. 4. The substantival sentence as qualifier in izafet. The sentence so used can be of as little as one word, or longer: <1o*ldu* haberi%>1 "the news that he has died', lit. "he-has-died the-news-thereof'; <1olmaz cevabi>1 "the answer ""it is not possible'''; <1kalk borusu>1 "reveille' ("the ""Rise ]'' trumpet') ; <1nereye gi%di%yoruz sorusu>1 "the question ""where are we going ?'''; <1ben yaptim i%ddi%asi%yle>1 "with his claim of ""I did it'''; <1ne oldum deli%si%>1 "a parvenu who gives himself airs' ("""what I have become ]'' madman'). <1nasil olup da>1 . . . <1tabi%ri% fransizca'nin>1 "comment se fait-il que' <1su* mana- si%yle kullanilir>1 "the expression <1nasil oIup da>1 . . . is used with the meaning of the French ""comment se fait-il que'''. The <1su*>1 is the third-person suffix linking the French phrase to its qualifier <1fransizca'nin>1 and it has this particular form because it takes its vocal colour from the "que', whose vowel is more or less the Turkish 0*. 5. The sentence with case-endings. As a whole sentence can thus take the syntactic place of a substantive, it is not surprising that we sometimes find a sentence to which a case-ending is attached: <1koms+u hasta, gec+mi%s+ olsun'a gi%deli%m>1 "the neighbour is i%ll; let's go and wish him better', lit. "let-us-go for-the-""may-it-be past'''. The literary Turkish for "he makes no mention of when it will be finished' is <1ne zaman bi%ti%ri%leceg*inden hi%c+ bahsetmi%- yor,>1 with the personal participle (here in the ablative because that is the case required by <1bahsetmek>1 "to mention') replacing the finite verb of the simple question <1ne zaman bi%ti%ri%lecek?>1 But a vivid colloquial version could be <1ne zaman bi%ti%ri%lecek'ten hi%c+ bahsetmi%yor,>1 which has the feeling of "When will it be finished ? <2That>2 he doesn't mention'. See also the last example in XI, 32. ADJECTIVAL PHRASES AND PARTICIPIAL QUALIFIERS 1. The bas+ibozuk construction. This type of qualifier derives from a statement whose subject is an izafet group: <1s+u adam-in bas+-i bozuk>1 "that man's head is deranged'. The words <1bas+i bozuk>1 "his head deranged' can be used to qualify <1adam>1 by placing them before it : <1bas+i bozuk adam>1 "the his-head-deranged man, the man whose head is deranged'. Now when a sentence whose verb is not simply the copula (as it is in <1bas+i bozuk)>1 is made into a qualifier, the verb becomes the corresponding participle; thus to make a qualifier out of <1U*ni%versi%tede hukuk okuyor>1 "she is reading law at the University' we substitute for the present tense <1okuyor>1 the present participle <1okuyan: U*ni%- versi%tede hukuk okuyan kiz>1 "the girl who is reading law . . .'. But this construction offers further possibilities. Beginning with the statement <1kizi hukuk okuyor>1 "his daughter is reading law', we can turn it into a qualifier on the <1bas+ibozuk>1 pattern: <1kizi hukuk okuyan adam>1 "the man whose daughter is reading law' ("the his-daughter-reading-law man'). <1babasi C+i%n'de dog*du>1 "his father was born in China'. The participle corresponding to <1dog*du>1 is <1dog*mus+: babasi C+i%n'de dog*mus+ bi%r tanidig*im var>1 "I have an acquaintance whose father was born in China'. <1i%hti%yar-in ak sakal-i kana boyanasi>1 (VIII, 23) "may the old man's beard be dyed in blood]' The future lI may be used adjectivally (IX, 3): <1bu ak sakali kana boyanasi i%hti%yar tu*tu*n kac+akc+ilari%yle ortaktir>1 (F. Cela=lettin) "this damned old scoundrel (lit. ""this may-his-white-beard-be-dyed-in-blood old- man'') is in league with the tobacco-smugglers'. When the verb of the original statement is simply the copula, the use of a participle meaning "being', i.e. <1olan>1 or <1bulunan,>1 is optional in the derived bas+ibozuk qualifier. It is perhaps a little more usual when the subject of the qualifying phrase, the <1bas+>1 of <1bas+ibozuk,>1 is something or someone external to the thing or person qualified, as in the first three of these examples: <1evi bu*yu*k olan bi%r arkadas+im>1 "a friend of mine whose house is big'; <1bahc+esi% bu*yu*k olan bi%r ev>1 "a house which has a big garden'; <1amcasi bakan bulunan bi%r c+ocuk>1 "a child whose uncle is a minister'; <1eIi% ac+ik bi%r dost>1 "an open-handed friend'. The construction provides a large number of phrases, some so common that, like <1bas+ibozuk>1 itself, they are generally written as one word, e.g. <1geli%s+i%gu*zel>1 "random' (lit. "its-way-of-coming beautiful', i.e. however it comes it is all right) ; <1karniyarik>1 "stuffed aubergine' ("its-belly split'); <1di%ni% bu*tu*n>1 "pious' ("his-religion complete'); <1go*zu* pek>1 "unyielding' ("his-eye firm'); <1eli% bos+>1 "empty-handed'. If such an adjectival phrase is used predicatively, the personal suffix may vary with the person: <1sakin eli%n bos+ gelme>1 "mind you don't come empty-handed'; but <1sakin eli% bos+ gelme>1 is also possible. As alternatives to many such expressions, phrases with -<1li%>1 may be used: "a garden with a tumble-down wall' may be <1duvar-i yikik bi%r bahc+e>1 or <1yikik duvar-Ii bi%r bahc+e;>1 "the keen-eyed colonel' may be <1bakis+lar-i keski%n albay>1 or <1keski%n bakis+-Ii albay;>1 "the open-windowed room' <1pencere-si% ac+ik oda>1 or <1ac+ik pencere-li% oda.>1 2. Translation of English relative clauses. The purist may object that such a heading as this has no place in a Turkish grammar. The uses of the Turkish participles, however, are difficult to grasp through a purely descriptive treatment and the author is there- fore emboldened to hope that he may be forgiven for approaching the topic from the wrong end. The English-speaker composing in Turkish must resist the temptation to translate his relative clauses with the help of <1ki%>1 (XIII, 15); this use is regarded as alien and is increasingly rare in modern Turkish. <2(a)>2 When the relative pronoun (i.e. the English relative pro- noun) is in the nominative, use -<1en,>1 -<1mi%s+>1 (olan), -<1ecek (olan):>1 "the man who is now speaking' <1s+i%mdi% konus+an adam;>1 "the letter which came yesterday' <1du*n gelmi%s+ olan mektup;>1 "the congress which will begin tomorrow' <1yarin bas+liyacak olan kongre.>1 <2(b)>2 Use the personal particiles: (i) When the relative pronoun is in the accusative, either as object of the verb in the relative clause--"the letter which I wrote' <1yazdig*im mektup>1 ; "the lawyer whom he chose' <1sec+ti%g*i% avukat-->1 or as object of a preposition other than "of' or one whose Turkish equivalent is a secondary postposition (in which cases rule <2(d)>2 applies): "the ship on which they came' <1geldi%kleri% vapur;>1 "the door from which we emerged' <1c+iktig*imiz kapi;>1 "the beggar at whom you looked' <1baktig*iniz di%lenci%.>1 When the relative pronoun is the object of "with', <1bi%rli%kte>1 or <1beraber>1 "together' may be inserted: "the friends with whom he drank' <1bi%rli%kte i%c+ki% i%c+ti%g*i% arkadas+lar.>1 (ii) When the relative pronoun is in the genitive and the noun it governs is in the nominative as complement of the verb in the relative clause; the equivalent noun in Turkish takes the third- person suffix: "the man whose servant I am' <1hi%zmetc+i%si% bulun- dug*um adam;>1 "a society of which I am a member' <1u*yesi% bulundug*um bi%r cemi%yet;>1 "the province of which you are going to become governor' <1vali%si% olacag*iniz vi%la=yet;>1 "the village of which he has been elected mayor' <1muhtari sec+i%ldi%g*i% ko*y.>1 The rule holds good if the verb with the complement is depen- dent on another verb: "the society of which I intend to become a member' <1u*yesi% olmak ni%yeti%nde bulundug*um cemi%yet>1 ("the society pertaining-to-my-being-found in-the-intention-of to-be- come its-member'); "the village of which he wishes to be elected mayor' <1muhtari sec+i%lmek i%stedi%g*i% ko*y>1 ("the village pertaining- to-his-wishing to-be-elected its-mayor'). <2(c)>2 When the relative pronoun is in the genitive and the noun it governs is in the nominative as subject of the verb in the relative clause, use the bas+ibozuk construction with participle: "the man whose father is now speaking' <1babasi s+i%mdi% konus+an adam;>1 "the jockey whose horse came first' <1ati bi%ri%nci% gelmi%s+ oIan cokey;>1 "the society whose congress will start tomorrow' <1kongre- si% yarin bas+liyacak olan cemi%yet.>1 <2(d)>2 When the relative pronoun is in the genitive and the noun it governs is in the accusative, or when the relative pronoun is in the accusative as object of a preposition other than "of' or one whose Turkish equivalent is a secondary postposition, use bas+i- pictures we are seeing' <1resi%mleri%ni% go*rmekte oldug*umuz ressam;>1 "the artist at whose pictures we looked' <1resi%mleri%ne baktig*imiz ressam;>1 "the society to whose congress we shall go tomorrow' <1kongresi%ne yarin gi%deceg*i%mi%z cemi%yet>1 ; "the house from the inside of which we emerged' <1i%c+i%nden c+iktig*imiz ev;>1 "the ideal for whose sake he died' <1ug*runda o*ldu*g*u* u*lku*.>1 <2(e)>2 Rules <2(c)>2 and <2(d)>2 apply also if the noun following the "whose' is itself in the genitive. If the noun governed by that noun in the genitive is the subject of the verb in the relative clause, proceed according to rule <2(c);>2 if it is the object of the verb or of a pre- position, proceed according to rule <2(d):>2 "the man whose father's house is near ours' <1babasinin evi% bi%zi%mki%ne yakin olan adam;>1 "the man whose father's house we bought' <1babasinin evi%ni% aldig*imiz adam;>1 "the man in (""with'') whose father's car we came' <1babasinin arabasi%yle geldi%g*i%mi%z adam.>1 3. Two variant types of participial qualifier. The previous section does not cover two situations which arise in Turkish. <2(a)>2 When an impersonal verb is made into a qualifier, it can be either as a participle or as a personal participle : <1sag*lik i%stati%sti%k- leri%ne go*re mart en c+ok hastalanilan, hatta= en c+ok o*lu*nen aydir>1 "according to health statistics, March is the month in which most illness arises, indeed in which most deaths occur'. <1hastalan-il-an>1 and <1o*l-u*n-en>1 are the participles corresponding to <1hastalan-il-iyor>1 and <1o*l-u*n-u*yor,>1 impersonal passives meaning "being-ill-is-done' and "dying-is-done'. <1yavas+ yavas+ normale do*nu*ldu*g*u* bi%r sirada, o adam i%kti%dara gec+ti%>1 "at a time when things were slowly returning to normal, that man came to power'. <1do*nu*ldu*g*u*>1 is the adjectival form of the statement <1do*n-u*l- u*yordu>1 "returning was being done', but the function of the third- person suffix here is not obvious. The best explanation is that the use of the personal participle in expressions of time with <1sira, zaman,>1 etc., has become habitual. <2(b)>2 Sometimes in situations where rule <2(b)>2 of the previous section would lead us to expect a personal participle, we find instead -<1en,>1 -<1mi%s+,>1 or -<1ecek: gu*nes+ gi%rmi%yen eve heki%m gi%rer> 1 "the physician enters the house which sunshine does not enter'; <1yangin c+ikan bi%r Ameri%kan uc+ak gemi%si%nde 47 o*lu* sayildi>1 "on an American aircraft-carrier on which fire broke out, 47 dead have been counted'; <1sirtindaki% go*mlek, bazi kasaTalarda i%lkokul o*g*renci%Ieri%ne go*g*u*slu*k yapilan yerli% gri% bezdendi%>1 "the shirt on his back was of the local grey cloth of which in some towns pinafores are made for primary-school pupils'; <1elektri%k geti%ri%len lstiranca ko*yu*nde sanayi%Ies+me bas+ladi>1 "in the village of I., to which electricity is being brought (or "has just been brought'; see IX, 1, penultimate paragraph), industrializa- tion has begun'; <1Atatu*rk'u*n i%stedi%g*i% i%lk o*g*reti%m raporunu hazirIamak u*zere c+iktig*imiz bi%r ko*y gezi%si%nde hi%c+ o*g*ret->1 <1men gi%rmemi%s+ bi%r ko*yde okur yazar c+ocuklar bulduk>1 "on a village-tour, which we went on in order to prepare the report on primary education which A. wanted, we found children who could read and write in a village which no teacher had ever entered'; <1kali%teyi% muhafaza etmek i%c+i%n tu*tu*n eki%lecek sahalari tesbi%t edeceg*i%z>1 "in order to preserve the quality, we shall fix the areas where tobacco is to be sown'. In these examples we might have expected : <2not but>2 <1gi%rmi%yen gi%rmedi%g*i%>1 <1c+ikan c+iktig*i>1 <1yapilan yapildig*i>1 <1geti%ri%len geti%ri%ldi%g*i%>1 <1gi%meni%s+ gi%rmedi%g+i%>1 <1eki%lecek eki%leceg*i% In fact, only in the penultimate example is the personal participle a possible alternative; in the others, it would sound too specific in conjunction with the broad and amorphous subjects sunshine, conflagration, pinifores by and large, electricity, and tobacco. In the penultimate example, <1gi%rmedi%g+i%>1 would be possible; it may be that in the writers mind there was an echo of a proverb which is the first example in this paragraph. ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 36 THE SUBJUNCTIVE AND KIZ 1. Clauses of purpose. Clauses of purpose containing a subjunctive may, but need not, be introduced by <1ta ki%>1 (sometimes written <1ta= ki%)>1 or by <1ki%>1 alone: <1o vaki%t, bi%r sag*a bi%r sola bas+vurmag* a bas+liyorsunuz; ta= ki% daldig*iniz bu toprak deryasi i%c+i%nden kendi%ni%ze bi%r i%z bulup c+ikasiniz>1 (Yakup Kadri) "then you begin to cast about, now to right, now to left, so that you may find a track for yourself and emerge from this ocean of earth into which you have plunged'. <1oturdum ki% bi%r daki%ka di%nleneyi%m>1 "I sat down so that I might rest a minute'. Note that there is no "sequence of tenses'; the main verb in the past tense is followed by the present subjunctive. <1herkesten c+ok kos+acaksin ki% pac+ayi kurtarasin>1 "you will run more than everybody so that you may save your skin'. <1s+i%mdi% uyuyun ki%, sabah kaIkinca di%nc+ kafayla c+alis+asiniz>1 "now sleep, so that when you get up in the morning you may work with a sound head'. It must be emphasized that <1ki%>1 merely introduces such clauses; it is the subjunctive (in which term is included the third-person imperative) that expresses purpose, so that the <1ki%>1 may be omitted from purpose-clauses, especially in less formal language: pen- <1cereyi% ac+, oda havalansin>1 "open the window, so that the room may air'. <1Muhalefet ne yapilsin i%sti%yor? So*ylesi%nler o*g*rene- li%m>1 "What does the Opposition want done ? Let them say, so that we may learn', lit. "What does the Opposition want should-be- done ? Let-them-say let-us-learn'. 2. The subjunctive after a negative main verb. After a negative main verb, the subjunctive with <1ki%>1 is used to show what would have been the consequence had the main verb been positive but, as things stand, is now impossible: <1o*dedi%g*i%m taksi%tleri%n makbuzlari yanimda deg*i%l ki% c+ikarip go*stereyi%m>1 (Aziz Nesin) "the receipts of the instalments I have paid are not on me that I should produce and show them'. <1O*lu*m bu. Si%yaset hayati deg*i%l ki%, bi%r o yana bi%r bu yana do*nesi%n>1 (idem) "It's death, this. It isn't political life, that you should swing now to that side, now to this'. <1Ben gi%tti%kc+e o*fkelenmeg*e bas+liyorum:>1 / <1"Nasil arabacilik bu] di%yorum; ne yol bi%li%rsi%n, ne de . . . / "Yol nerede efendi%? yol yok ki% bi%leyi%m; di%yor. / Bi%c+areni%n hakki var. Evet yol yok ki%>1. . .(Yakap Kadri) "I am gradually beginning to get annoyed. "What sort of driving is this]' I say; "You neither know the road, nor. . .''."Where is tyhe road, sir? There is no road for me to know,'' says he. The poor fellowis right. Yes, there is no road' (for the translated final <1ki%>1 cf. page 214, second paragraph). The subjunctive occurs in other types of subordinate clause after a negative main verb: <1gu*n gec+mi%yor ki% turi%sti%k tesi%sler- den bi%r s+i%ka=yet mektubu almamis+ olalim>1 "a day does not pass without our receiving("that we be not having-received'') a letter of complaint from the tourist establishments'. The logic behind the use of the subjunctive here is that as we in fact receive such letters daily, our not receiving one is only a concept, with no objective reality. <1hi%c+ bi%r geri%ci% yoktor ki%, Atatu*rk du*s+mani olmasin>1 "there is no reactionary who is not an enemy of Atatu*rk'. <1hi%k tamhi%m etmi%yorum ki% vazi%yette bi%r deg*i%s+i%kli%k olabi%lsi%n>1 "I do not reckon that there can be a change in the situation'. <1zannetmem ki% pas+a veyahut vald esi% buna razi olsunlar>1 "I do not think that the Pashi or his mother will agree to this'. 3. The subjunctive in non clauses. The third0person imperative without <1ki%>1 makes non clauses which can be the subject or object of a verb; for an instance of the latter use, in the last example in section 1, above. <1bo*yle bi%r mi%llet esi%r yas+amaktansa mahvol- sun evla=dir>1 (Atatu*rk) "for such a nation, to be annihilated is preferable to living Õaså slaves'. The predicate is <1evla=-dir>1 "is preferable'; the subject is <1bo*yle . . . mahvolsun>1 "that such a nation be annihilated'. <1ev beni%m olsun da zi%yani yok tek katli olsun>1 "let the house be mine and it doesn't matter if it is single-storied'. Here the subject is <1tek katli olsun>1 "that it be single-storied'. the predicate <1zi%yan-i yok>1 "there is no harm in it'. <1du*s+u*nceleri%mi%zi%n yo*nu* bi%r olsun yeter>1 "that the direction of our thoughts be one Õand the sameå is sufficient'. <1hi%c+ olmasin daha i%yi%>1 "that it should not exist at all is better'.<1bu kadar basi%t bi%r i%s+i% yapamasin, hayret dog*rusu>1 "that he should be unable to do a job as simple as this is truly surprising'. <1C+alikus+u ag*lasin? ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 39 On senedi%r ne mualli%meleri%nden, ne arkadas+larindan bunu go*ren olmamis+ti>1 "That the Wren should weep ? For ten years none of her teachers or friends had seen this' ("neither of her teachers nor of her friends the-one-seeing this had-not-occurred'l. The question-mark indicates wonder at the unusual event; the author" could not make a question of it in the normal way, because <1C+alikus+u ag*lasin mi>1 could only mean "Is the Wren to weep ?' An alternative way of analysing these examples is to explain them as consisting of two separate main clauses, e.g. <1mahvolsun evla=dir>1 "let it be annihilated; Õthatå is preferable'. Against this is the fact that such sentences are pronounced with no pause be- tween the two verbs. Nor will this explanation fit the example bu <1kadar basi%t>1 . . . <1dog*rusu,>1 or indeed the last one. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 1. Open conditions. These are expressed by the conditional form of the appropriate tense. <2(a) present:>2 <1halkimizi gerc+ekten sevi%yor-sak, onun i%c+i%n c+alis+iyoruz derken yalan so*ylcmi%yor-sak, onu kus+kulardan korkulardan kurtarmak i%lk i%s+i%mi%z olmali>1 "if we truly love our people; if, when saying we are working for them, we are not telling lies, our first task ought to be to deliver them from sus- picions and fears'. <2(b) future:>2 <1so*yli%yecek-sen>1 (or <1so*yli%yecek olur-san) so*yle>1 "if you are going to tell, tell'. <2(c) aorist:>2 this is by far the commonest tense of open conditions: <1hu*la=sa eder-sek s+uraya variyoruz>1 "if we summarize, we arrive at this point'; <1s+unu bi%r anlar-saniz bana bu*yu*k bi%r i%yi%li%k etmi%s+ olacaksiniz>1 "if you will only understand this, you will have done me a great kindness'; <1bu ti%rene yeti%s+emez-sem i%s+i% kac+iracag*im>1 "if I cannot catch this train I shall lose the job'. <21(d) past:>2 <1o, yola c+ikmis+-sa bi%z ni%ye oturuyoruz burada ?>1 "if he has started out, why are we sitting here?'; <1gu*nah mi i%s+ledi%k bes+ on para kazandi-ysak?>1 "have we committed a sin if we've earned five or ten coppers ?' 2. Alternatives to the conditional verb. Open conditions may also be expressed without a conditional verb, in four possible ways: <2(a)>2 The protasis may have a personal participle with <1takdi%rde>1 ; see XI, 23. <2(b)>2 The protasis may be a question in the <1di%->1past: <1o geldi% mi% ben burada durmam,>1 lit. "has he come? I do not stop here', which may mean either "if he has come I'm not stopping here' or "if ever he comes I don't stop here'. A macabre old saying ran <1asildin mi I2ngi%li%z si%ci%mi%yIe asil>1 "if you are hanged, be hanged with English rope'. <2(c)>2 The sentence may be cast as a <2reductio ad absurdum;>2 the protasis concedes what the speaker regards as false, the apodosis (introduced by <1de)>1 asks for an alternative: <1sen yapmadin da ki%m yapti?>1 "you didn't do it and who did ?'; <1Tanri, Dog*ru'nun, IZyi%'ni%n, Gu*zel'i%n yardimcisi olmaz da neyi%n yardimcisi olur?>1 "if God does not help the True, the Good, the Beautiful, what <2does>2 He help ?' (lit. "God does not become the helper of . . . and of what does He become the helper ?')- <2(d)>2 In the colloquial, the protasis may have an imperative instead of a conditional verb: <1uzatma birakir gi%deri%m>1 "don't prolong Õthe discussion because if you doå I shall abandon Õit andå go'. 3. Remote and unfulfilled conditions. The verb of the protasis is in the appropriate tense of the conditional mood; the verb of the apodosis is, with unfulfilled conditions, in the aorist past or, less commonly, the future past ; with remote conditions or for greater vividness with unfulfilled conditions, the aorist present or future simple: <1evi%mi%z do*s+eli% dayali ol-sa buyurun de-r-di%m ama go*ru*yorsunuz>1 . . . "if our house were properly furnished I should say ""please come in'' but you see . . .'; <1bas+ka bi%r kaynag*- imiz ol-ma-sa-ydi bu a=li%mi%n tetki%kleri% bu meseleye tam bi%r cevap vermi%s+ olacakti>1 "if we had no other source, this scholar's researches would have given a complete answer to this problem'; <1bakmakla usta olun-sa ko*pekler kasaplik o*g*ren- i%r>1 "if one became (impersonal passive) a master craftsman by watching, the dogs would learn the butcher's trade'; <1sen ol-san ne yap-ar-sin ?>1 "ifit were you,what would you do ?' Note that the idiom is "if you were', i.e. the person responsible; cf. the next example. <1medeni%yeti%n maddisi% ma=nevi%si% di%ye ayirmalar yapanlara ben ol-sam hi%c+ elektri%k ver-mem>1 "to those who make distinctions between material and spiritual civilization ("distinctions saying ""of civilization, its material, its spiritual'''), I should give no electricity, if it were up to me'. <1s+u adam kar- s+imda ol-sa girtlag*ina saril-acag*im>1 "if that man were facing me I should wrap myself round his throat'. 4. Apodosis to an unexpressed protasis. The aorist past is used <1i%n>1 expressions like <1ol-ur-du>1 "it would be' and <1i%ste-r-di%m>1 "I should like', which are apodoses of an implicit remote or un- fulfilled protasis such as "if possible, if it were so': <1Baudelai%re'i%n Do*rdu*ncu* Mehmed 'i%n hayatini tanimis+ olmasini i%sterdi%m; hakki olan bi%r s+o*hret kazan-ir-di>1 "I should have liked Bau- delaire to have been acquainted with the life of Mehmet IV; he would have won a fame which is his due'. <1Sen saris+insin, ben de esmeri%m.>1 Ne <1gu*zel c+ocug*umuz oIurdu, dedi%>1 """You are blonde, I am dark. What a beautiful child we should have'', said he'. 5. Alternative protases. Pairs of alternative protases are expressed in the remote form (because the two conditions, being mutually exclusive, are not both open), with a <1de>1 after the verb in each protasis: <1bi%z i%ste-sek te i%ste-me-sek te kiz beg*enmedi%g*i% adama var-maz>1 "whether we want it or whether we do not want it, the girl will not marry a man she does not like'; <1s+ehi%rde i%s+ bul-sam da bul-ma-sam da ko*ye hi%c+ do*nmem gayri>1 "whether I find work in the city or not, I shall never go back to the village any more'. 6. Concessive clauses. A single conditional verb followed by <1de>1 is concessive : <1ko*ye i%ste-sem de do*nemem gayri>1 "I cannot go back to the village any more even if I should want to'; <1i%c+mem] dedi%-ysem de, israr etti%ler>1 "though I said ""I don't drink]'', they insisted'. See also XI, 22 and 29, last paragraph. 7. "Whatever, whenever, whoever, wherever'. Such words are expressed by <1ne, ne vaki%t, ki%m, nerede,>1 etc. (with or without a preceding <1her>1 ; cf. the penultimate paragraph of XI, 14) followed by a conditional verb: <1ne yikilmis+-sa softalar yikmis+tir bu memlekette>1 "whatever has been demolished the bigots have demolished in this country'. <1ne kadar yukaridan i%n-er-se o kadar deri%ne gi%r-er>1 "the greater the height it falls from, the deeper it goes in' (of a pile-driver; lit. "from whatever amount high it descends, to that amount deep it enters'). <1ne vaki%t evleri%ne gi%t-sek veyahut onlar bi%ze gel-se-ler hep kavga ederler>1 "whenever we go to their house or they come to us, they always quarrel'. <1nasil>1 with a conditional verb is usually best translated not "however' but "just as' or "in just the same way that': <1nasil IZstanbul mi%marlig*i bi%r gu*nde tes+ekku*l etmemi%s+-se, Bog*azi%c+i% de tek bi%r zamanin eseri% deg*i%ldi%r>1 "just as Istanbul architecture did not take shape in one day, so too the Bosphorus is not the work of a single time'. Sentences of the type discussed in the preceding paragraph can be put into the past tense by making the verb of the apodosis past: <1ne kadar yukaridan i%nerse o kadar deri%ne gi%der-di%>1 "the greater the height it fell from, the deeper it used to go in'. 8. <1eg*er, s+ayet.>1 Both these words are Persian in origin and they mean respectively "if' and "if perchance'. As the sense of "if' is conveyed in Turkish by the conditional verb, neither is syn- tactically essential. <1eg*er>1 is useful in a long and complicated sentence to give warning that a conditional verb is coming, in the same sort of way that Spanish uses a premonitory inverted question mark and exclamation mark. <1eg*er Augsburg i%tti%faki akdedi%lmemi%s+ olsaydi bugu*nku* du*nyanin pek bas+ka bi%r du*nya olacag*i du*s+u*nu*lemezse de, eg*er Newton>1 1687 de <1Pri%nci%pi%a'sini nes+retmemi%s+ olsaydi, bugu*nku* i%li%m ve medeni%yet a=lemi%ni% ayni vazi%yette bulacag*imiz pek s+u*pheli% i%di%>1 "although it cannot be thought that if the Treaty of Augsburg had never been concluded the world of today would be a very different world, if Newton had not published his <2Principia>2 in 1687 it is very doubtful whether we would find today's world of science and civilization in the same position'. One might have expected the last verb to be <1olurdu>1 "it would have been', but the con- ditional notion, the "would have', is contained in the <1bulacag*- imiz>1 ; see the following section. The use of <1s+ayet>1 has much the same effect as stressing the "if' in an English conditional sentence: <1gelse>1 if he should come (as he might) <1s+ayet gelse>1 <2if>2 he should come (which I doubt) <1geli%rse>1 if he comes (as he perfectly well may) <1s+ayet geli%rse>1 <2if>2 he comes (which I am not guaranteeing) 9. Conditional sense of the future personal participle. The future personal participle is used to turn into a noun- or adjective-clause the apodosis of a remote or unfulfilled condition: <1bugu*nku* Hanhay bo*lgesi%nde Rus jeologlar aras+tirmalar yapmis+lar ve sonunda bu bo*lgeni%n 1000 yil o*nce ormanli olamiya- cag*ini ortaya koymus+lar>1 "Russian geologists have conducted researches in the present-day Hanhay region and have finally shown that a thousand years ago this region could not have been forested'. Here <1olamiyacag*i>1 (in the accusative as object of <1ortaya koymus+lar>1 "they have placed into the middle have revealed') is the nominal form not of <1olamiyacak>1 "it wiII not be able to be' but of <1olamiyacakti>1 "it could not be'. <1eski%den ki%mbi%li%r kac+ gu*n, kac+ gecede kona go*c+e gi%decekleri% bi%r yere s+i%mdi% u*c+ bes+ saat i%c+i%nde kus+ gi%bi% uc+acaklardir>1 "to a place to which in the old days they would have gone <1(gi%decekleri%>1 here not ""pertaining to their future going'' but ""pertaining to their future-in-the-past going'') in who knows how many days and nights, constantly camping and moving on, they will now fly like birds in a few hours'. See also XXIV, ## 27, 28. 10. The conditional base. Turkish grammarians call the con- ditional base, e.g. <1gelse,>1 "the wish-condition mood', <1di%lek-s+art ki%pi%.>1 When it expresses wishes it may be introduced by <1kes+ki%>1 or <1kes+ke>1 (P), which syntactically is as redundant as <1eg*er.>1 The reader is once again reminded to distinguish between <2(a)>2 the past tense of the conditional mood and <2(b)>2 the conditional mood of the past tense: <2(a)>2 <1bi%l-se-ydi%m>1 if I had known <2(b)>2 <1bi%l-di%-ysem>1 if I knew <2(a)>2 can be the protasis of an unfulfilled <1condition--bi%lseydi%m buraya gelmezdi%m>1 "had I known I should not have come here'--or can stand alone as a hopeless wish: <1bi%lseydi%m]>1 or <1kes+ki% bi%lseydi%m]>1 "if only I had known ]' <2(b)>2 is the protasis of an open condition in the past: <1o zaman bi%ldi%ysem s+i%mdi% unut- mus+um>1 "if I knew then, I have forgotten now'. The first persons of the conditional base can express a diffident first-person imperative: <1c+ars+iya gi%tsek>1 "if we were to go to the market', with an implied apodosis <1olmaz mi?>1 "would it not be all right ?' Cf. <1es+yalarimi s+uraya koysam olmaz mi>1 "wouldn't i%t do if I were to put my things over there ?' An intermediate stage may be seen in <1c+ars+iya gi%tsek mi%?>1 "how about going to the market?' (lit. "if we were to go . . .?'). But no apodosis seems to be implicit in <1ne yapsam ?>1 "what should I do ?' For an alternative explanation of these uses, see the end of # 14, below. 11. -<1sene,>1 -<1seni%ze.>1 The interjection <1e/a>1 is suffixed to the second persons of the conditional base to make an imperative: <1desene]>1 "do sayl' <1otursaniza]>1 "do sit down ]' This may be followed by <1ya>1 or fifty pages'; <1onlara yardim i%c+i%n versen versen elli% li%ra veri%rsi%n>1 "if <1you>1 give anything to help them <1you>1 will give fifty lira '. 14. <1olsa gerek>1 "it must be'. <1Sai%t Fai%k'i%n kaygusu yeni% olmak deg*i%l, sahi%h oImak: gerc+ekten yeni% olmasini sag*layan da bu olsa gerek>1 (Eyu*bog*lu) "Sait Faik's concern is not to be original but to be authentic: this must be what in fact makes him original'. The construction is rare with other verbs than <1ol-: bu fi%ki%r, yanlis+ bi%r du*nya telakki%si%nden dog*sa gerek>1 "this idea must originate from a mistaken attitude to the world'. <1gerek>1 means "necessary' and the construction may be an elliptical con- ditional sentence: "if it be, Õthen it is aså is necessary'. This possibility is supported by <1oIsa yeri%di%r>1 in the next example, "if it be, it is its place', i.e. it is appropriate: <1Bi%z i%nsanlar Allahi arayip dururuz. Bulsak acaba ne di%yeceg*i%z ? IZlk s+i%ka=yeti%mi%z tiyneti%mi%zi%n bozuklug*u hakkinda oIsa yeri%di%r>1 (Hu*seyin Rahmi) "We humans are constantly seeking God. If we should find ÕHimå, I wonder what we shall say? It is appropriate that our first complaint should be about the corruptness of our clay'. An alternative explanation is that the conditional sometimes over- laps the subjunctive and that the literal sense of <1olsa gerek>1 is "necessary Õthatå it be'. Thus we might explain <1ne yapsam?>1 (# 10) as synonymous with <1ne yapayim?>1 XXI ASYNDETIC SUBORDINATION JUST as co-ordination can be expressed asyndetically, i.e. with no conjunction (cf. XIII, 1), so subordination may be expressed with no visible subordinating link. <2(a)>2 With verbs of thinking and perceiving: <1vagonu doldu sanarak bas+ka yere gi%decekler>1 (Res+at Nuri) "thinking the com" partment full, they will go elsewhere'. <1sanmak>1 "to think' regularly has two objects, e.g. <1seni% arkadas+ saniyordum>1 "I used to think you Õaå friend'. The second object here is the finite verb <1doldu>1 "has become full'. <1zi%hni% gayri%i%hti%yari= bi%r hayal yapti; bi%r la=hza yumurcag*i yatag*inda sapsari yatiyor go*rdu*>1 (idem) "her mind involuntarily created a vision; for an instant she saw the awful child lying deathly pale in his bed'. The common locution <1si%zi% gi%tti% mi% bi%ldi%>1 is puzzling unless one remembers that <1bi%lmek>1 means not only "to know' but also "to consider, to guess': "he wondered whether you had gone', lit. "he considered you Õaså ""has he gone ?''' Note that the verb of the subordinate clause is in the third person, although a second person is being addressed, as in this example: <1ben seni% o*ldu* bi%li%yordum>1 "I was thinking you were dead' ("I was considering you Õaså ""he has died'''). The subordinate verb may be in the first or second person an the pronoun object can then be omitted: <1memleket geri%, di%yoruz; ve memleketi% geri% buldug*umuzu ac+ikla- makla, i%leri% oldug*umuzu i%sbat etti%k zannedi%yoruz>1 "we say ""the country is backward'' and, by making it clear that we find the country backward, we think we have proved that we Õpersonallyå are advanced'. This is a neat and euphonious alternative to . , " <1i%leri% oldug*umuzu i%sbat etti%g*i%mi%zi% zannedi%yoruz. s+i%mdi% ona ne so*ylu*yordur bi%li%yor musun ?>1 (Y. Kemal) "do you know what he must be telling him now ?' A more literary way of saying this is <1s+i%mdi% ona ne so*yli%yeceg*i%ni% bi%li%yor musun?>1 "do you know what he will be telling him now?' <1bana ne oldu hic+ sormaymiz>1 "don't ask what has happened to me'. <1bi%r de bak- tim, son durag*a gelmi%s+i%z>1 "I gave a look, we have arrived, I realized, at the last stop'. To assume an ellipsis of <1ki%>1 in this Iast example is natural for English-speakers, who feel that "I saw we had arrived' is short for "I saw that we had arrived'. But, as we have seen in XIII, 15, <1ki%>1 is not an essential element of such sentences. Besides the verbs already mentioned, the construction is found with <1saymak>1 and <1addetmek>1 "to count', <1farzetmek>1 "to suppose', and <1duymak>1 and <1hi%ssetmek>1 "to feel'. <2(b)>2 With expressions of time formed with -<1di%r>1 and <1ol->1. To the examples given in XII, 23 may be added: <1i%ki% defa-dir muhaci%r olduk>1 "it is twice we have been exiles'; <1o gu*n bugu*n-du*r devam eder>1 "it has been going on like that ever since', lit. "that day is today it continues'; <1yazarin da gu*nleri% olur, kalemi%n- den bal akar>1 "the writer too has days Õwhenå honey flows from his pen'; <1bi%r gu*n geIecek, beni% unutacaksin>1 "a day will come Õwhenå you will forget me'. <2(c)>2 <1bi%r kiyametti%r koptu,>1 etc. See VIII, 43. <2(d)>2 <1so*yleni%r durur,>1 etc., and <1isinamadim gi%tti%,>1 etc. See XI, 35 <2(a)>2 and <2(h)">2 <2(e)>2 Conditional sentences with a question or an imperative as protasis. See XX, 2 <2(b)>2 and <2(d).>2 <1i%nsan c+alis+ti mi her s+eyi% bas+arir>1 "if one works one accomplishes everything', lit. "has man worked ? he accomplishes everything'. <1yapma, o*ldu*ru*ru*m seni%>1 "stop it, 1'11 murder you'. In translating, we provide a subordinat- ing link by inserting respectively "in that case' and "or', but the subordination is clear to a Turk without any such device. It is debatable whether to include under this heading the use of the subjunctive past in unfulfilled conditionals, e.g. <1bi%leydi%m buraya kadar gelmezdi%m>1 "had I known, I should not have come thus far'. On the whole it seems best to call it an instance of asyndetic subordination, as this explains how the use arose, whereas the stock explanation, that in such sentences the sub- junctive past is synonymous with the conditional past, explains nothing. XXII PUNCTUATION THERE is no general agreement among Turkish writers or printers on how to punctuate and the reader must be prepared for any- thing. The advice given in the Introduction to <2OTD>2 is not without its occasional value: "If you are completely bewildered by some sentence, try cutting out all the punctuation marks and often you will find it quite easy to translate.' One cannot, how- ever, afford to ignore a comma near the beginning of a sentence, which usually indicates the subject: <1bu Bakanin kararidir>1 "it is this Minister's decision'; <1bu, Bakanin kararidir>1 "this is the Minister's decision'. <1u*ni%versi%teli% kizi kac+irdi>1 "he abducted the girl undergraduate'; <1u*ni%versi%teli%, kizi kac+irdi>1 "the under- graduate abducted the girl'. The semicolon is rare; the reader may have noticed how often the translation of an example uses a semicolon where the original has a comma. A colon, even when it does not introduce direct speech, may be followed by a capitalletter: <1Karis+ik bi%r duygu var i%c+i%mde: Bu yil bana hem pek kisa, hem de pek uzun geli%yor>1 (N. Atac+) "I have a mixed feeling inside me: I am finding this year both very short and very long'. <1Bi%r gu*n evvel kurdug*u kapana bakti: Kapan nasiI biraktiysa o*yle duruyordu>1 "He looked at the trap he had set a day earlier: the trap was standing just as he had left Õitå'- Quotation marks are entirely dispensed with by some writers: <1Ni%c+i%n di%yeceg*i%m geIi%yor>1 (S. Kocago*z) "I feel like saying ""Why ?'''. Some use a dash and quotation marks or a dash alone to mark a change of speaker in a dialogue: <1--O*yleyse sorumlu ki%m? di%ye bag*irdim. Go*zleri% go*zleri%mde, --Sorumlu du*zen, bu*tu*n suc+ du*zeni%n . . . dedi%>1 (A. Nesin) """In that case, who is responsible?'' I cried. His eyes on mine, he said, ""The one responsible is the system; all the fault lies with the system'''. See also the last example in the first paragraph of XIX, 2, where each speaker's words are introduced but not closed by quotation marks. The word of saying, etc., may be written with a capital letter: <1Babamin beni% di%nlemesi% la=zim . . . Deyi%p duruyordu.>1 """My father must listen to me'', he kept saying'. Cf. <1Di%ye>1 in the next example. In Ottoman printing, brackets were used round quotations and words especially emphasized. Relics of this practice may still be encountered: <1IZleri% gi%den de yok. Tramvayda: ÕIZleri% gi%di%l- mesi% ri%ca olunurå Di%ye yazili olmasina rag*men>1 (B. Felek) "Nor is there anyone going forward, in spite of the fact that there is a notice in the tram reading ""Passengers are requested to go forward''' ("in spite of its being written saying . . .'). <1Zi%yaretc+i%ler, heyet mensuplarindan bi%ri%ni%n deyi%mi% i%le (utanc+ veri%ci%) bi%r kabul go*rmu*s+lerdi%r>1 "The visitors, in the words of one of the members of the group, had a ""shameful'' reception'. The use of three dots, to indicate that something has been left to the imagination, is very common, especially after a final <1ki%: Ni%c+i%n cevap vermi%yorsun?--Bi%rs+ey sormadin ki%>1 . . . "Why don't you answer?'--"You haven't asked anything Õfor me to answerå'. The question mark is often omitted after rhetorical questions or replaced by an exclamation point: <1C+ocuk cop i%le do*vu*lu*r mu*]>1 "Does one beat a child with a truncheon ?' It may be omitted after polite requests couched in question-form: <1Bi%r su lu=tfeder mi%si%ni%z>1 "Will you be so kind as to let me have a glass of water ?' Question marks and exclamation points, in or out of brackets, are used to indicate irony, presumably by those who do not trust their readers to detect it unaided. <1akrabam olacak o zat-i seri%fi%n ? bana etmedi%g*i% kalmadi>1 "there is nothing which that honourable gentleman who is supposed to be my kinsman has not done to me'. <1her yazdig*i cu*mlede i%ki% u*c+ hata yapan bu*yu*k a=li%m>1 (]) <1s+i%mdi% ne di%yor?>1 "what is the great scholar, who makes two or three mistakes in every sentence he writes, saying now?' Names of months and days are generally written with a small letter and not a capital. XXIII SENTENCE-ANALYSIS THE present chapter is devoted to a word-by-word demonstration of how one sets about translating a complicated sentence. The great difficulty is not so much that the Turkish verb usually comes at the end. It is that as the Turkish qualifier precedes whereas the English qualifier generally follows, a native English- speaker has virtually to read the Turkish sentence backwards. One important reservation must, however, be made. When the author has used side by side several words or clauses of the same grammatical function, whether or not they are joined by a con- junction they must be translated in the order in which he wrote them and not backwards, i.e. not in the order in which one meets them as one works back from the verb. The two specimen sentences are both somewhat longer than the modern norm. The first, which is from IZ. H. Danis+mend's <2IZzahli Osmanli Tarihi Kronolojisi>2 (Istanbul, 1947-1955), ii. 183, also exceeds the modern norm in its proportion of Arabic words. <1Muazzam bi%r devleti%n faki%r, zayif ve muhtac+ bi%r mi%llete bi%r takim si%yasi= ve askeri= mu*-la=hazalarla sadaka s+ekli%nde vermi%s+ oldug*u bu mu*sa=adeleri%n i%sti%kla=l mefhumunu i%hla=l eden bi%rer si%yasi= i%mti%yaz mahi%yeti%ni% almasi, Osmanli i%mparatorlug*unun i%nhi%tat devri%nde kuvvetlenmi%s+ olan Avrupa devIetleri%ni%n bu eski% mu*sa=adeleri% gi%tti%kc+e su=i%i%sti% ma=l etmeleri%nden mu*tevelli%t ve bi%lhassa son devi%rlere mu*nhasir bi%r vazi%yetti%r.>1 In a sentence of some length one can generally rely on the author's putting a comma after the subject. The first comma is after <1faki%r>1 "poor', which is indeed in the absolute case. But if this is the subject the preceding words must qualify it; being in the genitive case, however, they can only qualify in izafet, i.e. they can only qualify a word with the third-person suffix. Moreover, as the three words after the comma mean "weak and needy', they clearly belong with <1faki%r>1 as qualifiers of <1bi%r mi%llete.>1 The next comma is after <1almasi,>1 which is also in the absolute case, so we shall assume that this is the subject and that everything preceding qualifies it. <1alma-si>1 "its taking' is the second element of an izafet, the first element of which cannot be <1mahi%yeti%ni%>1 as that is in the accusative; the izafet must be a definite one and we have to find its defining genitive. The nearest preceding genitive is <1bu mu*sa=adeler-i%n>1 "these concessions'. So far we have "these con- cessions' taking', i.e. "the fact that these concessions take', and the object of "take' is <1mahi%yet-i%-ni%>1 immediately preceding it: "its nature'. This is the second element of an izafet of which <1i%mti%yaz>1 "privilege' is the qualifier. It is itself qualified by <1bi%rer si%yasi=>1 "each-one-a political ':"the nature of so many political privileges'. The four preceding words must also qualify <1i%mti%yaz:>1 <1i%hla=l ed-en>1 "which violate' / <1i%sti%kla=l mefhum-u-nu>1 "the con- cept of independence'. Now we fit together the izafet <1muazzam bi%r devlet-i%n>1 "a mighty State's / <1oldug*-u>1 "pertaining to it' ---- being' / <1vermi%s+>1 "having-given'; i.e. "which a mighty State had given' / <1sadaka s+ekl-i%-nde>1 "in the form of charity' / -<1la>1 "with' / <1b i%r takim . . . mu*la=hazalar>1 "a number of political and military considerations' / <1faki%r . . . bi%r mi%llet-e>1 "to a poor, weak, and needy nation'. So much for the subject. Now we look at the end of the sentence for the verb: -<1ti%r>1 "is'. Its complement is <1bi%r vazi%yet>1 "a situation'. The remainder of the sentence qualifies this word. <1mu*nhasir>1 "confined' / <1son devi%rler-e>1 "to the latest periods' / <1etme-leri%-nden>1 "from their doing' / <1su=i%i%sti%ma=l>1 "abuse'; i.e. "from their abusing' / whose abusing? <1Avrupa devleter-i%-ni%n>1 "the european States'' / <1kuvvetlenmi%s+ olan>1 "which had grown strong' / <1Osmanli . . . devr-i%-nde>1 "in the Ottoman Empire's period of decline'. All we need now is an object for "abusing': <1bu eski% mu*sa=adeler-i%>1 "these ancient concessions' / <1gi%tti%kc+e>1 "gradually'. "The fact that these concessions, granted by a mighty State as charity to a poor, weak, and needy nation in view of a number of political and military considerations, assumed the character of political privileges which violated the concept of independence is a situation born of the gradual abuse of these ancient concessions by the European powers, which had grown strong during the Ottoman Empire's period of decline; a situation peculiar to the latest times.' The second specimen is from Niyazi Berkes's 200 <2Yildir Neden Bocalsyoruz>2 (Istanbul, 1965), pp. 129-30. <1Tu*rki%yede devletc+i%li%k programinin uygulanilis+ina gi%ri%s+- i%li%rken, pla=nlamanin yalniz sanayi% alanina teksi%f edi%lmesi%, toprak hukuku reformunun o*nlenmesi%, sanayi%les+me i%ler- ledi%kc+e bunun tarimsal maki%neIes+meye hem tekni%k hem ekonomi%k sebeple tesi%r edememesi% tarim alaninin pla=n- lama dis+inda ayri bakanliklarin su*rekli% oImayan, c+ok defa bi%rbi%ri%ni% tutmayan geli%s+i% gu*zel tedbi%rleri%ne birakilmasi, o*zelli%kIe eg*i%ti%m alani i%le tarim alani arasinda hi%c+bi%r pIa=nli i%li%s+i%kli%k kurulmamasi, okuma-yazma o*g*retmekle ko*ylu*nu*n kalkinacag*ina i%nanilmasi, ve en sonunda da sanki% c+ok kahramanca bi%r i%s+ i%mi%s+ gi%bi% ko*ylu*ye mu*ka=fat tevzi% eder gi%bi%, toprak dag*itma gi%bi% so*zde-reformlara gidi%lmesi% devletc+i%li%g*i%n bas+arisizlig*a ug*ratilmasinda bas+- lica rolleri% oynamis+tir.>1 We may leave aside for the moment the first clause, ending in -<1ken>1 "while', as it is obviously an adverbial clause of time, and concentrate on the main sentence. A rapid glance shows seven -<1me>1 verbal nouns with the third- person suffix but no case-ending, five of them followed by a comma (the omission of commas after <1edememesi%>1 and <1gi%di%lmesi%>1 must be accidental). These verbal nouns we may take to be the subjects of the final verb <1oynamis+tir>1 "has played', or rather, as there are several subjects, "have played' / <1bas+lica rolleri%>1 "the principal roles' / <1devletc+i%li%g*-i%n ug*ratilma-si-nda>1 "in e=*tatism's being brought' / <1bas+arisizlig*-a>1 "to successlessness'. Now we deal with the seven noun-clauses. <1pla=nlama-nin teksi%f edi%l-me-si%>1 "planning's being condensed' / <1yalniz sanayi% alan-i-na>1 "only to the sphere of industry'. Then comes a four-word izafet chain: <1toprak hukuk-u reform-u-nun o*nlenme-si%>1 "land-law-reform's being-prevented'. <1sanayi%les+me i%lerledi%kc+e>1 "as industrialization advanced' / <1bu-nun tesi%r ed-eme-me-si%>1 "its inability to af- fect' / <1tarimsal maki%neles+me-ye>1 "agricultural mechanization' <1(tesi%r etmek>1 "to affect' is construed with a dative) / <1sebep-le>1 "by reason' / <1hem tekni%k hem ekonomi%k>1 "both technical and economic'. <1tarim alan-i-nin birakilma-si>1 "the agricultural sphere's being-left' / <1pla=nlama dis+inda>1 "on the outside of planning' / <1ayri bakanliklar-in geli%s+i% gu*zel tedbi%rler-i%-ne>1 "to the haphazard measures of different ministries'. <1su*rekli% olmayan>1 and <1c+ok defa bi%rbi%ri%ni% tutmayan>1 both end in present participles and amount to relative clauses qualifying <1tedbi%rIeri%ne>1 : "which were not continuous and which often did not hold each other', i.e. which were often mutually conflicting. <1hi%c+bi%r pla=nli i%li%s+i%kli%k kurul-ma-ma-si>1 "no planned relationship's being- established'; the izafet is indefinite as the qualifier, being negated, cannot be definite. <1o*zelli%kle>1 . . . <1arasinda>1 "especially between the sphere of education and the sphere of agriculture'. <1Inan-il- ma-si>1 "its being believed'; the passive is impersonal, as <1i%nanmak>1 "to believe' is construed with a dative and cannot be made into a true passive. The -<1si>1 has no visible antecedent and its presence is clearly due, at least in part, to analogy with the five preceding verbal nouns which are in izafet with qualifiers. The dative required by <1i%nan->1 is <1ko*ylu*-nu*n kalkinacag*-i-na>1 "the villager's future progressing': "the bclief that the villager would progress' / <1okuma-yazma o*g*retmek-le>1 "by teaching reading-writing'. <1ve en sonunda da>1 "and at the most last of it' / <1gi%d-i%l-me-si%>1 "going's being done', another impersonal passive, which we ma' paraphrase by "having recourse' / <1so*zde-reformlar-a>1 "to re- forms in word', i.e. "to so-called reforms' (the hyphen is not strictly necessary but is probably intended to make <1so*zde>1 a sort of prefix, corresponding to "pseudo-'). <1toprak dag*itma gi%bi%>1 "such as distributing land' / <1sanki%>1 . . . <1i%mi%s+ gi%bi%>1 "as if it we re a very heroic action' / <1ko*ylu*ye>1 . . . <1eder gi%bi%>1 "as if distributin g largess to the villager'. Now the first clause. The verb <1gi%ri%s+mek>1 "to enter upon' is another of those which take a dative, so the passive <1gi%ri%s+-i%l->1 is impersonal. "In Turkey, while one was enter- ing upon' / <1devletc+i%li%k program-i-nin uygulan-il-is+-i-na>1 "the e=*tatism-programmc's being-applied'. It is probably best to break up this huge structure when translating into English. "The following factors, which existed when the programme of e=*tatism was being put into effect in Turkey, were largely responsible for the failure of e=*tatism. <2(a)>2 Planning was confined to the sphere of industry. <2(b)>2 The reform of the land-law was prevented. <2(c)>2 As industrialization advanced, the less was it able, for technical as well as economic reasons, to affect agricultural mechanization. <2(d)>2 Thc sphere of agriculture was left outside the scope of planning and abandoned to the haphazard measures taken by several ministries; measures which were discontinuous and often in conflict with each other. <2(e)>2 No planned relationship was set up, in particular between education and agriculture. <2(f)>2 There was a belief that the advancement of the peasant could be achieved by teaching him to read and write. <2(g)>2 Recourse was had to such pseudo-reforms as land-distribution, as though this were a piece of great magnanimity; as if bestowing largess on the peasantry.' XXIV FURTHER EXAMPLES THE sentences below are intended to provide supplementary illustrations of various points of grammar. 1. <1Baraj'da toplanacag*i hesaplanan 15 mi%lyar metreku*p su i%le, kurak bo*Ige rahatc+a sulanabi%lecekti%r>1 "with the 15 thousand million cubic metres of water which, it is calculated, will be collected at the dam, it will be possible for the dry zone to be irrigated quite easily'. <1toplanacag*i hesaplanan su>1 "the water whose future collecting is being calculated'. See XVIII, 2 <2(c)->2 2. <1U*c+u* yumurtliyan on bi%r tavug*u var>1 "he has eleven hens, three of them laying'. 3. <1Solcu pi%yes sag*ci pi%yes di%ye bi%r ayirim yapmak, o*mu*r- leri%nde kac+ dela ti%yatroya gi%tti%kleri% meraka deg*er bu sayin u*yeleri%n haddi% deg*i%ldi%r>1 "to make a distinction between ""leftist plays'' and ""rightist plays'' is not the place of these honourable members, concerning whom one may well wonder how many times in their lives they have ever been to the theatre'. <1kac+ defa>1 . . . <1gi%tti%kleri% merak-a deg*er>1 "their having gone how many times Õbeingå worthy of curiosity'. 4. <1Karisinin evIeri%ne sig*indig*i i%ki% kadini o*ldu*ren adam tevki%f edi%lmi%s+ti%r>1 "the man who killed the two women in whose house his wife had taken refuge has been arrested'; lit. "the two women pertaining to his wife's taking refuge in their house'. 5. <1IZki% hems+eri% oldug*u so*zleri%nden anlas+ilan i%ki% hamlaci>1 (Sait Faik) "two chief rowers, from whose speech it was evident that they were two fellow-townsmen'; . . . <1oldug*u so*zleri%nden anlas+ilan>1 "their-being . . . being-understood from their words'. 6. <1S+ayet go*ru*rsem eli%ni% o*peceg*i%m bi%r okuyucu, bi%r mektup yazdi bana>1 "a reader, whose hand I shall kiss if I see him, has written me a letter'. 7. <1Sen de ti%caret mi% yapiyorsun, deli%kanli?--Neden yapmiyacakmis+im ?>1 "Do you engage in commerce too, young man?'--"Why shouldn't I?' <1yap-mi-y-acak-mis+-im>1 is the inferential form of <1yapmiyacaktim>1 "I should not', and the literal meaning of the question is "why is it inferred Õby youå that I should not ?' 8. <1Kiz, s+ansin varmis+ . . . Ya bu heri%fle evlenseymi%s+si%n . . , --Allah korumus+>1 (Aziz Nesin). "Daughter, it is to be inferred Õfrom what we now seeå that you were lucky <1(s+ans-in>1 "'your luck'' <1var>1 ""existent'' -<1mis+>1 ""I gather that it was''). And what if--I see i t all now--you had married this scoundrel ]' (the words in dashes in this last sentence represent the difference between the conditional inferential <1evIen-se-y-mis+-si%n>1 and the conditional past <1evlen- se-y->1di%n)--"God protected me, I now realize' (the last three words of the translation would have been unnecessary had <1she>1 said <1koru-du>1 instead of <1koru-mus+)->1 9. <1Gec+mi%s+ olsun, evi%ni%ze hirsiz gi%rmi%s+.--Gi%rdi%, dedi%m>1 (idem). """Ihope you soon get over it; I hear your house has been burgled.''--""It has indeed'', I said.' Lit. """May it be past ; thieves, I gather, have entered your house.''--""They have in fact entered'', I said.' 10. <1Hanim s+ofo*rleri%mi%z i%fti%har etsi%nler, yalniz Tu*rk erkekleri%nden deg*i%l, BeIc+i%kali s+ofo*rleri%nden de i%hti%yatli vasita kullaniyorlar. Daha dog*rusu kullaniyorlarmis+.>1 "Let our lady drivers take pride; they drive (""use vehicles'') not only more carefully than Turkish men, but also more carefully than Belgian drivers. To be more accurate, they are said to do so.' 11. <1Eski% bi%r nahi%ye mu*du*ru* (ki% orada kalsa i%mi%s+ s+i%mdi%>1 vali% oIabi%li%rmi%s+) kendi%ni% si%nemaya vermi%s+>1 (Dog*an Nadi). "A former regional director (who, if he had stayed there, it is said <1(i%mi%s+),>1 could now have been a provincial governor, it is said, <1(-mi%s+))>1 is said to have dedicated himself to the cinema.' 12. <1Gu*ya>1 <2(sic,>2 for <1gu=ya), sen, c+ikardig*in Kadro mecmuasinda i%kti%sadi= si%yaseti%mi%zi% baltalayan ve hatta= Parti% Umumi% Ka=ti%bi%ni%n i%ddi%asina go*re Reji%m'i%n temelleri%ni% sarsan (]) nes+ri%yatta bulunuyormus+sun. Bu, bo*yle gi%derseymi%s+ Ti%caret Veki%li% tuttug*u yolda emni%yetle i%lerleyemezmis+. O*te yandan Cumhuri%yet Halk Parti%si% de hi%zi%ples+mek tehli%keleri%ne maruz kalirmis+>1 (Yakup Kadri). "Allegedly, you, in the magazine <2Kadro>2 which you put out, have been engaging in publication which sabotages our economic policy and even, accord- ing to the assertion of the Party General Secretary, shakes the foundations of the re=*gime. If this were to go on like this, they say, the Minister of Commerce would not be able to proceed safely on the road he has taken. Furthermore, the RPP would, they say, be left exposed to risks of breaking up into factions.' 13. <1Dokunmus+lar; dedi% ve gi%tti%kc+e ag*irlas+an bi%r sesle i%la=ve etti%: Dokunmus+lar deg*i%l dokundular; beni%m go*z- u*mu*n o*nu*nde>1 . . . (idem). """I heard they assaulted Õherå'', he said and added, in a voice which grew gradually heavier, ""No, I didn't hear it; they actually did it, in front of my eyes'''. 14. <1Ama bu*tu*n bu gerc+eklere i%nat, sanati paranin, mavi%yi% karanin u*stu*ne c+ikaranlar var ya? Bi%nde bi%r de olsun var ya? IZs+te onlar sanatc+i: u*st tarafi manatc+i] C+ok mu sert oldu bu yargi? Yumus+atalim bi%raz: bu*tu*n manatc+ilarin sanatc+i oldug*u zamanlar vardir>1 (Eyu*bog*lu). "But despite all these truths, there are, are there not, those who put art above money, the blue above the black (XVII, 3) ? They exist, even though they be one in a thousand, don't they? It is precisely these who are artists; the remainder are etceteras ] Has it been very stern, this judgement ? Let's soften it a little: there are times when all the etceteras become artists.' Here <1manatc+i>1 has been extracted from the <1m->1doublet <1sanatc+i manatc+i>1 "artists and so on' and given an independent life of its own. 15. <1Ama devletli%ler bi%r kus+kulanmiya go*rsun>1 (XI, 35 <2(d))>2, <1en merhametli%ler en zali%mler bi%r anda bi%rles+i%yor, di%n kardes+i% mi%n kardes+i% di%nlemi%yorlardi>1 (idem). "But let the Establishment not grow suspicious; the most compassionate and the most tyrannical would unite in an instant and would not heed any considerations of common religion or common anything else' ("they would not listen to ""religion-brother'' or ""anything-else- of-the-sort-brother'' ' ; <1di%n mi%n)->1 16. <1Bi%zde eles+ti%ri% olup oImadig*i yillardir tartis+ilip durur. Varilan sonuc+, bi%zde eles+ti%ri% olmadig*idir.>1 "Whether or not we have any literary criticism has been constantly debated (XI, 35 <2(a))>2 for years. The conclusion that has been reached is that we have no literary criticism.' <1varmak>1 "to arrive' is intransitive; <1varilan>1 is therefore the impersonal passive participle; see XVIII, 3 <2(a).>2 17. <1Bazi gu*nler, Cafe=* Soufflot'nun mutad topIantilarina Sami% Pas+azade Sezai% Bey ve Prens Mehmet Ali% gi%bi%-- Ragip Beyi%n tabi%ri%nce--ari%stokratlarin da i%s+ti%rak etti%g*i% olurdu.>1 "On some days it would happen that--to use Ragip Bey's expression--aristocrats too like Sezai Bey, the son of Sami Pasha, and Prince Mehmet Ali, would join in the usual meetings at the Cafe=* Soufflot.' <1i%s+ti%rak etti%g*i%>1 "their participating' / <1olur du>1 "used to occur'. 18. Haci oIan bi%r Mu*slu*man sosyal hayatini nasil tanzi%m etmeli%di%r?--I2sla=mi%yet ""hu*sn-u* ahIa=k'' oldug*una go*re haci olup olmamaklig*in buna bi%r tesi%ri% yoktur.>1 This is a reader's question and a newspaper columnist's answer (Refik Ulunay). Its grammatical interest lies in the use of the somewhat rare verbal noun in -<1mekli%k>1 (see X, 6). There could have been no possibility of ambiguity, as the verbal noun is negative and in the genitive, if the writer had chosen to use the -<1me>1 verbal noun instead: <1olmamanin.>1 But clearly he wished to be both precise and impressive, hence <1olmamaklig*in>1 "of the fact of not being'. "How ought a Muslim who is a pilgrim to arrange his social life?'-- "As Islam is moral excellence (lI, 26), the fact of being or not being a pilgrim has no effect on this.' 19. <1Ey Allahim, bu*tu*n i%nsanlara, onlarin seni%n c+ocuklarin ve bi%rbi%rleri%ni%n kardes+i% olduklarini o*g*retmen zamani gelmedi% mi% ?>1 (Halide Edip). "0 God, has not the time come for You to teach all mankind that they are Your children and each other's brothers ?' The termination of <1c+ocuklar-in>1 is not the genitive suffix but the second-singular possessive. Probably a writer of a later generation would have chosen an alternative to <1o*g*retme-n>1 "your teaching', because of the far commoner <1o*g*retmen>1 "teacher'. 20. <1IZsmet Pas+anin s+i%mdi%ye kadar olmaz dedi%g*i%ni%n, oldu- <1g*unu bi%len varsa parmak kaldirsin]>1 "Hands up anyone who knows of anything ever yet happening which Ismet Pasha said wouldn't happen ]' Lit. "if there is anyone who knows the happen- ing of that pertaining to Ismet Pasha's saying ""It won't happen'' <1(olmaz)>1 till now, let him raise finger'. 21. <1Bayramlas+amadiklarimiz.>1 "Those of our number with whom we cannot exchange the season's greetings.' This splendid word headed the obituary column of a newspaper at the <1Bayram,>1 the festival which ends the month of fasting, in 1960. <1Bayram- las+->1 "to exchange <1Bayram>1 greetings'; -<1ama->1 VIII, 55 <2(b)>2; -<1diklarimiz>1 IX, 7. 22. <1Daha sonra Hazreti% Muhammedi%n Medi%neye i%lk ayak bastig*i gu*n devesi%ni%n kapisinda di%z c+o*ktu*g*u* Eyu*p Sultanin tu*rbesi% zi%yaret edu*di%.>1 "Later a visit was paid to the mausoleum of Eyu*p Sultan, at whose door the Prophet Muhammad's camel knelt the first day he set foot in Medina.' This is an involved example of the rule given in XVIII, 2 <2(d)>2: "Eyu*p Sultan, charac- terized-by-its-bending knee' <1(di%z c+o*ktu*g*u*)>1 "at-his-door' <1(kapi- sinda).>1 The "its' refers to <1Hazreti% Muhammedi%n devesi%ni%n>1 "His Excellency Muhammad's camel's'. <1Hazret>1 (A) means -Presence' and is used in Persian izafet as an honorific. 23. <1Bu konuda yayimlanan deg*erli% bi%r makalede, S+i%nasi%'- ni%n pi%yes yazmasi, ""Fransiz ti%yatrosunu yakindan go*ru*p tanidiktan sonra Garp ti%yatrosunun edebi= deg*eri%ni% i%yi%ce kavramis+ olmasi'' i%le yorumlanmis+, ve, eseri%ni% ""oynatma u*mi%di% olmaksizin yazdi''g*i so*ylenmi%s+ti%r>1 (Cevdet Kudret). "In a valuable article published on this theme, Shinasi's writing of plays has been interpreted by ""his having thoroughly grasped the literary value of the Western theatre after seeing and becoming acquainted with the French theatre from close at hand'' and it has been said that ""he wrote with no hope of producing'' his play.' This sentence is remarkable for a grammatical oddity not unlike the one discussed on p. 49, n. 3. The quotation <1oynatma u*mi%di% olmaksizin yazdi>1 "he wrote without there being hope of getting-performed' has been turned into a noun clause, subject of <1so*ylenmi%s+ti%r,>1 by adding <1g*i>1 to the finite verb <1yazdi,>1 instead of closing the quotation at <1olmaksizin>1 and then putting <1yazdig*i.>1 This is not a unique example of this use. 24. Go*ru*lu*yor ki%, verdi%g*i%mi%z o*rneklerde ve veremedi%g*i%miz bi%nlercesi%nde, di%l mantig*i kolaylik ve su*rati% sag*lamak i%c+i%n, kendi% kanunlarina aykiri da olsa bazi tasarruflara gi%tmektedi%r.>1 "It is seen, in the examples we have given and the thousands that we have not been able to give, that the logic of language, in order to ensure ease and speed, resorts to certain economies, even though they be contrary to its own laws.' Note- worthy here is the substantivizing effect of the third-person suffix on the adverb <1bi%nlerce>1 "by thousands'. 25. <1Du*n Ko*pru*den gec+erken Fati%h cami%i%ni%n mi%naresi%ne yerles+i%rse Demokrat Parti% zamaninda yerles+mi%s+ti%r di%ye tari%h ki%taplari yazsin i%c+i%n, ben de buraya yaziyorum.>1 (B. Felek). "Yesterday while crossing the Bridge I saw that flags had been hoisted on the minaret of the Fatih mosque. I am writing Õthiså here so that if this custom too takes root, tomorrow or the next day, the history-books may write that it took root in the Democrat Party era.' The rare use of <1i%c+i%n>1 with a third-person imperative to express purpose (VIII, 41) is doubtless to avoid repeating <1di%ye; yazsin di%ye>1 would have been the natural way of saying "so that they may write'. 26. <1Kirik Ali%--Mu*saaden olursa kalkalim hoca efendi%, bi%ze i%zi%n ver ] dedi%. Vara demi%yeydi%. Beki%r Hocadir bu, yaka- sina bi%r yapis+masi%yle Kirik Ali%'yi% sandalyeye c+o*kertti%>1 (Aziz Nesin). "Broken Ali said, ""With your permission (lit. "if your permission exists'), Hoja Efendi, let's go ; give us leave ]'' He might as well not have said it (VIII, 37 (a), at end). It was Beki%r Hoja that he had to deal with (p. 71, foot); with one grab at his collar he sent Broken Ali flopping back into the chair,' 27. <1Eg*er o*g*renci% bi%r sorunun bes+ s+ikkindan bi%ri%ni% i%s+aretli%" yecekken -i%ki% s+ikki dog*ru di%ye i%s+aretlemi%s+se, elektroni%k beyi%n oyuna geImeyi%p hemen bunu farketmekte ve o*g*ren- ci%ni%n kurnazlik yaptig*ini ortaya koymaktadir.>1 "If the student, while supposed to mark one of the five alternatives (i.e, alternative answers) of a question, has marked two alternatives as correct, the electronic brain is not taken in but notices this at once and reveals that the student is guilty of sharp practice.' Note the necessitative sense of the future participle in <1i%s+aretli%-y- ecek-ken,>1 not "while he will mark' but "while he should mark'. See the first sentence of VIII, 21, and cf. the next example. 28. <1Tavuklar en yumurtalayacaklari zamanda yumurtala- mayiverdi%ler.>1 "The hens, at the time when th y should most have laid, suddenly stopped laying.' See XI, 35 (f). 29. <1Beni%m de gu*lmu*s+lu*g*u*m vardir Atatu*rk'u*n kullandig*i bi%r c+ok teri%mlere>1 (Eyu*bog*lu). "There have been times when I too have laughed at a number of terms which Atatu*rk used.' For the construction, see XVII, 2, and cf. the next example. 30. <1Bu sec+i%mi%n bu*tu*n problemleri% c+o*zmu*s+lu*g*u* i%leri% su*ru*lemez.>1 "It cannot be suggested that this election has solved all the problems.' Lit. "this election's state- f-having-solved all the problems cannot-be-pushed forward'. 31. Proje gerc+ekles+seydi% haki%katen Tu*rklere du*s+ecek pay ancak bu ruhani= pay olacakti>1 ; <1maddi= payi varsin maddeye tapan ga=vurlara kalsindi>1 (Niyazi Berkes). "If the project were to materialize, in fact the share that would fall to the Turks would be only this spiritual share; the material share of it might as well be left to the infidels, who worshipped the material.' 32. <1A=deta kalin bi%r yag*mur bulutu i%c+i%ne gi%rdi%k ve etrafi deg*i%l, gi%tti%g*i%mi%z yolu go*remez olduk>1 (R. N. Gu*ntekin). "We entered what was virtually a dense rain-cloud and ceased to be able to see not Õjustå our surroundings but the Õveryå road on which we were going.' For <1go*remez olduk>1 "we-became unable- to-see', see IX, II.